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Sustainable development is applied to just about everything from energy to clean water and economic ...
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可持续发展SustainableDevelopment
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Recalculatingtheglobaluseofphosphorusanimportantfertilizerelementofmodemagricultureateamofresearcherswarnsthattheworld’sstocksmaysoonbeinshortsupplyandthatoveruseintheindustrializedworldhasbecomealeadingcauseofthepollutionoflakesriversandstreams.WritingintheFeb.14editionofthejournalEnvironmentalResearchLettersStephenCarpenteroftheUniversityofWisconsin-MadisonandElenaBennettofMcGillUniversityreportthatthehumanuseofphosphorusprimarilyintheindustrializedworldiscausingthewidespreadeutrophicationoffreshsurfacewater.What’smoretheminableglobalstocksofphosphorusareconcentratedinjustafewcountriesandareindeclineposingtheriskofglobalshortageswithinthenext20years.ThereisafiniteamountofphosphorusintheworldsaysCarpenteroneoftheworld’sleadingauthoritiesonlakesandstreams.Thisisamaterialthat’sbecomingrarerandweneedtouseitmoreefficiently.Phosphorusisanessentialelementforlife.Livingorganismsincludinghumanshavesmallamountsandtheelementiscrucialfordrivingtheenergeticprocessesofcells.Inagriculturephosphorusminedfromancientmarinedepositsiswidelyusedtoboostcropyields.Theelementalsohasotherindustrialuses.Butexcessphosphorusfromfertilizerthatwashesfromfarmfieldsandsuburbanlawnsintolakesandstreamsistheprimarycauseofthealgaebloomsthatdestroyfreshwaterecosystemsariddegradewaterquality.Phosphoruspollutionposesarisktofishandotherwaterlifeaswellastotheanimalsandhumanswhodependoncleanfreshwater.Insomeinstancesexcessphosphorussparksbloomsoftoxicalgaewhichposeadirectthreattohumanandanimallife.IfyouhavetoomuchphosphorusyougeteutrophicationexplainsCarpenterofthecycleofexcessiveplantandalgaegrowththatsignificantlydegradesbodiesoffreshwater.Phosphorusstimulatesthegrowthofalgaeandweedsnearshoreandsomeofthealgaecancontaincyanobacteriawhicharetoxic.Youlosefish.Youlosewaterqualityfordrinking.Thefertilizer-fueledalgaebloomsthemselvesamplifytheproblemasthealgaedieandreleaseaccumulatedphosphorusbackintothewater.ComplicatingtheproblemsaysCarpenteristhefactthatexcessphosphorusintheenvironmentisaproblemprimarilyintheindustrializedworldmainlyEuropeNorthAmericaandpartsofAsia.InotherpartsoftheworldnotablyAfricaandAustraliasoilsarephosphoruspoorcreatingastarkimbalance.IronicallysoilsinplaceslikeNorthAmericawherefertilizerswithphosphorusaremostcommonlyappliedarealreadyloadedwiththeelement.BennettandCarpenterarguethatagriculturepracticestobetterconservephosphatewithinagriculturalecosystemsarenecessarytoavertthewidespreadpollutionofsurfacewaters.Phosphorusfrompartsoftheworldwheretheelementisabundanttheysaycanbemovedtophosphorusdeficientregionsoftheworldbyextractingphosphorusfrommanureforexampleusingmanuredigesters.Whatistheresultifthealgaeblooms
Whereverpeoplehavebeentheyhaveleftwastebehindwhichcancauseallsortsofproblems.Wasteoftenstinksattractsverminandcreateseyesores.Moreseriouslyitcanreleaseharmfulchemicalsintothesoilandwaterwhendumpedorintotheairwhenburned.Andthentherearesomereallynastyformsofindustrialwastesuchasspentnuclearfuelforwhichnouniversallyaccepteddisposalmethodshavethusfarbeendeveloped. Yetmanyalsoseewasteasanopportunity.Gettingridofitallhasbecomeahugeglobalbusiness.Richcountriesspendsome$120billionayeardisposingoftheirmunicipalwastealoneandanother$150billiononindustrialwaste.Theamountofwastethatcountriesproducetendstogrowintandemwiththeireconomiesandespeciallywiththerateofurbanization.SowastefirmsseearichfutureinplacessuchasChinaIndiaandBrazilwhichatpresentspendonlyabout$5billionayearcollectingandtreatingtheirmunicipalwaste. Wastealsopresentsanopportunityinagrandersense:asapotentialresource.Muchofitisalreadyburnedtogenerateenergy.Clevernewtechnologiestoturnitintofertiliserorchemicalsorfuelarebeingdevelopedallthetime.Visionariesseeaworldwithoutwastewithrubbishbeingroutinelyrecycled. Untillastsummersuchviewswerespreadingquickly.Butsincethenplummetingpricesforvirginpaperplasticandfuelsandhencealsoforthewastethatsubstitutesforthemhaveputanendtosuchvisions.Manyoftherecyclingfirmsthathadarguedrubbishwasonthewayoutnowsaythatunlesstheyaregivenfinancialhelptheythemselveswilldisappear. Subsidiesareabadidea.Governmentshavearoletoplayinthebusinessofwastemanagementbutitisaregulatoryandsupervisoryone.Theyshouldobligepeoplewhocreatewastetocleanupafterthemselvesandideallyensurethatthepriceofanyproductreflectsthecostofdisposingofitsafely.Thatwouldhelptosignalwhichitemsarehardesttogetridofgivingconsumersanincentivetobuygoodsthatcreatelesswasteinthefirstplace. Thatmaysoundsimpleenoughbutgovernmentsseldomgettherolesright.Inpoorercountriestheyoftenhavenorulesatalloriftheyhavethemtheyfailtoenforcethem.Inrichcountriestheyareofteninconsistent:toostrictaboutsomesortsofwasteandworryinglylaxaboutothers.Theyarealsopronetoimposingarbitrarytargetsandtaxes.Californiaforexamplewantstorecycleallitstrashnotbecauseitnecessarilymakesenvironmentaloreconomicsensebutbecausethegoalof"zerowaste"soundspoliticallyattractive. What’sthemainideaofthefirstparagraph
Intherelationshipofeducationtobusinessweobservetodayafinestateofparadox.Ontheonehandtheemphasiswhichmostbusinessplacesuponacollegedegreeissogreatthatonecanalmostvisualizethetimewheneventheofficeboywillhavehisbaccalaureate.Ontheotherhandweseemtopreservethebeliefthatsomedeepintellectualchasmseparatesthebusinessmanfromotherproductsoftheuniversitysystem.ThenotionthatbusinesspeoplearequitethePhilistinessoundsabsurd.Forsomereasonwetendtocharacterizevocationsbystereotypesnonetooflatteringbutnonethelessdeeplyimbeddedinthenationalconscience.Inthecastofcharactersthebusinessmancomesonstageasanill-manneredandsimplemindedperson.Itisnotapleasantconceptionandnomoretruthfulorlessunpleasantthanourotherstereotypes.Businessismadeupofpeoplewithallkindsofbackgroundsallkindsofmotivationsandallkindsoftastesjustasinanyotherformofhumanendeavor.Businessmenarenotmobilebalancesheetsandprofitstatementsbutperfectlynormalhumanbeingssubjecttowhateverstrengthsfrailtiesandlimitationsthatcharacterizemanontheearth.Theyarepeoplegroupedtogetherinorganizationsdesignedtocomplementtheweaknessofonewithstrengthofanothertemperingtheexuberanceoftheyoungwiththecautionofthemorematurethepoeticsoaringsofonemindwiththecountinghouserealismofanother.Anydisfigurementwhichsocietymaysufferwillcomefrommanhimselfnotfromtheparticularvocationtowhichhedevoteshistime.Anygroupofpeoplenecessarilyrepresentsanapproachtoacommononeanditisprobablytruethatevenindividuallytheytendtoconformsomewhattothegeneralpattern.Manyhavepointedoutthedangerofengulfingouroriginalthinkersinatideofmediocrity.Conformityisnotanymoreprevalentoranymoreexactinginthebusinessfieldthanitisinanyother.Itisacharacteristicofallorganizationsofwhatevernature.Thefactisthelargebusinessunitprovidesgreateropportunitiesforindividualityandrequireslessinthewayofconformitythanotherinstitutionsofcomparablesize—thegovernmentortheacademicworldorcertainlythemilitary.Accordingtothelastparagraphwhichofthefollowingistrue
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 5
Directions:Youhavebeengivenapositioninacompany.WritealettertothePersonnelDepartmentdecliningthejobofferexplainingwhyandexpressingyourgratitudeandbestwishes.Writeyourletterwithnolessthan100words.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Donotwritetheaddress.
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 3
Theideathatboysandgirls—andmenandwomen—areprogrammedbyevolutiontobehavedifferentlyfromoneanotherisnowwidelyacknowledged.Butwhichofthedifferencesbetweenthesexesarebiologicalinthesensethattheyhavebeenhonedbyevolutionandwhichareculturalorenvironmentalandmightmoreeasilybealteredbychangedcircumstancesisstillfiercelydebated.ThesensitivityofthequestionwasshownlastyearbyanuproaratHarvardUniversity.LarrySummersthenHarvard’spresidentcausedastormwhenhesuggestedthatinnateabilitycouldbeanimportantreasonwhythereweresofewwomeninthetoppositionsinmathematicsengineeringandthephysicalsciences.Evenasapropositionfordiscussionthisisunacceptabletosome.Butbiologicalexplanationsofhumanbehavioraremakingacomeback.Thesuccessofneo-Darwinismhasprovidedanintellectualfoundationfordiscussionaboutwhysomedifferencesbetweenthesexesmightbeinnate.Andnewscanningtechniqueshaveenabledresearcherstoexaminethebrain’sinteriorwhileitisworkingshowingthatmaleandfemalebrainsdoatoneleveloperatedifferently.Theresultshoweverdonotalwayssupportpastclichesaboutwhatthedifferencesinquestionactuallyare.OnebehavioraldifferencethathasborneahugeamountofscrutinyisinmathematicsparticularlysinceDr.Summers’comments.Theproblemwithtryingtoarguethatthemaletendencytosystemizemightleadtogreatermathematicalabilityisthatinfactgirlsandboysareequallygoodatmathspriortoteenageyears.Untilrecentlyitwasbelievedthatmalesoutperformedfemalesinmathematicsatallages.Todaythatpicturehaschangedanditappearsthatmalesandfemalesofanyageareequallygoodatcomputationandatunderstandingmathematicalconcepts.Howeveraftertheirmid-teensmenarebetteratproblemsolvingthanwomenare.ThequestionraisedbyDr.Summersdoesgettotheheartofthematter.Overthepast50yearswomenhavemadehugeprogressintoacademiaandwithinit.Slowlytheyhaveworkedtheirwayintothehigherechelonsofdisciplineafterdiscipline.ButsomepartsoftheivorytowerhaveprovedhardertooccupythanothersThequestionremainstowhatdegreeistheabsenceofwomeninsciencemathematicsandengineeringcausedbyinnateimmutableabilityInnateitmaywellbe.Thatdoesnotmeanitisimmutable.Avarietyofabilitiesareamenabletotraininginbothsexes.Andsuchtrainingworks.Biologymaypredisposebutitisnotnecessarilydestiny.ThesentenceBiologymaypredisposebutitisnotnecessarilydestinyLines2-3Paragraph6indicatesthat______.
Today’snewLaborDepartmentreportshowingthattheeconomylostjobslastmonththefirstlossthisyearseemsinstarkcontrasttowherethepresidentandtheCongressarefocusingtheirattentions.CongresshasrecessedwithoutextendingunemploymentbenefitsinlargemeasureduetorepeatedRepublicanobstruction.Theeconomyisnowpresentingastrangedichotomy.Thecorporatesectorhasreturnedtorudehealthwithimprovedbalancesheetsandtonsofcash.Ithashelpedleadtherecovery.41.AndyetWashington’sresponseseemstobeacollectivethrowingupofhands.Thereareafewthingsthegovernmentcandoaboutpersistentlong-termunemployment.Firstitcanlessenthepainitcausesbyexpandingthesafetynetextendingunemployment-insurancebenefitssothatthelong-termunemployedhaveasourceofcashtohelpthemstaycurrentonrentmortgageandcreditcardbills.Seconditcanrespondtopersistentlong-termunemploymentbyenactingpoliciesaimedatcreatingandpreservingjobs.42.ButsofarNothing.Andthequestioniswhy.Firstthere’sthematteroftheuncertaintrumpetattheFederalReserve.ChairmanBenBernankeseemdtodonothingabouthighunemployment.Attheveryleasthecouldhavelentmoralsupporttotheneedforfurtherstimulus—ffonlyoutofself-interest.43.Andpoliticsclearlyhasalottodowithit.OnthefringesoftheRepublicanrightthere’ssomestupidbehaviors—ie.NevadaSenatecandidateSharronAnglearguingthatlazinessandadesiretolivelargeoffunemploymentchecksisresponsibleforherstate’s14percentunemploymentrate.There’ssomenarrow-mindedness.Sen.BenNelsonaDemocratfromNebraskaastatewheretheunemploymentrateisabouthalfthenationalaveragejoinedtheRepublicanobstructionofanextensionofunemploymentbenefits—hisconstituentsdon’tneedit.Inthebroadcenterthere’salotofserioushypocriticalnonsense.44.FunnyhowsuchintegrityneversurfaceswhenlegislatorsvotetospendmuchlargersumsonthewarsinIraqandAfghanistanontheMedicareprescriptiondrugbenefitandontheBushtaxcuts.45.Theseeffortshaveexhaustedthepolicyteamanditscongressionalallies.Andperhapshighunemploymentissomethingwe’llhavetolivewithgiventhewaytheeconomyhasrecoveredfromrecentrecessions.Thepresident’sbudgetnotesevenwithhealthyeconomicgrowththereislikelytobeanextendedperiodofhigher-than-normalunemploymentlastingforseveralyears.A.IntheWhiteHousethere’sprobablyalevelofexhaustionandZen-likeacceptance—itpushedthroughalargestimuluspackageandmonumentalhealthcarereformtwoheroicmeasuresthatareworkingandwhosebenefitswillcontinuetophaseinovertime.B.ForDemocratsthere’snowaytocutthedeficitorfindrevenuefornewinitiativesunlesstheygrow.ShouldRepublicansretakecontroloftheHouseandSenatenextyeartheirfirstorderofbusinesswouldbetopreservetheBushtaxcutsthataresettoexpire—amovethatwouldmakealreadylargedeficitsevenlargerandthusrendersignificanttax-reductionimpossible.C.MaybehewantstoberememberedastheFedchairmanwhopresidedoveraneraofEuropeanlevelunemploymentwhenskillserodedandseveralgraduatingclassesenteredagluttedworkforce.D.AlongwithmanyothersenatorsNelsonopposedtherecentbenefitextensiononthegroundsthatitwasimmoralandwrongtoenacta$19billionspendingpackagewithoutoffsettingtaxincreasesorspendingcuts.E.ButwithoutthemightyAmericanconsumerwhogenerates70percentofeconomicactivityparticipatingtothefullestdegreetherecoverywillseemweak.Withoutahealthyjobsmarkettherecession-shockedconsumerwon’tspend.F.Andhe’sprobablyright.Republicanshavemadethecalculationthattheweakertheeconomyandtheemploymentmarketareinthenextfewmonthsthebettertheirprospectsfor2010and2012are—andthey’rerighttoo.G.Thesecantaketheformofsummerjobsprogramsenhancedpublicworksprogramsaidtostrappedmunicipalitiessotheycanavoidlayoffsandtaxcutsandcreditsforinvestmentandhiring.
AsksomeonetonameafamouspsychologistandchancesaretheywillpickSigmundFreud.Hisideasabouttheunconscious—asortofshadowybasementofthemindthatisinaccessibletorationalthoughtbutwhichneverthelessinfluencespeople’sbehaviour—arepartofpopularfolklore.Althoughitremainedpopularatdinnerpartiestheideaoftheunconsciousfelloutoffavouramong20th-centurypsychologiststhankstotheriseofmorescientificapproachestopsychology.Thesefocusedpurelyonstudyingbehaviourandrefrainedfromtheorisingabouttheinnerworkingsofthemind.InhislatestbookSubliminalLeonardMlodinowatheoreticalphysicistshowshowtheideaoftheunconscioushasbecomerespectableagainoverthepastcoupleofdecades.Thisdevelopmenthasbeenhelpedbyrigorousexperimentalevidenceoftheeffectsofthesubconsciousandespeciallybyreal-timebrain-scanningtechnologythatallowsresearcherstoexaminewhatisgoingonintheirsubjects’heads.ThatexperimentalevidencesuggeststhatasFreudsuspectedconsciousreasoningmakesupacomparativelysmallpart.oftheactivityinourbrainswithmostoftheworktakingplacewherewecan’ttapintoit.HoweverunlikeFreud’sunconsciousthemodernunconsciousisaplaceofsuper-fastdataprocessingusefulsurvivalmechanismsandrulesofthumbabouttheworldthathavebeentrainedbymillionsofyearsofevolution.Itistheunconsciousforinstancethatstitchestogetherdataoncolourshapemovementandperspectivetocreatethesightenjoyedbytheconsciouspart.ofthemind.ThemodemviewoftheunconsciousmindmaybemorebenignthanFreud’sbutitcanstillgenerateunwelcomeimpulses.Psychologiststheorisethatthewell-documentedtendencyofhumanstocategorisealmosteverypieceofinformationtheycomeacrossisasurvivalmechanismthatevolvedtoaidquickdecisionmaking.Yetitmayalsoliebehindthetendencyforhumanbeingstogrouppeopleintoracesgenderscreedsandthelikeandthentoapplycertaincharacteristics—unjustifiably—toeverymemberofthatgroup.Theinsightsofferedbymodemscienceintotheworkingsofthehumanmindarefascinatingintheirownright.Buttheyalsosuggestthatplentyofconventionalwisdomabouthowhumansbehavemayneedrethinking.ForinstanceMrMlodinownotesthateconomicmodelsarebuiltontheassumptionthatpeoplemakedecisionsbyconsciouslyweighingtherelevantfactorswhereasthepsychologicalresearchsuggeststhatmostofthetimetheydonosuchthing.Insteadtheyactonthebasisofsimpleunconsciousrulesthatcansometimesproducecompletelyirrationalresults.
Atdawnonem0minginearlyMaySeanCosgroveisstashingpilesofmapsnotesandphotocopieddocumentsinhisgymbagbeforeheadingforWestMilfordHigharuralschoolinnorthernmostNewJersey.Onhis30-minutecommutetheyoungformerinvestmentbankertriestodreamupnewwaysofliftingthemonumentallyforgettableMexicanWaroffthetextbookpageandintohisstudents’imaginations.CanheinvokethestoriedmemoriesofRobertE.LeewhocuthisfirstmilitaryexploitsontheplainsofVeracuz—orwillhebemetwiththunderingresponsesofWho’sLeeShouldheraiseJamesK.PolkoutofthemysticchordsofmemoryandhopeforananosecondthatthekidswillcareaboutthefirstU.S.presidentwhosteppedasidebecausehe’daccomplishedeverythinghewantedLet’sthinksomemore.Wellthere’salwaystheAlamo.Andheyisn’tthattheteachers’parkinglotupaheadIt’sneveraneasytask.ThesebigkidsinbigjeansandballcapscometohishistoryclassesbelievingthathistoryisaboutasusefulasLatin.Mostareeitherunawareorunimpressedthatthearea’sironforgesonceproducedartillerycannonforGeorgeWashington’sarmy.Theirsenseofhistoryorbitsmorenarrowlyaroundlastmonth’sadventuresonShopRiteStripthestudents’nicknamefordowntownWestMilfordonceafactorytownnowaMagnetformiddleclassvacationers.Cosgrovelooksuncommonlyglumashethumbsthroughastackofexamsintheteachers’lounge.Ican’tbelieveanyoneinmyclasscouldthinkJohnBrownwasthegovernorofMassachusettsmoansCosgrove28pointingtoonestudent’stestpaper.Hehadtobesleepingfordaysonend.ThesamemorningstudentsinhiscollegeboundclasscouldnameonlyoneU.S.SupremeCourtjustice—ClarenceThomas.Allhiswitenergyandbeyondthetextbookresearchcan’tcompletelyreversethestudents’poorpreparationinhistorytheirlackofgeneralknowledgetheirnumbnesstotheoutsideworld.It’sthebaneofhistoryteachersateverylevel.WhenUniversityofVermontprofessorJamesLoewenaskedhisseniorsocialsciencemajorswhofoughtintheVietnamWar22percentansweredD.P.R.koreaandR.O.Korea.Don’tthesekidsevengotothemoviesWhichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothispassage
ThehistoryofresponsestotheworkoftheartistSandroBotticelli1444-1510suggeststhatwidespreadappreciationbycriticsisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.Writingin1550VasariexpressedanuneasewithBotticelli’sworkadmittingthattheartistfittedawkwardlyintohisevolutionaryschemeofthehistoryofart.OverthenexttwocenturiesacademicarthistoriansdefamedBotticelliinfavorofhisfellowsFlorentineMichelangelo.Evenwhenanti-academicarthistoriansoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrejectedmanyofthestandardsofevaluationadoptedbytheirpredecessorsBotticelli’sworkremainedoutsideofacceptedtastepleasingneitheramateurobserversnorconnoisseurs.Manyofhisbestpaintingshoweverremainedhiddenawayinobscurechurchesandprivatehomes. TheprimaryreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularityisnotdifficulttounderstand:mostobserversupuntilthemid-nineteenthcenturydidnotconsiderhimtobenoteworthybecausehisworkforthemostpartdidnotseemtotheseobserverstoexhibitthetraditionalcharacteristicsofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentineart.ForexampleBotticellirarelyemployedthetechniqueofstrictperspectiveandunlikeMichelangeloneverusedchiaroscuro. AnotherreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularitymayhavebeenthathisattitudetowardthestyleofclassicalartwasverydifferentfromthatofhiscontemporaries.Althoughhewasthoroughlyexposedtoclassicalartheshowedlittleinterestin-borrowingfromtheclassicalstyle.Indeeditisparadoxicalthatapainteroflarge-scaleclassicalsubjectsadoptedastylethatwasonlyslightlysimilartothatofclassicalart. InanycasewhenviewersbegantoexaminemorecloselytherelationshipofBotticelli’sworktothetraditionofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentinearthisreputationbegantogrow.AnalysesandassessmentsofBotticellimadebetween1850and1870bytheartistsofthePre-RaphaelitemovementaswellasbythewriterPateralthoughheunfortunatelybasedhisassessmentonanincorrectanalysisofBotticelli’spersonalityinspiredanewappreciationofBotticellithroughouttheEnglishspeakingworld.YetBotticelli’sworkespeciallytheSistinefrescoesdidnotgenerateworldwideattentionuntilitwasfinallysubjectedtoacomprehensiveandscrupulousanalysisbyHomein1908.HomerightlydemonstratedthatthefrescoessharedimportantfeatureswithpaintingsbyotherfifteenthcenturyFlorentines-featuressuchasskillfulrepresentationofanatomicalproportionsandofthehumanfigureinmotion.HoweverHomearguedthatBotticellididnottreatthesequalitiesasendsinthemselves—ratherthatheemphasizedcleardepletionofastoryauniqueachievementandonethatmadethetraditionalFlorentinequalitieslesscentral.BecauseofHome’semphasiscrucialtoanystudyofartthetwentiethcenturyhascometoappreciateBotticelli’sachievements. WhatdoestheauthorthinkofBotticelli’srepresentationskills
Whereverpeoplehavebeentheyhaveleftwastebehindwhichcancauseallsortsofproblems.Wasteoftenstinksattractsverminandcreateseyesores.Moreseriouslyitcanreleaseharmfulchemicalsintothesoilandwaterwhendumpedorintotheairwhenburned.Andthentherearesomereallynastyformsofindustrialwastesuchasspentnuclearfuelforwhichnouniversallyaccepteddisposalmethodshavethusfarbeendeveloped.Yetmanyalsoseewasteasanopportunity.Gettingridofitallhasbecomeahugeglobalbusiness.Richcountriesspendsome$120billionayeardisposingoftheirmunicipalwastealoneandanother$150billiononindustrialwaste.Theamountofwastethatcountriesproducetendstogrowintandemwiththeireconomiesandespeciallywiththerateofurbanization.SowastefirmsseearichfutureinplacessuchasChinaIndiaandBrazilwhichatpresentspendonlyabout$5billionayearcollectingandtreatingtheirmunicipalwaste.Wastealsopresentsanopportunityinagrandersense:asapotentialresource.Muchofitisalreadyburnedtogenerateenergy.Clevernewtechnologiestoturnitintofertiliserorchemicalsorfuelarebeingdevelopedallthetime.Visionariesseeaworldwithoutwastewithrubbishbeingroutinelyrecycled.Untillastsummersuchviewswerespreadingquickly.Butsincethenplummetingpricesforvirginpaperplasticandfuelsandhencealsoforthewastethatsubstitutesforthemhaveputanendtosuchvisions.Manyoftherecyclingfirmsthathadarguedrubbishwasonthewayoutnowsaythatunlesstheyaregivenfinancialhelptheythemselveswilldisappear.Subsidiesareabadidea.Governmentshavearoletoplayinthebusinessofwastemanagementbutitisaregulatoryandsupervisoryone.Theyshouldobligepeoplewhocreatewastetocleanupafterthemselvesandideallyensurethatthepriceofanyproductreflectsthecostofdisposingofitsafely.Thatwouldhelptosignalwhichitemsarehardesttogetridofgivingconsumersanincentivetobuygoodsthatcreatelesswasteinthefirstplace.Thatmaysoundsimpleenoughbutgovernmentsseldomgettherolesright.Inpoorercountriestheyoftenhavenorulesatalloriftheyhavethemtheyfailtoenforcethem.Inrichcountriestheyareofteninconsistent:toostrictaboutsomesortsofwasteandworryinglylaxaboutothers.Theyarealsopronetoimposingarbitrarytargetsandtaxes.Californiaforexamplewantstorecycleallitstrashnotbecauseitnecessarilymakesenvironmentaloreconomicsensebutbecausethegoalofzerowastesoundspoliticallyattractive.Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothelastparagraph
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 11
ThehistoryofresponsestotheworkoftheartistSandroBotticelli1444-1510suggeststhatwidespreadappreciationbycriticsisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.Writingin1550VasariexpressedanuneasewithBotticelli’sworkadmittingthattheartistfittedawkwardlyintohisevolutionaryschemeofthehistoryofart.OverthenexttwocenturiesacademicarthistoriansdefamedBotticelliinfavorofhisfellowsFlorentineMichelangelo.Evenwhenanti-academicarthistoriansoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrejectedmanyofthestandardsofevaluationadoptedbytheirpredecessorsBotticelli’sworkremainedoutsideofacceptedtastepleasingneitheramateurobserversnorconnoisseurs.Manyofhisbestpaintingshoweverremainedhiddenawayinobscurechurchesandprivatehomes. TheprimaryreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularityisnotdifficulttounderstand:mostobserversupuntilthemid-nineteenthcenturydidnotconsiderhimtobenoteworthybecausehisworkforthemostpartdidnotseemtotheseobserverstoexhibitthetraditionalcharacteristicsofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentineart.ForexampleBotticellirarelyemployedthetechniqueofstrictperspectiveandunlikeMichelangeloneverusedchiaroscuro. AnotherreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularitymayhavebeenthathisattitudetowardthestyleofclassicalartwasverydifferentfromthatofhiscontemporaries.Althoughhewasthoroughlyexposedtoclassicalartheshowedlittleinterestin-borrowingfromtheclassicalstyle.Indeeditisparadoxicalthatapainteroflarge-scaleclassicalsubjectsadoptedastylethatwasonlyslightlysimilartothatofclassicalart. InanycasewhenviewersbegantoexaminemorecloselytherelationshipofBotticelli’sworktothetraditionofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentinearthisreputationbegantogrow.AnalysesandassessmentsofBotticellimadebetween1850and1870bytheartistsofthePre-RaphaelitemovementaswellasbythewriterPateralthoughheunfortunatelybasedhisassessmentonanincorrectanalysisofBotticelli’spersonalityinspiredanewappreciationofBotticellithroughouttheEnglishspeakingworld.YetBotticelli’sworkespeciallytheSistinefrescoesdidnotgenerateworldwideattentionuntilitwasfinallysubjectedtoacomprehensiveandscrupulousanalysisbyHomein1908.HomerightlydemonstratedthatthefrescoessharedimportantfeatureswithpaintingsbyotherfifteenthcenturyFlorentines-featuressuchasskillfulrepresentationofanatomicalproportionsandofthehumanfigureinmotion.HoweverHomearguedthatBotticellididnottreatthesequalitiesasendsinthemselves—ratherthatheemphasizedcleardepletionofastoryauniqueachievementandonethatmadethetraditionalFlorentinequalitieslesscentral.BecauseofHome’semphasiscrucialtoanystudyofartthetwentiethcenturyhascometoappreciateBotticelli’sachievements. TheviewsofVasariandHomeonBotticelli’sproductsare
AsksomeonetonameafamouspsychologistandchancesaretheywillpickSigmundFreud.Hisideasabouttheunconscious—asortofshadowybasementofthemindthatisinaccessibletorationalthoughtbutwhichneverthelessinfluencespeople’sbehaviour—arepartofpopularfolklore.Althoughitremainedpopularatdinnerpartiestheideaoftheunconsciousfelloutoffavouramong20th-centurypsychologiststhankstotheriseofmorescientificapproachestopsychology.Thesefocusedpurelyonstudyingbehaviourandrefrainedfromtheorisingabouttheinnerworkingsofthemind.InhislatestbookSubliminalLeonardMlodinowatheoreticalphysicistshowshowtheideaoftheunconscioushasbecomerespectableagainoverthepastcoupleofdecades.Thisdevelopmenthasbeenhelpedbyrigorousexperimentalevidenceoftheeffectsofthesubconsciousandespeciallybyreal-timebrain-scanningtechnologythatallowsresearcherstoexaminewhatisgoingonintheirsubjects’heads.ThatexperimentalevidencesuggeststhatasFreudsuspectedconsciousreasoningmakesupacomparativelysmallpart.oftheactivityinourbrainswithmostoftheworktakingplacewherewecan’ttapintoit.HoweverunlikeFreud’sunconsciousthemodernunconsciousisaplaceofsuper-fastdataprocessingusefulsurvivalmechanismsandrulesofthumbabouttheworldthathavebeentrainedbymillionsofyearsofevolution.Itistheunconsciousforinstancethatstitchestogetherdataoncolourshapemovementandperspectivetocreatethesightenjoyedbytheconsciouspart.ofthemind.ThemodemviewoftheunconsciousmindmaybemorebenignthanFreud’sbutitcanstillgenerateunwelcomeimpulses.Psychologiststheorisethatthewell-documentedtendencyofhumanstocategorisealmosteverypieceofinformationtheycomeacrossisasurvivalmechanismthatevolvedtoaidquickdecisionmaking.Yetitmayalsoliebehindthetendencyforhumanbeingstogrouppeopleintoracesgenderscreedsandthelikeandthentoapplycertaincharacteristics—unjustifiably—toeverymemberofthatgroup.Theinsightsofferedbymodemscienceintotheworkingsofthehumanmindarefascinatingintheirownright.Buttheyalsosuggestthatplentyofconventionalwisdomabouthowhumansbehavemayneedrethinking.ForinstanceMrMlodinownotesthateconomicmodelsarebuiltontheassumptionthatpeoplemakedecisionsbyconsciouslyweighingtherelevantfactorswhereasthepsychologicalresearchsuggeststhatmostofthetimetheydonosuchthing.Insteadtheyactonthebasisofsimpleunconsciousrulesthatcansometimesproducecompletelyirrationalresults.
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 17
Intherelationshipofeducationtobusinessweobservetodayafinestateofparadox.Ontheonehandtheemphasiswhichmostbusinessplacesuponacollegedegreeissogreatthatonecanalmostvisualizethetimewheneventheofficeboywillhavehisbaccalaureate.Ontheotherhandweseemtopreservethebeliefthatsomedeepintellectualchasmseparatesthebusinessmanfromotherproductsoftheuniversitysystem.ThenotionthatbusinesspeoplearequitethePhilistinessoundsabsurd.Forsomereasonwetendtocharacterizevocationsbystereotypesnonetooflatteringbutnonethelessdeeplyimbeddedinthenationalconscience.Inthecastofcharactersthebusinessmancomesonstageasanill-manneredandsimplemindedperson.Itisnotapleasantconceptionandnomoretruthfulorlessunpleasantthanourotherstereotypes.Businessismadeupofpeoplewithallkindsofbackgroundsallkindsofmotivationsandallkindsoftastesjustasinanyotherformofhumanendeavor.Businessmenarenotmobilebalancesheetsandprofitstatementsbutperfectlynormalhumanbeingssubjecttowhateverstrengthsfrailtiesandlimitationsthatcharacterizemanontheearth.Theyarepeoplegroupedtogetherinorganizationsdesignedtocomplementtheweaknessofonewithstrengthofanothertemperingtheexuberanceoftheyoungwiththecautionofthemorematurethepoeticsoaringsofonemindwiththecountinghouserealismofanother.Anydisfigurementwhichsocietymaysufferwillcomefrommanhimselfnotfromtheparticularvocationtowhichhedevoteshistime.Anygroupofpeoplenecessarilyrepresentsanapproachtoacommononeanditisprobablytruethatevenindividuallytheytendtoconformsomewhattothegeneralpattern.Manyhavepointedoutthedangerofengulfingouroriginalthinkersinatideofmediocrity.Conformityisnotanymoreprevalentoranymoreexactinginthebusinessfieldthanitisinanyother.Itisacharacteristicofallorganizationsofwhatevernature.Thefactisthelargebusinessunitprovidesgreateropportunitiesforindividualityandrequireslessinthewayofconformitythanotherinstitutionsofcomparablesize—thegovernmentortheacademicworldorcertainlythemilitary.Thereisn’tastereotypedbusinessmanbecause______.
Whereverpeoplehavebeentheyhaveleftwastebehindwhichcancauseallsortsofproblems.Wasteoftenstinksattractsverminandcreateseyesores.Moreseriouslyitcanreleaseharmfulchemicalsintothesoilandwaterwhendumpedorintotheairwhenburned.Andthentherearesomereallynastyformsofindustrialwastesuchasspentnuclearfuelforwhichnouniversallyaccepteddisposalmethodshavethusfarbeendeveloped.Yetmanyalsoseewasteasanopportunity.Gettingridofitallhasbecomeahugeglobalbusiness.Richcountriesspendsome$120billionayeardisposingoftheirmunicipalwastealoneandanother$150billiononindustrialwaste.Theamountofwastethatcountriesproducetendstogrowintandemwiththeireconomiesandespeciallywiththerateofurbanization.SowastefirmsseearichfutureinplacessuchasChinaIndiaandBrazilwhichatpresentspendonlyabout$5billionayearcollectingandtreatingtheirmunicipalwaste.Wastealsopresentsanopportunityinagrandersense:asapotentialresource.Muchofitisalreadyburnedtogenerateenergy.Clevernewtechnologiestoturnitintofertiliserorchemicalsorfuelarebeingdevelopedallthetime.Visionariesseeaworldwithoutwastewithrubbishbeingroutinelyrecycled.Untillastsummersuchviewswerespreadingquickly.Butsincethenplummetingpricesforvirginpaperplasticandfuelsandhencealsoforthewastethatsubstitutesforthemhaveputanendtosuchvisions.Manyoftherecyclingfirmsthathadarguedrubbishwasonthewayoutnowsaythatunlesstheyaregivenfinancialhelptheythemselveswilldisappear.Subsidiesareabadidea.Governmentshavearoletoplayinthebusinessofwastemanagementbutitisaregulatoryandsupervisoryone.Theyshouldobligepeoplewhocreatewastetocleanupafterthemselvesandideallyensurethatthepriceofanyproductreflectsthecostofdisposingofitsafely.Thatwouldhelptosignalwhichitemsarehardesttogetridofgivingconsumersanincentivetobuygoodsthatcreatelesswasteinthefirstplace.Thatmaysoundsimpleenoughbutgovernmentsseldomgettherolesright.Inpoorercountriestheyoftenhavenorulesatalloriftheyhavethemtheyfailtoenforcethem.Inrichcountriestheyareofteninconsistent:toostrictaboutsomesortsofwasteandworryinglylaxaboutothers.Theyarealsopronetoimposingarbitrarytargetsandtaxes.Californiaforexamplewantstorecycleallitstrashnotbecauseitnecessarilymakesenvironmentaloreconomicsensebutbecausethegoalofzerowastesoundspoliticallyattractive.Manyrecyclingfirmsaredisappointednowforthereasonthat______.
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 13
Today’snewLaborDepartmentreportshowingthattheeconomylostjobslastmonththefirstlossthisyearseemsinstarkcontrasttowherethepresidentandtheCongressarefocusingtheirattentions.CongresshasrecessedwithoutextendingunemploymentbenefitsinlargemeasureduetorepeatedRepublicanobstruction.Theeconomyisnowpresentingastrangedichotomy.Thecorporatesectorhasreturnedtorudehealthwithimprovedbalancesheetsandtonsofcash.Ithashelpedleadtherecovery.41.AndyetWashington’sresponseseemstobeacollectivethrowingupofhands.Thereareafewthingsthegovernmentcandoaboutpersistentlong-termunemployment.Firstitcanlessenthepainitcausesbyexpandingthesafetynetextendingunemployment-insurancebenefitssothatthelong-termunemployedhaveasourceofcashtohelpthemstaycurrentonrentmortgageandcreditcardbills.Seconditcanrespondtopersistentlong-termunemploymentbyenactingpoliciesaimedatcreatingandpreservingjobs.42.ButsofarNothing.Andthequestioniswhy.Firstthere’sthematteroftheuncertaintrumpetattheFederalReserve.ChairmanBenBernankeseemdtodonothingabouthighunemployment.Attheveryleasthecouldhavelentmoralsupporttotheneedforfurtherstimulus—ffonlyoutofself-interest.43.Andpoliticsclearlyhasalottodowithit.OnthefringesoftheRepublicanrightthere’ssomestupidbehaviors—ie.NevadaSenatecandidateSharronAnglearguingthatlazinessandadesiretolivelargeoffunemploymentchecksisresponsibleforherstate’s14percentunemploymentrate.There’ssomenarrow-mindedness.Sen.BenNelsonaDemocratfromNebraskaastatewheretheunemploymentrateisabouthalfthenationalaveragejoinedtheRepublicanobstructionofanextensionofunemploymentbenefits—hisconstituentsdon’tneedit.Inthebroadcenterthere’salotofserioushypocriticalnonsense.44.FunnyhowsuchintegrityneversurfaceswhenlegislatorsvotetospendmuchlargersumsonthewarsinIraqandAfghanistanontheMedicareprescriptiondrugbenefitandontheBushtaxcuts.45.Theseeffortshaveexhaustedthepolicyteamanditscongressionalallies.Andperhapshighunemploymentissomethingwe’llhavetolivewithgiventhewaytheeconomyhasrecoveredfromrecentrecessions.Thepresident’sbudgetnotesevenwithhealthyeconomicgrowththereislikelytobeanextendedperiodofhigher-than-normalunemploymentlastingforseveralyears.A.IntheWhiteHousethere’sprobablyalevelofexhaustionandZen-likeacceptance—itpushedthroughalargestimuluspackageandmonumentalhealthcarereformtwoheroicmeasuresthatareworkingandwhosebenefitswillcontinuetophaseinovertime.B.ForDemocratsthere’snowaytocutthedeficitorfindrevenuefornewinitiativesunlesstheygrow.ShouldRepublicansretakecontroloftheHouseandSenatenextyeartheirfirstorderofbusinesswouldbetopreservetheBushtaxcutsthataresettoexpire—amovethatwouldmakealreadylargedeficitsevenlargerandthusrendersignificanttax-reductionimpossible.C.MaybehewantstoberememberedastheFedchairmanwhopresidedoveraneraofEuropeanlevelunemploymentwhenskillserodedandseveralgraduatingclassesenteredagluttedworkforce.D.AlongwithmanyothersenatorsNelsonopposedtherecentbenefitextensiononthegroundsthatitwasimmoralandwrongtoenacta$19billionspendingpackagewithoutoffsettingtaxincreasesorspendingcuts.E.ButwithoutthemightyAmericanconsumerwhogenerates70percentofeconomicactivityparticipatingtothefullestdegreetherecoverywillseemweak.Withoutahealthyjobsmarkettherecession-shockedconsumerwon’tspend.F.Andhe’sprobablyright.Republicanshavemadethecalculationthattheweakertheeconomyandtheemploymentmarketareinthenextfewmonthsthebettertheirprospectsfor2010and2012are—andthey’rerighttoo.G.Thesecantaketheformofsummerjobsprogramsenhancedpublicworksprogramsaidtostrappedmunicipalitiessotheycanavoidlayoffsandtaxcutsandcreditsforinvestmentandhiring.
Today’snewLaborDepartmentreportshowingthattheeconomylostjobslastmonththefirstlossthisyearseemsinstarkcontrasttowherethepresidentandtheCongressarefocusingtheirattentions.CongresshasrecessedwithoutextendingunemploymentbenefitsinlargemeasureduetorepeatedRepublicanobstruction.Theeconomyisnowpresentingastrangedichotomy.Thecorporatesectorhasreturnedtorudehealthwithimprovedbalancesheetsandtonsofcash.Ithashelpedleadtherecovery.41.AndyetWashington’sresponseseemstobeacollectivethrowingupofhands.Thereareafewthingsthegovernmentcandoaboutpersistentlong-termunemployment.Firstitcanlessenthepainitcausesbyexpandingthesafetynetextendingunemployment-insurancebenefitssothatthelong-termunemployedhaveasourceofcashtohelpthemstaycurrentonrentmortgageandcreditcardbills.Seconditcanrespondtopersistentlong-termunemploymentbyenactingpoliciesaimedatcreatingandpreservingjobs.42.ButsofarNothing.Andthequestioniswhy.Firstthere’sthematteroftheuncertaintrumpetattheFederalReserve.ChairmanBenBernankeseemdtodonothingabouthighunemployment.Attheveryleasthecouldhavelentmoralsupporttotheneedforfurtherstimulus—ffonlyoutofself-interest.43.Andpoliticsclearlyhasalottodowithit.OnthefringesoftheRepublicanrightthere’ssomestupidbehaviors—ie.NevadaSenatecandidateSharronAnglearguingthatlazinessandadesiretolivelargeoffunemploymentchecksisresponsibleforherstate’s14percentunemploymentrate.There’ssomenarrow-mindedness.Sen.BenNelsonaDemocratfromNebraskaastatewheretheunemploymentrateisabouthalfthenationalaveragejoinedtheRepublicanobstructionofanextensionofunemploymentbenefits—hisconstituentsdon’tneedit.Inthebroadcenterthere’salotofserioushypocriticalnonsense.44.FunnyhowsuchintegrityneversurfaceswhenlegislatorsvotetospendmuchlargersumsonthewarsinIraqandAfghanistanontheMedicareprescriptiondrugbenefitandontheBushtaxcuts.45.Theseeffortshaveexhaustedthepolicyteamanditscongressionalallies.Andperhapshighunemploymentissomethingwe’llhavetolivewithgiventhewaytheeconomyhasrecoveredfromrecentrecessions.Thepresident’sbudgetnotesevenwithhealthyeconomicgrowththereislikelytobeanextendedperiodofhigher-than-normalunemploymentlastingforseveralyears.A.IntheWhiteHousethere’sprobablyalevelofexhaustionandZen-likeacceptance—itpushedthroughalargestimuluspackageandmonumentalhealthcarereformtwoheroicmeasuresthatareworkingandwhosebenefitswillcontinuetophaseinovertime.B.ForDemocratsthere’snowaytocutthedeficitorfindrevenuefornewinitiativesunlesstheygrow.ShouldRepublicansretakecontroloftheHouseandSenatenextyeartheirfirstorderofbusinesswouldbetopreservetheBushtaxcutsthataresettoexpire—amovethatwouldmakealreadylargedeficitsevenlargerandthusrendersignificanttax-reductionimpossible.C.MaybehewantstoberememberedastheFedchairmanwhopresidedoveraneraofEuropeanlevelunemploymentwhenskillserodedandseveralgraduatingclassesenteredagluttedworkforce.D.AlongwithmanyothersenatorsNelsonopposedtherecentbenefitextensiononthegroundsthatitwasimmoralandwrongtoenacta$19billionspendingpackagewithoutoffsettingtaxincreasesorspendingcuts.E.ButwithoutthemightyAmericanconsumerwhogenerates70percentofeconomicactivityparticipatingtothefullestdegreetherecoverywillseemweak.Withoutahealthyjobsmarkettherecession-shockedconsumerwon’tspend.F.Andhe’sprobablyright.Republicanshavemadethecalculationthattheweakertheeconomyandtheemploymentmarketareinthenextfewmonthsthebettertheirprospectsfor2010and2012are—andthey’rerighttoo.G.Thesecantaketheformofsummerjobsprogramsenhancedpublicworksprogramsaidtostrappedmunicipalitiessotheycanavoidlayoffsandtaxcutsandcreditsforinvestmentandhiring.
Theideathatboysandgirls—andmenandwomen—areprogrammedbyevolutiontobehavedifferentlyfromoneanotherisnowwidelyacknowledged.Butwhichofthedifferencesbetweenthesexesarebiologicalinthesensethattheyhavebeenhonedbyevolutionandwhichareculturalorenvironmentalandmightmoreeasilybealteredbychangedcircumstancesisstillfiercelydebated.ThesensitivityofthequestionwasshownlastyearbyanuproaratHarvardUniversity.LarrySummersthenHarvard’spresidentcausedastormwhenhesuggestedthatinnateabilitycouldbeanimportantreasonwhythereweresofewwomeninthetoppositionsinmathematicsengineeringandthephysicalsciences.Evenasapropositionfordiscussionthisisunacceptabletosome.Butbiologicalexplanationsofhumanbehavioraremakingacomeback.Thesuccessofneo-Darwinismhasprovidedanintellectualfoundationfordiscussionaboutwhysomedifferencesbetweenthesexesmightbeinnate.Andnewscanningtechniqueshaveenabledresearcherstoexaminethebrain’sinteriorwhileitisworkingshowingthatmaleandfemalebrainsdoatoneleveloperatedifferently.Theresultshoweverdonotalwayssupportpastclichesaboutwhatthedifferencesinquestionactuallyare.OnebehavioraldifferencethathasborneahugeamountofscrutinyisinmathematicsparticularlysinceDr.Summers’comments.Theproblemwithtryingtoarguethatthemaletendencytosystemizemightleadtogreatermathematicalabilityisthatinfactgirlsandboysareequallygoodatmathspriortoteenageyears.Untilrecentlyitwasbelievedthatmalesoutperformedfemalesinmathematicsatallages.Todaythatpicturehaschangedanditappearsthatmalesandfemalesofanyageareequallygoodatcomputationandatunderstandingmathematicalconcepts.Howeveraftertheirmid-teensmenarebetteratproblemsolvingthanwomenare.ThequestionraisedbyDr.Summersdoesgettotheheartofthematter.Overthepast50yearswomenhavemadehugeprogressintoacademiaandwithinit.Slowlytheyhaveworkedtheirwayintothehigherechelonsofdisciplineafterdiscipline.ButsomepartsoftheivorytowerhaveprovedhardertooccupythanothersThequestionremainstowhatdegreeistheabsenceofwomeninsciencemathematicsandengineeringcausedbyinnateimmutableabilityInnateitmaywellbe.Thatdoesnotmeanitisimmutable.Avarietyofabilitiesareamenabletotraininginbothsexes.Andsuchtrainingworks.Biologymaypredisposebutitisnotnecessarilydestiny.WhichofthefollowingstatementswouldLarrySummerssupport
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 19
Recalculatingtheglobaluseofphosphorusanimportantfertilizerelementofmodemagricultureateamofresearcherswarnsthattheworld’sstocksmaysoonbeinshortsupplyandthatoveruseintheindustrializedworldhasbecomealeadingcauseofthepollutionoflakesriversandstreams. WritingintheFeb.14editionofthejournalEnvironmentalResearchLettersStephenCarpenteroftheUniversityofWisconsin-MadisonandElenaBennettofMcGillUniversityreportthatthehumanuseofphosphorusprimarilyintheindustrializedworldiscausingthewidespreadeutrophicationoffreshsurfacewater.What’smoretheminableglobalstocksofphosphorusareconcentratedinjustafewcountriesandareindeclineposingtheriskofglobalshortageswithinthenext20years."Thereisafiniteamountofphosphorusintheworld"saysCarpenteroneoftheworld’sleadingauthoritiesonlakesandstreams."Thisisamaterialthat’sbecomingrarerandweneedtouseitmoreefficiently." Phosphorusisanessentialelementforlife.Livingorganismsincludinghumanshavesmallamountsandtheelementiscrucialfordrivingtheenergeticprocessesofcells.Inagriculturephosphorusminedfromancientmarinedepositsiswidelyusedtoboostcropyields.Theelementalsohasotherindustrialuses. Butexcessphosphorusfromfertilizerthatwashesfromfarmfieldsandsuburbanlawnsintolakesandstreamsistheprimarycauseofthealgaebloomsthatdestroyfreshwaterecosystemsariddegradewaterquality.Phosphoruspollutionposesarisktofishandotherwaterlifeaswellastotheanimalsandhumanswhodependoncleanfreshwater.Insomeinstancesexcessphosphorussparksbloomsoftoxicalgaewhichposeadirectthreattohumanandanimallife. "Ifyouhavetoomuchphosphorusyougeteutrophication"explainsCarpenterofthecycleofexcessiveplantandalgaegrowththatsignificantlydegradesbodiesoffreshwater."Phosphorusstimulatesthegrowthofalgaeandweedsnearshoreandsomeofthealgaecancontaincyanobacteriawhicharetoxic.Youlosefish.Youlosewaterqualityfordrinking."Thefertilizer-fueledalgaebloomsthemselvesamplifytheproblemasthealgaedieandreleaseaccumulatedphosphorusbackintothewater. ComplicatingtheproblemsaysCarpenteristhefactthatexcessphosphorusintheenvironmentisaproblemprimarilyintheindustrializedworldmainlyEuropeNorthAmericaandpartsofAsia.InotherpartsoftheworldnotablyAfricaandAustraliasoilsarephosphoruspoorcreatingastarkimbalance.IronicallysoilsinplaceslikeNorthAmericawherefertilizerswithphosphorusaremostcommonlyappliedarealreadyloadedwiththeelement.BennettandCarpenterarguethatagriculturepracticestobetterconservephosphatewithinagriculturalecosystemsarenecessarytoavertthewidespreadpollutionofsurfacewaters.Phosphorusfrompartsoftheworldwheretheelementisabundanttheysaycanbemovedtophosphorusdeficientregionsoftheworldbyextractingphosphorusfrommanureforexampleusingmanuredigesters. Thewordeutrophicationline3Para.2mostprobablymeans
ThehistoryofresponsestotheworkoftheartistSandroBotticelli1444-1510suggeststhatwidespreadappreciationbycriticsisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.Writingin1550VasariexpressedanuneasewithBotticelli’sworkadmittingthattheartistfittedawkwardlyintohisevolutionaryschemeofthehistoryofart.OverthenexttwocenturiesacademicarthistoriansdefamedBotticelliinfavorofhisfellowsFlorentineMichelangelo.Evenwhenanti-academicarthistoriansoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrejectedmanyofthestandardsofevaluationadoptedbytheirpredecessorsBotticelli’sworkremainedoutsideofacceptedtastepleasingneitheramateurobserversnorconnoisseurs.Manyofhisbestpaintingshoweverremainedhiddenawayinobscurechurchesandprivatehomes.TheprimaryreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularityisnotdifficulttounderstand:mostobserversupuntilthemid-nineteenthcenturydidnotconsiderhimtobenoteworthybecausehisworkforthemostpartdidnotseemtotheseobserverstoexhibitthetraditionalcharacteristicsofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentineart.ForexampleBotticellirarelyemployedthetechniqueofstrictperspectiveandunlikeMichelangeloneverusedchiaroscuro.AnotherreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularitymayhavebeenthathisattitudetowardthestyleofclassicalartwasverydifferentfromthatofhiscontemporaries.Althoughhewasthoroughlyexposedtoclassicalartheshowedlittleinterestin-borrowingfromtheclassicalstyle.Indeeditisparadoxicalthatapainteroflarge-scaleclassicalsubjectsadoptedastylethatwasonlyslightlysimilartothatofclassicalart.InanycasewhenviewersbegantoexaminemorecloselytherelationshipofBotticelli’sworktothetraditionofthefifteenthcenturyFlorentinearthisreputationbegantogrow.AnalysesandassessmentsofBotticellimadebetween1850and1870bytheartistsofthePre-RaphaelitemovementaswellasbythewriterPateralthoughheunfortunatelybasedhisassessmentonanincorrectanalysisofBotticelli’spersonalityinspiredanewappreciationofBotticellithroughouttheEnglishspeakingworld.YetBotticelli’sworkespeciallytheSistinefrescoesdidnotgenerateworldwideattentionuntilitwasfinallysubjectedtoacomprehensiveandscrupulousanalysisbyHomein1908.HomerightlydemonstratedthatthefrescoessharedimportantfeatureswithpaintingsbyotherfifteenthcenturyFlorentines-featuressuchasskillfulrepresentationofanatomicalproportionsandofthehumanfigureinmotion.HoweverHomearguedthatBotticellididnottreatthesequalitiesasendsinthemselves—ratherthatheemphasizedcleardepletionofastoryauniqueachievementandonethatmadethetraditionalFlorentinequalitieslesscentral.BecauseofHome’semphasiscrucialtoanystudyofartthetwentiethcenturyhascometoappreciateBotticelli’sachievements.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 7
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 9
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 15
Atdawnonem0minginearlyMaySeanCosgroveisstashingpilesofmapsnotesandphotocopieddocumentsinhisgymbagbeforeheadingforWestMilfordHigharuralschoolinnorthernmostNewJersey.Onhis30-minutecommutetheyoungformerinvestmentbankertriestodreamupnewwaysofliftingthemonumentallyforgettableMexicanWaroffthetextbookpageandintohisstudents’imaginations.CanheinvokethestoriedmemoriesofRobertE.LeewhocuthisfirstmilitaryexploitsontheplainsofVeracuz—orwillhebemetwiththunderingresponsesofWho’sLeeShouldheraiseJamesK.PolkoutofthemysticchordsofmemoryandhopeforananosecondthatthekidswillcareaboutthefirstU.S.presidentwhosteppedasidebecausehe’daccomplishedeverythinghewantedLet’sthinksomemore.Wellthere’salwaystheAlamo.Andheyisn’tthattheteachers’parkinglotupaheadIt’sneveraneasytask.ThesebigkidsinbigjeansandballcapscometohishistoryclassesbelievingthathistoryisaboutasusefulasLatin.Mostareeitherunawareorunimpressedthatthearea’sironforgesonceproducedartillerycannonforGeorgeWashington’sarmy.Theirsenseofhistoryorbitsmorenarrowlyaroundlastmonth’sadventuresonShopRiteStripthestudents’nicknamefordowntownWestMilfordonceafactorytownnowaMagnetformiddleclassvacationers.Cosgrovelooksuncommonlyglumashethumbsthroughastackofexamsintheteachers’lounge.Ican’tbelieveanyoneinmyclasscouldthinkJohnBrownwasthegovernorofMassachusettsmoansCosgrove28pointingtoonestudent’stestpaper.Hehadtobesleepingfordaysonend.ThesamemorningstudentsinhiscollegeboundclasscouldnameonlyoneU.S.SupremeCourtjustice—ClarenceThomas.Allhiswitenergyandbeyondthetextbookresearchcan’tcompletelyreversethestudents’poorpreparationinhistorytheirlackofgeneralknowledgetheirnumbnesstotheoutsideworld.It’sthebaneofhistoryteachersateverylevel.WhenUniversityofVermontprofessorJamesLoewenaskedhisseniorsocialsciencemajorswhofoughtintheVietnamWar22percentansweredD.P.R.koreaandR.O.Korea.Don’tthesekidsevengotothemoviesOnthewaytoschoolCosgrove______.
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworldspopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howun-pleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsideringGermany15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders 1
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