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Anthropology is the study of human beings as creatures of society. It (1) its attention upon th...
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Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworld
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Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 6
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 12
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. 48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheirnewsneutralismarriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews.
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 20
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries—inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles—thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer. AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees."CoastofDreams"KevinStag’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse. Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse—gasemissions—afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport—meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout. ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012. Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate—letalonethefederalgovernment—tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction. WhydidMr.Schwarzeneggerseemtobeworkingonnothingelse
CollegesportsintheUnitedStatesareahugedeal.AlmostallmajorAmericanuniversitieshavefootballbaseballbasketballandhockeyprogramsand1millionsofdollarseachyeartosports.Mostofthemearnmillions2aswellintelevisionrevenuessponsorships.Theyalsobenefit3fromtheaddedpublicitytheygetviatheirteams.Big-nameuniversities4eachotherinthemostpopularsports.FootballgamesatMichiganregularly5crowdsofover20000.Basketball’snationalcollegiatechampionshipgameisaTV6onaparwithanyothersportingeventintheUnitedStates7perhapstheSuperBowlitself.Atanygiventimeduringfallorwinteronecan8one’sTVsetandseethetopathleticprograms—fromschoolslikeMichiganUCLADukeandStanford—9infrontofpackedhousesandnationalTVaudiences. Theathletesthemselvesare10andprovidedwithscholarships.Collegecoachesidentify11teenagersandthengointohighschoolsto12thecountry’sbestplayerstoattendtheiruniversities.Therearestrictrulesabout13coachescanrecruit—norecruitingcallsafter9p.m.onlyoneofficialvisittoacampus—buttheyareoftenbentandsometimes14.Topcollegefootballprograms15scholarshipsto20or30playerseachyearandthosestudent-athleteswhentheyarrive16campusreceivefreehousingtuitionmealsbooksetc. Inreturntheplayers17theprogramintheirsport.Footballplayersattopcolleges18twohoursadayfourdaysaweekfromJanuarytoApril.Insummerit’sbacktostrengthandagilitytrainingfourdaysaweekuntilmid-Augustwhencamp19andpreparationfortheopeningoftheSeptember-to-Decemberseasonbegins20.DuringtheseasonpracticeslasttwoorthreehoursadayfromTuesdaytoFriday.Saturdayisgameday.Mondaysareanofficiallymandateddayofrest. 18
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. 50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.
CollegesportsintheUnitedStatesareahugedeal.AlmostallmajorAmericanuniversitieshavefootballbaseballbasketballandhockeyprogramsand1millionsofdollarseachyeartosports.Mostofthemearnmillions2aswellintelevisionrevenuessponsorships.Theyalsobenefit3fromtheaddedpublicitytheygetviatheirteams.Big-nameuniversities4eachotherinthemostpopularsports.FootballgamesatMichiganregularly5crowdsofover20000.Basketball’snationalcollegiatechampionshipgameisaTV6onaparwithanyothersportingeventintheUnitedStates7perhapstheSuperBowlitself.Atanygiventimeduringfallorwinteronecan8one’sTVsetandseethetopathleticprograms—fromschoolslikeMichiganUCLADukeandStanford—9infrontofpackedhousesandnationalTVaudiences. Theathletesthemselvesare10andprovidedwithscholarships.Collegecoachesidentify11teenagersandthengointohighschoolsto12thecountry’sbestplayerstoattendtheiruniversities.Therearestrictrulesabout13coachescanrecruit—norecruitingcallsafter9p.m.onlyoneofficialvisittoacampus—buttheyareoftenbentandsometimes14.Topcollegefootballprograms15scholarshipsto20or30playerseachyearandthosestudent-athleteswhentheyarrive16campusreceivefreehousingtuitionmealsbooksetc. Inreturntheplayers17theprogramintheirsport.Footballplayersattopcolleges18twohoursadayfourdaysaweekfromJanuarytoApril.Insummerit’sbacktostrengthandagilitytrainingfourdaysaweekuntilmid-Augustwhencamp19andpreparationfortheopeningoftheSeptember-to-Decemberseasonbegins20.DuringtheseasonpracticeslasttwoorthreehoursadayfromTuesdaytoFriday.Saturdayisgameday.Mondaysareanofficiallymandateddayofrest. 14
Notmany25-year-oldscanreasonablyclaimtohavechangedtheworld.TheIBMpersonalcomputerwhichwaslaunchedin1981andcelebratesits25thbirthdayinAugustisarareexception.Otherpersonalcomputershadbeenlaunchedbefore;butitwastheIBMPCthatendedupdefiningthestandardaroundwhichavastnewindustrythencoalesced.IBMthetitanofthecomputingWorldatthetimequicklylostcontrolofitsowncreationallowingotherstoreapthebenefits.ButleaveasidewhatthePChasdoneforthefortunesofparticularcompaniesandinsteadstepbackandconsiderwhatthePChasdoneformankind. ThePC’smostobviousachievementhasbeentohelpmakecomputerscheapermorewidelyavailableandmoreusefulthaneverbefore.Beforeitappeareddifferentcomputersfromdifferentmanufacturersweremostlyincompatiblewitheachother.ThePC’sarchitecturewasnotperfectbutitsadoptionasanindustrystandardmadepossibleeconomiesofscaleinbothhardwareandsoftware.ThisinturnreducedpricesandenabledthePCtodemocratisecomputing. ButalthoughthePChasitsmeritsitalsohasitsfaults.Itsflexibilityhasprovedtobebothastrengthandaweakness:itencouragesinnovationbutatthecostofcomplexityreliabilityandsecurity.AndforpeopleinthedevelopingworldPCsaretoobulkyexpensiveandenergy-hungry.W.henitcomestoextendingthebenefitsofdigitaltechnology--chieflycheapandeasyaccesstoinformationtoeveryoneontheplanetthePCmaynotbethebesttoolforthejob. Lookonthestreetsofalmostanycityintheworldhoweverandyouwillseepeopleclutchingtinypocketcomputersbetterknownasmobilephones.Alreadyevenbasichandsetshavesimpleweb-browserscalculatorsandothercomputingfunctions.MobilephonesarecheapersimplerandmorereliablethanPCsandmarketforces--inparticularthecombinationofpie-paidbillingplansandmicrocreditschemes--arealreadyputtingthemintothehandsofeventheworld’spoorestpeople.InitiativestospreadPCsinthedevelopingworldincontrastrelyontop-downfundingfromgovernmentsoraidagenciesratherthanbottom-upadoptionbyconsumers. AllkindsoffirmsfromgiantssuchasGoogletostart-upssuchasCellBazaarareworkingtobringthefullbellefitsofthewebtomobilephones.ThereisnoquestionthatthePChasdemocratisedcomputingand-unleashedinnovationbutitisthemobilephonethatnowseemsmostlikelytocarrythedreamofthe"personalcomputer"toitsconclusion. WhydosetheauthorholdtheopinionthattheIBMpersonalcomputerisarareexception
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 14
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries—inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles—thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer. AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees."CoastofDreams"KevinStag’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse. Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse—gasemissions—afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport—meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout. ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012. Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate—letalonethefederalgovernment—tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction. JanetNapolitanoismentionedinthepassagetoshowthat
CollegesportsintheUnitedStatesareahugedeal.AlmostallmajorAmericanuniversitieshavefootballbaseballbasketballandhockeyprogramsand1millionsofdollarseachyeartosports.Mostofthemearnmillions2aswellintelevisionrevenuessponsorships.Theyalsobenefit3fromtheaddedpublicitytheygetviatheirteams.Big-nameuniversities4eachotherinthemostpopularsports.FootballgamesatMichiganregularly5crowdsofover20000.Basketball’snationalcollegiatechampionshipgameisaTV6onaparwithanyothersportingeventintheUnitedStates7perhapstheSuperBowlitself.Atanygiventimeduringfallorwinteronecan8one’sTVsetandseethetopathleticprograms—fromschoolslikeMichiganUCLADukeandStanford—9infrontofpackedhousesandnationalTVaudiences. Theathletesthemselvesare10andprovidedwithscholarships.Collegecoachesidentify11teenagersandthengointohighschoolsto12thecountry’sbestplayerstoattendtheiruniversities.Therearestrictrulesabout13coachescanrecruit—norecruitingcallsafter9p.m.onlyoneofficialvisittoacampus—buttheyareoftenbentandsometimes14.Topcollegefootballprograms15scholarshipsto20or30playerseachyearandthosestudent-athleteswhentheyarrive16campusreceivefreehousingtuitionmealsbooksetc. Inreturntheplayers17theprogramintheirsport.Footballplayersattopcolleges18twohoursadayfourdaysaweekfromJanuarytoApril.Insummerit’sbacktostrengthandagilitytrainingfourdaysaweekuntilmid-Augustwhencamp19andpreparationfortheopeningoftheSeptember-to-Decemberseasonbegins20.DuringtheseasonpracticeslasttwoorthreehoursadayfromTuesdaytoFriday.Saturdayisgameday.Mondaysareanofficiallymandateddayofrest. 20
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly 2interpretthephenomenonreflectedbyitandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
"Iwasjustlikeyou--I’thoughtIwasinvincible"saysAdamBlombergstandingbefore400studentsinadarkenedauditoriumatMiami’sCoralReefSeniorHighSchool.Aphotoofabloodiedandunconsciousteenagerabreathingtubeprotrudingfromhismouthflashesonthewall. "Thatwasme"hesays.There’sacollectivegaspbeforetheroomgrowssilentandBlomberg31ananesthesiologistwhotrainedatBrighamandWomen’sHospitalinBostonbeginsthestoryofwhathappenedonenightinFebruary1995. Hecreatedapresentationillustratingthedangersofbehavingirresponsiblyinacarfromnotbucklinguptospeedingtodrivingundertheinfluenceofalcoholanddrugs.Hetrackeddownphotosofteencrashvictimsfromthecenter’sarchivesthenincorporatedstatisticsandhisownexperience.HespokethefirsttimetoalocalBoyScouttroopandwassoongivinghistalk"ASurvivor’sStory"athighschoolsaroundthestate. TheBlombergfamilyhadreasontocelebrate.Adamhadfullyrecoveredandwasonhiswaytofulfillinghislifelongdreamofbecomingadoctor.ButinJanuary2000Blomberg’s22-year-oldstep-brotherMichaelwaskilledinacrashwhiledrivingtohisAtlantahomelateonenight.Hewasn’twearingaseatbelt.AftertheaccidentBlombergstoppedtellinghisstorytocrowdsrackedwithguiltoverhisinabilitytoreachMichael.IfBlomberghadfailedhisownbrotherhereasonedhowcouldhepossiblymakeadifferencetoaroomfulofstrangersRequestsfromschoolscontinuedtorollinbutheturneddowneveryone. ThenBlomberggotacallfromahighschoolcounselor.Ashestartedintohisstandardexcuse-lackoftime—helookedacrosstheroomatastackofthank-younotesfromstudentswhohadheardhimspeak.Herealizedthatkidsneededtohearwhathehadtosay.Heagreedtovisittheschoolandbegancontactingothersonthewaitinglistforhistalks. Blombergleavestheschoolhopinghehaschangedsomeone’sbehavior.Herecallsaletterhereceivedfromastudentwhoheardhimspeakandgotintoacrashlaterthatsamedaybutwasunharmed."Shetoldmeshewaswearingherseatbeltbecauseofme." Letterslikethisreinforcehisbeliefthathesurvivedtheaccidentforareason."Therearealotofphysiciansintheworldandweallsavelives"hesays."Ihaveaspecialopportunitytosavelivesnotjustasadoctorbutalsoasahumanbeing. Whydidtheauthorstopgivingspeechesforawhile
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 8
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 10
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 16
Notmany25-year-oldscanreasonablyclaimtohavechangedtheworld.TheIBMpersonalcomputerwhichwaslaunchedin1981andcelebratesits25thbirthdayinAugustisarareexception.Otherpersonalcomputershadbeenlaunchedbefore;butitwastheIBMPCthatendedupdefiningthestandardaroundwhichavastnewindustrythencoalesced.IBMthetitanofthecomputingWorldatthetimequicklylostcontrolofitsowncreationallowingotherstoreapthebenefits.ButleaveasidewhatthePChasdoneforthefortunesofparticularcompaniesandinsteadstepbackandconsiderwhatthePChasdoneformankind. ThePC’smostobviousachievementhasbeentohelpmakecomputerscheapermorewidelyavailableandmoreusefulthaneverbefore.Beforeitappeareddifferentcomputersfromdifferentmanufacturersweremostlyincompatiblewitheachother.ThePC’sarchitecturewasnotperfectbutitsadoptionasanindustrystandardmadepossibleeconomiesofscaleinbothhardwareandsoftware.ThisinturnreducedpricesandenabledthePCtodemocratisecomputing. ButalthoughthePChasitsmeritsitalsohasitsfaults.Itsflexibilityhasprovedtobebothastrengthandaweakness:itencouragesinnovationbutatthecostofcomplexityreliabilityandsecurity.AndforpeopleinthedevelopingworldPCsaretoobulkyexpensiveandenergy-hungry.W.henitcomestoextendingthebenefitsofdigitaltechnology--chieflycheapandeasyaccesstoinformationtoeveryoneontheplanetthePCmaynotbethebesttoolforthejob. Lookonthestreetsofalmostanycityintheworldhoweverandyouwillseepeopleclutchingtinypocketcomputersbetterknownasmobilephones.Alreadyevenbasichandsetshavesimpleweb-browserscalculatorsandothercomputingfunctions.MobilephonesarecheapersimplerandmorereliablethanPCsandmarketforces--inparticularthecombinationofpie-paidbillingplansandmicrocreditschemes--arealreadyputtingthemintothehandsofeventheworld’spoorestpeople.InitiativestospreadPCsinthedevelopingworldincontrastrelyontop-downfundingfromgovernmentsoraidagenciesratherthanbottom-upadoptionbyconsumers. AllkindsoffirmsfromgiantssuchasGoogletostart-upssuchasCellBazaarareworkingtobringthefullbellefitsofthewebtomobilephones.ThereisnoquestionthatthePChasdemocratisedcomputingand-unleashedinnovationbutitisthemobilephonethatnowseemsmostlikelytocarrythedreamofthe"personalcomputer"toitsconclusion. Whatistheauthor’sattitudetowardsmobilephone
Notmany25-year-oldscanreasonablyclaimtohavechangedtheworld.TheIBMpersonalcomputerwhichwaslaunchedin1981andcelebratesits25thbirthdayinAugustisarareexception.Otherpersonalcomputershadbeenlaunchedbefore;butitwastheIBMPCthatendedupdefiningthestandardaroundwhichavastnewindustrythencoalesced.IBMthetitanofthecomputingWorldatthetimequicklylostcontrolofitsowncreationallowingotherstoreapthebenefits.ButleaveasidewhatthePChasdoneforthefortunesofparticularcompaniesandinsteadstepbackandconsiderwhatthePChasdoneformankind. ThePC’smostobviousachievementhasbeentohelpmakecomputerscheapermorewidelyavailableandmoreusefulthaneverbefore.Beforeitappeareddifferentcomputersfromdifferentmanufacturersweremostlyincompatiblewitheachother.ThePC’sarchitecturewasnotperfectbutitsadoptionasanindustrystandardmadepossibleeconomiesofscaleinbothhardwareandsoftware.ThisinturnreducedpricesandenabledthePCtodemocratisecomputing. ButalthoughthePChasitsmeritsitalsohasitsfaults.Itsflexibilityhasprovedtobebothastrengthandaweakness:itencouragesinnovationbutatthecostofcomplexityreliabilityandsecurity.AndforpeopleinthedevelopingworldPCsaretoobulkyexpensiveandenergy-hungry.W.henitcomestoextendingthebenefitsofdigitaltechnology--chieflycheapandeasyaccesstoinformationtoeveryoneontheplanetthePCmaynotbethebesttoolforthejob. Lookonthestreetsofalmostanycityintheworldhoweverandyouwillseepeopleclutchingtinypocketcomputersbetterknownasmobilephones.Alreadyevenbasichandsetshavesimpleweb-browserscalculatorsandothercomputingfunctions.MobilephonesarecheapersimplerandmorereliablethanPCsandmarketforces--inparticularthecombinationofpie-paidbillingplansandmicrocreditschemes--arealreadyputtingthemintothehandsofeventheworld’spoorestpeople.InitiativestospreadPCsinthedevelopingworldincontrastrelyontop-downfundingfromgovernmentsoraidagenciesratherthanbottom-upadoptionbyconsumers. AllkindsoffirmsfromgiantssuchasGoogletostart-upssuchasCellBazaarareworkingtobringthefullbellefitsofthewebtomobilephones.ThereisnoquestionthatthePChasdemocratisedcomputingand-unleashedinnovationbutitisthemobilephonethatnowseemsmostlikelytocarrythedreamofthe"personalcomputer"toitsconclusion. Itcanbeinferredfromthethirdparagraphthat
Evenbeforecanaries特高频噪声werebroughtintocoalminestoalertworkerstothepresenceofpoisonousgasbirdsweregivingusearlywarningcallssignalingtheEarth’sdeterioratingenvironmentalhealth.Globalbirdpopulationshaveshrunkbyupto25%sincepreagricultural农业社会前的times.Overthepast300yearsfarmlandhasexpandedfromsixpercentoftheEarth’ssurfacetonearly33%. Todaythreequartersofthreatenedbirdspeciesdependonforestsastheirprincipalhabitat;eachyearhoweversome13000000hectaresofforestsaredestroyedanareathesizeofGreece.Nearlyhalfthewoodlandslostarerelativelyundisturbedprimaryforeststhatarehometoanumberofsensitivebirdsandothercreatures. Directexploitationincludinghuntingforfoodandcaptureforthepettradeisthesecondgreatestdangerafterhabitatlosswhilenextistheintentionaloraccidentalintroductionofnon-nativespecies.Aspeopletraveltoallpartsoftheglobesotoodothepestsandpetsthatpreyonout-competeoralterthehabitatofnativewildlife. Pollutionposesanadditionalriskaffecting12%ofthethreatenedbirdspecies.Inadditiontodirectpoisoningfromfertilizerandpesticideapplicationsrunoffofchemicalscontaminatesthewetlandsthatmigratingwaterfowlrelyon.Persistentorganicpollutantsaccumulateinthefoodchainandcanleadtodeformitiesreproductivefailureanddiseaseinbirds. Worldwideone-thirdofplantandanimalspeciescouldbecomeextinctby2050asaresultofclimatechangearelativelynewthreat.Globaltemperaturespikeshavebroughtseverealterationstothemigrationbreedingandhabitatrangesofsomebirds. Inadditiontotheseloomingdangerssevenpercentofthreatenedbirdspeciesareatriskfromincidentalmortality.Arapiddeclineinseabirdpopulationsoverthelast15yearscorrespondswiththegrowthincommerciallonglinefisheries.InEuropeCentralAsiaandAfricaelectrocutiononpowerlineshascausedthemassmortalityofraptors.Moreovercountlessbirdsdieeachyearfromcollisionswithwindowsthenumber-onecauseofU.S.avianmortality. Ifbirdsdisappearsodotheeconomicallyvaluableservicestheyprovide.Preventingtheextinctionofadditionalbirdpopulationsdependslargelyonprotectingtheworld’sremainingwildspacesandpreservingthehealthofournaturalandalteredecosystems. Reportsthattheivory-billedwoodpeckerlongthoughttobeextinctisstillwithusthrilledbirdwatchersandothersbutthissortofsecondchanceseldomoccursinnature.Evenwithcontinuedhabitatprotectiononcewildlifepopulationsdropdramaticallyareboundisfarfromguaranteed.Withoutstabilizingclimateandhumannumbersputtingfencesaroundalltheparksintheworldwillnotlieenoughtoprotectthreatenedspecies. Whichofthefollowingisnottrueofthetext
"Iwasjustlikeyou--I’thoughtIwasinvincible"saysAdamBlombergstandingbefore400studentsinadarkenedauditoriumatMiami’sCoralReefSeniorHighSchool.Aphotoofabloodiedandunconsciousteenagerabreathingtubeprotrudingfromhismouthflashesonthewall. "Thatwasme"hesays.There’sacollectivegaspbeforetheroomgrowssilentandBlomberg31ananesthesiologistwhotrainedatBrighamandWomen’sHospitalinBostonbeginsthestoryofwhathappenedonenightinFebruary1995. Hecreatedapresentationillustratingthedangersofbehavingirresponsiblyinacarfromnotbucklinguptospeedingtodrivingundertheinfluenceofalcoholanddrugs.Hetrackeddownphotosofteencrashvictimsfromthecenter’sarchivesthenincorporatedstatisticsandhisownexperience.HespokethefirsttimetoalocalBoyScouttroopandwassoongivinghistalk"ASurvivor’sStory"athighschoolsaroundthestate. TheBlombergfamilyhadreasontocelebrate.Adamhadfullyrecoveredandwasonhiswaytofulfillinghislifelongdreamofbecomingadoctor.ButinJanuary2000Blomberg’s22-year-oldstep-brotherMichaelwaskilledinacrashwhiledrivingtohisAtlantahomelateonenight.Hewasn’twearingaseatbelt.AftertheaccidentBlombergstoppedtellinghisstorytocrowdsrackedwithguiltoverhisinabilitytoreachMichael.IfBlomberghadfailedhisownbrotherhereasonedhowcouldhepossiblymakeadifferencetoaroomfulofstrangersRequestsfromschoolscontinuedtorollinbutheturneddowneveryone. ThenBlomberggotacallfromahighschoolcounselor.Ashestartedintohisstandardexcuse-lackoftime—helookedacrosstheroomatastackofthank-younotesfromstudentswhohadheardhimspeak.Herealizedthatkidsneededtohearwhathehadtosay.Heagreedtovisittheschoolandbegancontactingothersonthewaitinglistforhistalks. Blombergleavestheschoolhopinghehaschangedsomeone’sbehavior.Herecallsaletterhereceivedfromastudentwhoheardhimspeakandgotintoacrashlaterthatsamedaybutwasunharmed."Shetoldmeshewaswearingherseatbeltbecauseofme." Letterslikethisreinforcehisbeliefthathesurvivedtheaccidentforareason."Therearealotofphysiciansintheworldandweallsavelives"hesays."Ihaveaspecialopportunitytosavelivesnotjustasadoctorbutalsoasahumanbeing. Thewordinvinciblemostprobablymeans
Evenbeforecanaries特高频噪声werebroughtintocoalminestoalertworkerstothepresenceofpoisonousgasbirdsweregivingusearlywarningcallssignalingtheEarth’sdeterioratingenvironmentalhealth.Globalbirdpopulationshaveshrunkbyupto25%sincepreagricultural农业社会前的times.Overthepast300yearsfarmlandhasexpandedfromsixpercentoftheEarth’ssurfacetonearly33%. Todaythreequartersofthreatenedbirdspeciesdependonforestsastheirprincipalhabitat;eachyearhoweversome13000000hectaresofforestsaredestroyedanareathesizeofGreece.Nearlyhalfthewoodlandslostarerelativelyundisturbedprimaryforeststhatarehometoanumberofsensitivebirdsandothercreatures. Directexploitationincludinghuntingforfoodandcaptureforthepettradeisthesecondgreatestdangerafterhabitatlosswhilenextistheintentionaloraccidentalintroductionofnon-nativespecies.Aspeopletraveltoallpartsoftheglobesotoodothepestsandpetsthatpreyonout-competeoralterthehabitatofnativewildlife. Pollutionposesanadditionalriskaffecting12%ofthethreatenedbirdspecies.Inadditiontodirectpoisoningfromfertilizerandpesticideapplicationsrunoffofchemicalscontaminatesthewetlandsthatmigratingwaterfowlrelyon.Persistentorganicpollutantsaccumulateinthefoodchainandcanleadtodeformitiesreproductivefailureanddiseaseinbirds. Worldwideone-thirdofplantandanimalspeciescouldbecomeextinctby2050asaresultofclimatechangearelativelynewthreat.Globaltemperaturespikeshavebroughtseverealterationstothemigrationbreedingandhabitatrangesofsomebirds. Inadditiontotheseloomingdangerssevenpercentofthreatenedbirdspeciesareatriskfromincidentalmortality.Arapiddeclineinseabirdpopulationsoverthelast15yearscorrespondswiththegrowthincommerciallonglinefisheries.InEuropeCentralAsiaandAfricaelectrocutiononpowerlineshascausedthemassmortalityofraptors.Moreovercountlessbirdsdieeachyearfromcollisionswithwindowsthenumber-onecauseofU.S.avianmortality. Ifbirdsdisappearsodotheeconomicallyvaluableservicestheyprovide.Preventingtheextinctionofadditionalbirdpopulationsdependslargelyonprotectingtheworld’sremainingwildspacesandpreservingthehealthofournaturalandalteredecosystems. Reportsthattheivory-billedwoodpeckerlongthoughttobeextinctisstillwithusthrilledbirdwatchersandothersbutthissortofsecondchanceseldomoccursinnature.Evenwithcontinuedhabitatprotectiononcewildlifepopulationsdropdramaticallyareboundisfarfromguaranteed.Withoutstabilizingclimateandhumannumbersputtingfencesaroundalltheparksintheworldwillnotlieenoughtoprotectthreatenedspecies. Byintroducingtheexampleoftheivory-billedwoodpeckertheauthorintendsto
CollegesportsintheUnitedStatesareahugedeal.AlmostallmajorAmericanuniversitieshavefootballbaseballbasketballandhockeyprogramsand1millionsofdollarseachyeartosports.Mostofthemearnmillions2aswellintelevisionrevenuessponsorships.Theyalsobenefit3fromtheaddedpublicitytheygetviatheirteams.Big-nameuniversities4eachotherinthemostpopularsports.FootballgamesatMichiganregularly5crowdsofover20000.Basketball’snationalcollegiatechampionshipgameisaTV6onaparwithanyothersportingeventintheUnitedStates7perhapstheSuperBowlitself.Atanygiventimeduringfallorwinteronecan8one’sTVsetandseethetopathleticprograms—fromschoolslikeMichiganUCLADukeandStanford—9infrontofpackedhousesandnationalTVaudiences. Theathletesthemselvesare10andprovidedwithscholarships.Collegecoachesidentify11teenagersandthengointohighschoolsto12thecountry’sbestplayerstoattendtheiruniversities.Therearestrictrulesabout13coachescanrecruit—norecruitingcallsafter9p.m.onlyoneofficialvisittoacampus—buttheyareoftenbentandsometimes14.Topcollegefootballprograms15scholarshipsto20or30playerseachyearandthosestudent-athleteswhentheyarrive16campusreceivefreehousingtuitionmealsbooksetc. Inreturntheplayers17theprogramintheirsport.Footballplayersattopcolleges18twohoursadayfourdaysaweekfromJanuarytoApril.Insummerit’sbacktostrengthandagilitytrainingfourdaysaweekuntilmid-Augustwhencamp19andpreparationfortheopeningoftheSeptember-to-Decemberseasonbegins20.DuringtheseasonpracticeslasttwoorthreehoursadayfromTuesdaytoFriday.Saturdayisgameday.Mondaysareanofficiallymandateddayofrest. 16
[A]Knightacknowledgesthechallenge."Wehavetobebeautifulaswellasbig.It’snomeanfeat"saysScottBedburyformerglobaladchiefforNike."TheworsteasescenariowouldbetobecomeMicrosoft"saysKevinKelleramarketingprofessoratDuke.Bestease:belikeCoea-Cola."They’reeverywherebutnooneseemstoresentthemforit." [B]OneansweristoplaydowntheSwooshandsomeNikewatcherssayitwilldojustthat.NikeismarketingnewproductsincludingitsACGAllConditionGearlineforhikingandoutdoorstyles. [C]LastweekwasparticularlyglumatNike’sheadquartersinsuburbanPortland.Managershadwarnedoflayoffsbuthadn’trevealedanynames.OnWednesday250employeesweretoldtopackuptheirdeskswhilestunnedcolleagueslookedon. [D]PhilKnightdoesn’tspeakinpublicveryoften.Andwhenyouhearfromhimthesedayshedoesn’tsoundhappy.TalkingtoWallStreetanalystsfromhisOregonheadquarterslastweekthefounderandheadofNikeInc.didn’tmincewords:"Thisisadarkdayaroundthesehalls." [E]YetNikeisnowfacingamarketingconundrum:canyoubebigandcoolWhenTeenageResearchUnlimiteddiditslatestsurvey40percentofkidsnamedNikeasoneofthe"coolest"brandsdownfrom52percentjustsixmonthsago.KimHostetlerofPaperaNewYorkmagazinesaysthatthecoolestthingsaroundnowarebrilliantlycoloredsuedesneakersbyNewBalance.EvenAdidastorpedoedbyNikeandReebokinthe[980sisstagingacomeback. [F]Knight’sproblemswouldworryanyCEO:astockpricethathasslidtothebottomfromthetopaplungeinprofitsandwarehouseslullofshoesthataren’tselling.ButmostcriticalisapricewarthathasslicedU.S.salesandisasignthatNike’slockasthechampionof"cool"maybeweakening.AlthoughNikepridesitselfontechnicalinnovationlosingitscoolwouldbetantamounttolosingthegame. [G]Atmostcorporateofficesthatscenethoughpainfulwouldn’tbecataclysmicbutforKnightandhisemployeesevenasetbackbearstheagonyofdefeat.Nikeroseaboutashighandfastinthe1990sasanycompanycan.IttookonanewreligionofbrandconsciousnessandbrokeadvertisingsoundbarrierswithitsindelibleSwoosh"JustDoIt"slogananddeifiedsportsfigures.Nikemanagedthedeftestofmarketingtricks:tobebothanti-establishmentandmassmarkettothetuneof$2billioninsaleslastyear. Order: [D]→41.______→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→[B] 44
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 18
"Iwasjustlikeyou--I’thoughtIwasinvincible"saysAdamBlombergstandingbefore400studentsinadarkenedauditoriumatMiami’sCoralReefSeniorHighSchool.Aphotoofabloodiedandunconsciousteenagerabreathingtubeprotrudingfromhismouthflashesonthewall. "Thatwasme"hesays.There’sacollectivegaspbeforetheroomgrowssilentandBlomberg31ananesthesiologistwhotrainedatBrighamandWomen’sHospitalinBostonbeginsthestoryofwhathappenedonenightinFebruary1995. Hecreatedapresentationillustratingthedangersofbehavingirresponsiblyinacarfromnotbucklinguptospeedingtodrivingundertheinfluenceofalcoholanddrugs.Hetrackeddownphotosofteencrashvictimsfromthecenter’sarchivesthenincorporatedstatisticsandhisownexperience.HespokethefirsttimetoalocalBoyScouttroopandwassoongivinghistalk"ASurvivor’sStory"athighschoolsaroundthestate. TheBlombergfamilyhadreasontocelebrate.Adamhadfullyrecoveredandwasonhiswaytofulfillinghislifelongdreamofbecomingadoctor.ButinJanuary2000Blomberg’s22-year-oldstep-brotherMichaelwaskilledinacrashwhiledrivingtohisAtlantahomelateonenight.Hewasn’twearingaseatbelt.AftertheaccidentBlombergstoppedtellinghisstorytocrowdsrackedwithguiltoverhisinabilitytoreachMichael.IfBlomberghadfailedhisownbrotherhereasonedhowcouldhepossiblymakeadifferencetoaroomfulofstrangersRequestsfromschoolscontinuedtorollinbutheturneddowneveryone. ThenBlomberggotacallfromahighschoolcounselor.Ashestartedintohisstandardexcuse-lackoftime—helookedacrosstheroomatastackofthank-younotesfromstudentswhohadheardhimspeak.Herealizedthatkidsneededtohearwhathehadtosay.Heagreedtovisittheschoolandbegancontactingothersonthewaitinglistforhistalks. Blombergleavestheschoolhopinghehaschangedsomeone’sbehavior.Herecallsaletterhereceivedfromastudentwhoheardhimspeakandgotintoacrashlaterthatsamedaybutwasunharmed."Shetoldmeshewaswearingherseatbeltbecauseofme." Letterslikethisreinforcehisbeliefthathesurvivedtheaccidentforareason."Therearealotofphysiciansintheworldandweallsavelives"hesays."Ihaveaspecialopportunitytosavelivesnotjustasadoctorbutalsoasahumanbeing. Whichoneofthefollowingisthebesttitleforthispassage
[A]Knightacknowledgesthechallenge."Wehavetobebeautifulaswellasbig.It’snomeanfeat"saysScottBedburyformerglobaladchiefforNike."TheworsteasescenariowouldbetobecomeMicrosoft"saysKevinKelleramarketingprofessoratDuke.Bestease:belikeCoea-Cola."They’reeverywherebutnooneseemstoresentthemforit." [B]OneansweristoplaydowntheSwooshandsomeNikewatcherssayitwilldojustthat.NikeismarketingnewproductsincludingitsACGAllConditionGearlineforhikingandoutdoorstyles. [C]LastweekwasparticularlyglumatNike’sheadquartersinsuburbanPortland.Managershadwarnedoflayoffsbuthadn’trevealedanynames.OnWednesday250employeesweretoldtopackuptheirdeskswhilestunnedcolleagueslookedon. [D]PhilKnightdoesn’tspeakinpublicveryoften.Andwhenyouhearfromhimthesedayshedoesn’tsoundhappy.TalkingtoWallStreetanalystsfromhisOregonheadquarterslastweekthefounderandheadofNikeInc.didn’tmincewords:"Thisisadarkdayaroundthesehalls." [E]YetNikeisnowfacingamarketingconundrum:canyoubebigandcoolWhenTeenageResearchUnlimiteddiditslatestsurvey40percentofkidsnamedNikeasoneofthe"coolest"brandsdownfrom52percentjustsixmonthsago.KimHostetlerofPaperaNewYorkmagazinesaysthatthecoolestthingsaroundnowarebrilliantlycoloredsuedesneakersbyNewBalance.EvenAdidastorpedoedbyNikeandReebokinthe[980sisstagingacomeback. [F]Knight’sproblemswouldworryanyCEO:astockpricethathasslidtothebottomfromthetopaplungeinprofitsandwarehouseslullofshoesthataren’tselling.ButmostcriticalisapricewarthathasslicedU.S.salesandisasignthatNike’slockasthechampionof"cool"maybeweakening.AlthoughNikepridesitselfontechnicalinnovationlosingitscoolwouldbetantamounttolosingthegame. [G]Atmostcorporateofficesthatscenethoughpainfulwouldn’tbecataclysmicbutforKnightandhisemployeesevenasetbackbearstheagonyofdefeat.Nikeroseaboutashighandfastinthe1990sasanycompanycan.IttookonanewreligionofbrandconsciousnessandbrokeadvertisingsoundbarrierswithitsindelibleSwoosh"JustDoIt"slogananddeifiedsportsfigures.Nikemanagedthedeftestofmarketingtricks:tobebothanti-establishmentandmassmarkettothetuneof$2billioninsaleslastyear. Order: [D]→41.______→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→[B] 42
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 4
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 2
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