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PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
Directions: Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
Directions: Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandt
Directions: Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
A．comprehension B．decision C．session D．expression
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
situation
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46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
46Afavouritepredictionofenvironmentalismhasbitt
Directions: Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandt
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Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 12
Allgreatwritersexpresstheirideasinanindividualway:itisoftenpossibletodeterminetheauthorshipofaliterarypassagefromthestyleinwhichitiswritten;46Manyauthorsfeelthattheconventionsofthewrittenlanguagehamperthemandtheyusewordsfreelywithlittleobservanceofacceptedgrammarandsentencestructureinordertoconveyvividlytheirfeelingsbeliefsandfantasies.Otherswithadeeprespectfortraditionalusageachieveastyleofclassicalclearnessandperfectionorachieveeffectsofvisualormusicalbeautybytheirmasteryofexistingformsenrichedbyasensitiveandadventurousvocabularyvividimageryandablendingofevocativevowelsandconsonants. Youngpeopleoftenfeeltheneedtoexperimentandasaresulttobreakawayfromthetraditionstheyhavebeentaught.Indealingwithaforeignlanguagehowevertheyhavetobearinmindtwoconditionsforexperiment.47Anygreatexperimentalartistisfullyfamiliarwiththeconventionsfromwhichhewishestobreakfree:heiscapableofachievementinestablishedformsbutfeelstheseareinadequatefortheexpressionofhisideas.Inthesecondplaceheisindisputablyanoutstandingartistwhohassomethingoriginaltoexpress;otherwisetheexperimentswillappearpretentiousevenchildish. Fewstudentscanachievesointimateanunderstandingofaforeignlanguagethattheycanexploreitsresourcesfreelyandexperimentally.Notallfeeltheneedtodoso.48Andinanycaseexaminationcandidatesneedtobecomethoroughlyacquaintedwithconventionalusageasitisasureknowledgeofacceptedformsthatexaminerslookfor. ThestudentundertakingaProficiencycourseshouldhavetheabilitytousesimpleEnglishcorrectlytoexpresseverydayfactsandideas.49Thisabilitytoexpressoneselfinaforeignlanguageonabasisofthinkinginthatlanguagewithoutreferencetoone’sownisessentialatallstagesoflearning.Studentswithextensiveexperienceintranslationwhohavehadlittlepracticeinusingtheforeignlanguagedirectlymustaboveallwriteverysimplyatfirstusingonlyeasyconstructionswhichtheyareconvincedarecorrectforgettingforthetimebeingtheirownlanguageandrigorouslyavoidingtranslatingfromit. Morecomplexformsmorevariedvocabularyandsentencestructureshouldevolvenaturallyinstepwiththestudent’sincreasingknowledgeofthelanguage.Thestudentintroducesacertainformofconstructiononlywhenheisthoroughlyfamiliarwithitandiscertainthatitisnormallyusedinthisway.Asheachievesadditionalconfidencehecanbegintotakeaninterestinuseofthelanguagetocreatediverseeffects.Hemaywanttoconveyimpressionsofsuspensecalmdignityhumorofmusicorpoetry.50Hewillmastertheartoflogicalexplanationofexactletterwritingofformalspeechesandnaturalconversationandofvividimpressionisticdescription.Buthewillstillwritewithinthelimitsofhisabilityandknowledge.AndasalearnerhewillstillbestudyingandobservingconventionalEnglishusageinallthathewrites. 50
Allgreatwritersexpresstheirideasinanindividualway:itisoftenpossibletodeterminetheauthorshipofaliterarypassagefromthestyleinwhichitiswritten;46Manyauthorsfeelthattheconventionsofthewrittenlanguagehamperthemandtheyusewordsfreelywithlittleobservanceofacceptedgrammarandsentencestructureinordertoconveyvividlytheirfeelingsbeliefsandfantasies.Otherswithadeeprespectfortraditionalusageachieveastyleofclassicalclearnessandperfectionorachieveeffectsofvisualormusicalbeautybytheirmasteryofexistingformsenrichedbyasensitiveandadventurousvocabularyvividimageryandablendingofevocativevowelsandconsonants. Youngpeopleoftenfeeltheneedtoexperimentandasaresulttobreakawayfromthetraditionstheyhavebeentaught.Indealingwithaforeignlanguagehowevertheyhavetobearinmindtwoconditionsforexperiment.47Anygreatexperimentalartistisfullyfamiliarwiththeconventionsfromwhichhewishestobreakfree:heiscapableofachievementinestablishedformsbutfeelstheseareinadequatefortheexpressionofhisideas.Inthesecondplaceheisindisputablyanoutstandingartistwhohassomethingoriginaltoexpress;otherwisetheexperimentswillappearpretentiousevenchildish. Fewstudentscanachievesointimateanunderstandingofaforeignlanguagethattheycanexploreitsresourcesfreelyandexperimentally.Notallfeeltheneedtodoso.48Andinanycaseexaminationcandidatesneedtobecomethoroughlyacquaintedwithconventionalusageasitisasureknowledgeofacceptedformsthatexaminerslookfor. ThestudentundertakingaProficiencycourseshouldhavetheabilitytousesimpleEnglishcorrectlytoexpresseverydayfactsandideas.49Thisabilitytoexpressoneselfinaforeignlanguageonabasisofthinkinginthatlanguagewithoutreferencetoone’sownisessentialatallstagesoflearning.Studentswithextensiveexperienceintranslationwhohavehadlittlepracticeinusingtheforeignlanguagedirectlymustaboveallwriteverysimplyatfirstusingonlyeasyconstructionswhichtheyareconvincedarecorrectforgettingforthetimebeingtheirownlanguageandrigorouslyavoidingtranslatingfromit. Morecomplexformsmorevariedvocabularyandsentencestructureshouldevolvenaturallyinstepwiththestudent’sincreasingknowledgeofthelanguage.Thestudentintroducesacertainformofconstructiononlywhenheisthoroughlyfamiliarwithitandiscertainthatitisnormallyusedinthisway.Asheachievesadditionalconfidencehecanbegintotakeaninterestinuseofthelanguagetocreatediverseeffects.Hemaywanttoconveyimpressionsofsuspensecalmdignityhumorofmusicorpoetry.50Hewillmastertheartoflogicalexplanationofexactletterwritingofformalspeechesandnaturalconversationandofvividimpressionisticdescription.Buthewillstillwritewithinthelimitsofhisabilityandknowledge.AndasalearnerhewillstillbestudyingandobservingconventionalEnglishusageinallthathewrites. 46
Allgreatwritersexpresstheirideasinanindividualway:itisoftenpossibletodeterminetheauthorshipofaliterarypassagefromthestyleinwhichitiswritten;46Manyauthorsfeelthattheconventionsofthewrittenlanguagehamperthemandtheyusewordsfreelywithlittleobservanceofacceptedgrammarandsentencestructureinordertoconveyvividlytheirfeelingsbeliefsandfantasies.Otherswithadeeprespectfortraditionalusageachieveastyleofclassicalclearnessandperfectionorachieveeffectsofvisualormusicalbeautybytheirmasteryofexistingformsenrichedbyasensitiveandadventurousvocabularyvividimageryandablendingofevocativevowelsandconsonants. Youngpeopleoftenfeeltheneedtoexperimentandasaresulttobreakawayfromthetraditionstheyhavebeentaught.Indealingwithaforeignlanguagehowevertheyhavetobearinmindtwoconditionsforexperiment.47Anygreatexperimentalartistisfullyfamiliarwiththeconventionsfromwhichhewishestobreakfree:heiscapableofachievementinestablishedformsbutfeelstheseareinadequatefortheexpressionofhisideas.Inthesecondplaceheisindisputablyanoutstandingartistwhohassomethingoriginaltoexpress;otherwisetheexperimentswillappearpretentiousevenchildish. Fewstudentscanachievesointimateanunderstandingofaforeignlanguagethattheycanexploreitsresourcesfreelyandexperimentally.Notallfeeltheneedtodoso.48Andinanycaseexaminationcandidatesneedtobecomethoroughlyacquaintedwithconventionalusageasitisasureknowledgeofacceptedformsthatexaminerslookfor. ThestudentundertakingaProficiencycourseshouldhavetheabilitytousesimpleEnglishcorrectlytoexpresseverydayfactsandideas.49Thisabilitytoexpressoneselfinaforeignlanguageonabasisofthinkinginthatlanguagewithoutreferencetoone’sownisessentialatallstagesoflearning.Studentswithextensiveexperienceintranslationwhohavehadlittlepracticeinusingtheforeignlanguagedirectlymustaboveallwriteverysimplyatfirstusingonlyeasyconstructionswhichtheyareconvincedarecorrectforgettingforthetimebeingtheirownlanguageandrigorouslyavoidingtranslatingfromit. Morecomplexformsmorevariedvocabularyandsentencestructureshouldevolvenaturallyinstepwiththestudent’sincreasingknowledgeofthelanguage.Thestudentintroducesacertainformofconstructiononlywhenheisthoroughlyfamiliarwithitandiscertainthatitisnormallyusedinthisway.Asheachievesadditionalconfidencehecanbegintotakeaninterestinuseofthelanguagetocreatediverseeffects.Hemaywanttoconveyimpressionsofsuspensecalmdignityhumorofmusicorpoetry.50Hewillmastertheartoflogicalexplanationofexactletterwritingofformalspeechesandnaturalconversationandofvividimpressionisticdescription.Buthewillstillwritewithinthelimitsofhisabilityandknowledge.AndasalearnerhewillstillbestudyingandobservingconventionalEnglishusageinallthathewrites. 48
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Wecanlearnfromthefirst2paragraphsthat______.
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.WhetherwerealizeitornotLine2Par
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.AccordingtotheexperttheexplorationoftheMarsbyrobots______.
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.AccordingtothepassagesendingpeopletoMarsis______.
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 42
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 4
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Accordingtothepassagethepracticeofinstallment______.
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Thedevelopmentofmodernmaterialismwaspromotedby______.
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 6
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver. AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence. Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreservea"window"intoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans. PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. ThismistakenideaLine10ParA．4refersto
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 44
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 18
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 20
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 16
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 8
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 16
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.InyouressayyoushouldfirstdescribethedrawingtheninterpretitsmeaningandgiveyourcommentoniLYoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 18
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.Whichofthefollowingmaybethereasonforhumanity’sexploring
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.Thefunctionofapparatusoftheinnerearis______.
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver.AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence.Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreserveawindowintoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobeanimitationparadiseunabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince.Fromthemissionary’smanuscriptwemayinferthat______.
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 10
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 20
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 2
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 14
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 14
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