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1930年，__撰写《反对本本主义》一文，主要批判了
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1930年__在反对本本主义一文中首次提出了从斗争中创造新局面的思想路线的科学命题从而初步界定了党
照抄照搬
从主观想象出发
从实际出发
本本主义
__所写反对本本主义一文所反对的主要错误倾向是
官僚主义
资本主义
经验主义
__
__所写的反对本本主义一文所反对的主要错误倾向是
投降主义
经验主义
__
官僚主义
__在反对本本主义一文中所反对的主要错误倾向是
宗派主义
经验主义
__
冒险主义
1930年5月__在反对本本主义一文中阐明了坚持辩证唯物主义的思想路线即坚持理论与实际相结合的原则
“没有调查，没有发言权”
“不做正确的调查同样没有发言权”
“中国革命斗争的胜利要靠中国同志了解中国情况”
“马克思主义的中国化，使之在其每一表现中带着中国的特性”
1930年5月__写的反对本本主义一文鲜明表达了实事求是和独立自主的根本观点__思想活的灵魂已略
统一战线
农村包围城市
群众路线
武装夺取政权
__在一文中提出了没有调查没有发言权的著名论断
《反对本本主义》
《实践论》
《矛盾论》
1930年5月__写的反对本本主义一文鲜明地表达了实事求是和独立自主的根本观点__思想活的灵魂已
统一战线
农村包围城市
群众路线
武装夺取政权
1930年5月__撰写的反对本本主义提出马克思主义的本本主义是要学习的但是必须同中国的实际情况相结
1930年5月__在反对本本主义一文中批判了__
__在一文中提出了没有调查没有发言权的著名论断
《反对本本主义》
《实践论》
《矛盾论》
1930年5月__写的反对本本主义一文鲜明表达了实事求是和独立自主的根本观点__思想活的灵魂已略
统一战线
武装夺取政权
群众路线
农村包围城市
1930年5月__写的反对本本主义一文鲜明表达了实事_____和独立自主的根本观点__思想活的灵
统一战线
农村包围城市
群众路线
武装夺取政权
__写的反对本本主义一文反对的主要错误倾向是
投降主义
经验主义
__
官僚主义
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Theimmunesystemisequalincomplexitytothecombinedintricaciesofthebrainandnervoussystem.Thesuccessoftheimmunesystemindefendingthebodyreliesonadynamicregulatorycommunicationsnetworkconsistingofmillionsandmillionsofcells.Organizedintosetsandsubsetsthesecellspassinformationbackandforthlikecloudsofbeesswarmingaroundahive.Theresultisasensitivesystemofchecksandbalancesthatproducesanimmuneresponsethatispromptappropriateeffectiveandself-limiting. Attheheartoftheimmunesystemistheabilitytodistinguishbetweenselfandnon-self.Whenimmunedefendersencountercellsororganismscarryingforeignornon-selfmoleculestheimmunetroopsmovequicklytoeliminatetheinvaders.Virtuallyeverybodycellcarriesdistinctivemoleculesthatidentifyitasself.Thebody’’simmunedefensesdonotnormallyattacktissuesthatcarryaselfmarker.Ratherimmunecellsandotherbodycellscoexistpeaceablyinastateknownasself-tolerance.Whenanormallyfunctioningimmunesystemattacksanon-selfmoleculethesystemhastheabilitytorememberthespecificsoftheforeignbody.Uponsubsequentencounterswiththesamespeciesofmoleculestheimmunesystemreactsaccordingly.Withthepossibleexceptionofantibodiespassedduringlactation哺乳期thisso-calledimmunesystemmemoryisnotinherited.Despitetheoccurrenceofavirusinyourfamilyyourimmunesystemmustlearnfromexperiencewiththemanymillionsofdistinctivenon-selfmoleculesintheseaofmicrobesinwhichwelive.Learningnecessitatesproducingtheappropriatemoleculesandcellstomatchupwithandcounteracteachnon-selfinvader. Anysubstancecapableofstimulatinganimmuneresponseiscalledanantigen.Tissuesorcellsfromanotherindividualexceptanidenticaltwinwhosecellscarryidenticalself-markersactasantigens;becausetheimmunesystemrecognizestransplantedtissuesasforeignitrejectsthem.Thebodywillevenrejectnourishingproteinsunlesstheyarefirstbrokendownbythedigestivesystemintotheirprimarynon-antigenicbuildingblocks.Anantigenannouncesitsforeignnessbymeansofintricateandcharacteristicshapescalledepitopes抗原决定基whichstickoutfromitssurface.Mostantigenseventhesimplestmicrobescarryseveraldifferentkindsofepitopesontheirsurfacesomemayevencarryseveralhundred.Someepitopeswillbemoreeffectivethanothersatstimulatinganimmuneresponse.Onlyinabnormalsituationsdoestheimmunesystemwronglyidentifyselfasnon-selfandexecuteamisdirectedimmuneattack.Theresultcanbeso-calledautoimmunedisease.Thepainfulsideeffectsofthesediseasesarecausedbyaperson’’simmunesystemactuallyattackingitself Weknowfromthetextthattheimmunesystem
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Theimmunesystemisequalincomplexitytothecombinedintricaciesofthebrainandnervoussystem.Thesuccessoftheimmunesystemindefendingthebodyreliesonadynamicregulatorycommunicationsnetworkconsistingofmillionsandmillionsofcells.Organizedintosetsandsubsetsthesecellspassinformationbackandforthlikecloudsofbeesswarmingaroundahive.Theresultisasensitivesystemofchecksandbalancesthatproducesanimmuneresponsethatispromptappropriateeffectiveandself-limiting. Attheheartoftheimmunesystemistheabilitytodistinguishbetweenselfandnon-self.Whenimmunedefendersencountercellsororganismscarryingforeignornon-selfmoleculestheimmunetroopsmovequicklytoeliminatetheinvaders.Virtuallyeverybodycellcarriesdistinctivemoleculesthatidentifyitasself.Thebody’’simmunedefensesdonotnormallyattacktissuesthatcarryaselfmarker.Ratherimmunecellsandotherbodycellscoexistpeaceablyinastateknownasself-tolerance.Whenanormallyfunctioningimmunesystemattacksanon-selfmoleculethesystemhastheabilitytorememberthespecificsoftheforeignbody.Uponsubsequentencounterswiththesamespeciesofmoleculestheimmunesystemreactsaccordingly.Withthepossibleexceptionofantibodiespassedduringlactation哺乳期thisso-calledimmunesystemmemoryisnotinherited.Despitetheoccurrenceofavirusinyourfamilyyourimmunesystemmustlearnfromexperiencewiththemanymillionsofdistinctivenon-selfmoleculesintheseaofmicrobesinwhichwelive.Learningnecessitatesproducingtheappropriatemoleculesandcellstomatchupwithandcounteracteachnon-selfinvader. Anysubstancecapableofstimulatinganimmuneresponseiscalledanantigen.Tissuesorcellsfromanotherindividualexceptanidenticaltwinwhosecellscarryidenticalself-markersactasantigens;becausetheimmunesystemrecognizestransplantedtissuesasforeignitrejectsthem.Thebodywillevenrejectnourishingproteinsunlesstheyarefirstbrokendownbythedigestivesystemintotheirprimarynon-antigenicbuildingblocks.Anantigenannouncesitsforeignnessbymeansofintricateandcharacteristicshapescalledepitopes抗原决定基whichstickoutfromitssurface.Mostantigenseventhesimplestmicrobescarryseveraldifferentkindsofepitopesontheirsurfacesomemayevencarryseveralhundred.Someepitopeswillbemoreeffectivethanothersatstimulatinganimmuneresponse.Onlyinabnormalsituationsdoestheimmunesystemwronglyidentifyselfasnon-selfandexecuteamisdirectedimmuneattack.Theresultcanbeso-calledautoimmunedisease.Thepainfulsideeffectsofthesediseasesarecausedbyaperson’’simmunesystemactuallyattackingitself Themainideaofthetextmaybegeneralizedas
71．Whiletherearealmostasmanydefinitionsofhistoryastherearehistoriansmodernpracticemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesignificanteventsofthepast.Caughtinthewebofitsowntimeandplaceeachgenerationofhistoriansdeterminesanewwhatissignificantforitinthepast.Inthissearchtheevidencefoundisalwaysincompleteandscattereditisalsofrequentlypartialorpartisan.Theironyofthehistorian’’scraftisthatitsractitionersalwaysknowthattheireffortsarebutcontributionstoanunendingprocess. 72．Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasanintellectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.Whilehistoryoncerevereditsaffinitytoliteratureandphilosophytheemergingsocialsciencesseemedtoaffordgreateropportunitiesforaskingnewquestionsandprovidingrewardingapproachestoanunderstandingofthepast.Socialsciencemethodologieshadtobeadaptedtoadisciplinegovernedbytheprimacyofhistoricalsourcesratherthantheimperativesofthecontemporaryworld. 73．Duringthistransfertraditionalhistoricalmethodswereaugmentedbyadditionalmethodologiesdesignedtointerpretthenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalstudy. Methodologyisatermthatremainsinherentlyambiguousinthehistoricalprofession.74．Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Historiansespeciallythosesoblindedbytheirresearchintereststhattheyhavebeenaccusedoftunnelmethodfrequentlyfallvictimtothetechnicistfallacy.Alsocommoninthenaturalsciencesthetechnicistfallacymistakenlyidentifiesthedisciplineasawholewithcertainpartsofitstechnicalimplementation.75．Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsourcesandtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecifictechniques.
材料1 不出几年中国就会成为世界上经济规模最大的国家而且它正朝着成为一个令人生畏的军事大国的方向迈进中国是一个未得到满足的雄心勃勃的大国它的目标是支配亚洲其办法不是入侵和占领邻国而是使自己远比邻过强大从而使东亚发生的一切都必须至少得到中国的默许 ——摘自理查德伯恩施坦罗斯芒罗即将到来的中美冲突 材料2 中国现行的政治和经济制度最多只能维持五年中国经济开始崩溃时间会在208年举办奥运会之前经济的混乱蔓延到社会而政治的混乱发展到一定程度是中国的经济与中共政权将同时崩溃 ——摘自章家敦中国即将崩溃 材料3 西方国家不管是以经济还是军事方面的威胁为由阻止中国选择在世界经济体制中同其共同生存共同发展的道路对和平繁荣来说都是一个极大的不幸不管怎样都应该使中国成为世界经济中的一员强国拥有强大的军事力量和经济力量本身并不构成威胁问题在于是否把拥有的强大力量作为威胁的手段 ——摘自朝鲜日报 请回答 1材料1是什么观点你有什么看法 2材料2是什么观点你有什么看法 3谈谈材料3的观点与材料1观点的不同之处
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Ahistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicapbutifproperlyhandleditmaybecomeadrivingforce.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarithadamarketeighttimeslargerthananycompetitorgivingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld’’sbestitsworkerswerethemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed. Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitablytheretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid-1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustriessuchasconsumerelectronicshadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericantelevisionmakerleftZenith.Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea’’sLGElectronicsinJuly.Foreign-madecarsandtextilesweresweepingintothedomesticmarket.America’’smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.ForawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductorswhichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputeragewasgoingtobethenextcasualty. Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofdoingbusinesswasfailingandthattheirincomeswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica’’sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas. Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Self-doubthasyieldedtoblindpride.Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructurehasgoneonadiethaslearnttobemorequick-wittedaccordingtoRichardCavanaghexecutivedeanofHarvard’’sKennedySchoolofGovernment.ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivitysaysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstituteathink-tankinWashingtonD.C.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodasagoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates. Whatcanbeinferredfromthepassage
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
U.S.prisonsarefilledwithdrugoffenders;thenumberofprisonerstripledoverthepast20yearstonearly2millionwith60to70percenttestingpositiveforsubstanceabuseonarrest.Thecountryhasspentbillionsofdollarsattackingtheproblematitsroots.Butthereisgrowingconsensusthatthewarondrughasbeenlost.TheUnitedStatesisstilltheworld’’slargestconsumerofillegalsubstances;cocainecontinuestopourovertheborderfromMexico.Traffictapsintothenationalfrustrationdepictingthehorrorsofbothdrugsandthedrugwar.WithouttakingsidesthefilmilluminatesthenationaldebateandposesonalternativethatAmericansseemincreasinglywillingtoconsider:findingnewwaystotreatratherthanmerelypunishdrugabuse. Policyrevolutions―likelegalizingnarcoticsdrugsproducingsleeporinsensibility―remainadistantdream.ButthereisgrowingpublicawarenessthatthemoneyandenergywastedontryingtochecktheflowofdrugsintotheUnitedStatesmightbebetterspentontryingtocontroldemandinstead.Votersinseveralstatesarefaraheadofthepoliticiansapprovingballotinitiativesthatoffermoretreatmentopinions.Drugscourtsthatallowjudgestousecarrotsandstickstocompelsubstance-abusetreatmenthavegrownfifty-foldsincethemid-1990spartofanewunderstandingthatevenwithfrequentrelapsesreturnstoaformalstatetreatmentismuchlessexpensiveforsocietythanjailandban. Drugaddictionisincreasinglybeingviewedasmoreadiseasethanacrime.Scienceisyieldingcluesaboutthehedonicofpleasureregionofthebrainwhilebreakthroughmedicationsandgreaterunderstandingofthemental-healthproblemsthatunderliemanyaddictionsaregivingtherapistsnewtools. OfficialsacrosstheContinenthavealreadybegunshiftingtheirfocusfrompreventingdrugflowtorehabilitatingmakingabletoliveanormallifeagaindrugusers.ThenewEuropeanUnionDrugsStrategyfor2000-2004makesacommitmenttoincreasingthenumberofsuccessfullytreatedaddicts.GemanyItalyandLuxembourghavetransferredresponsibilityfordrugpolicyfromtheirMinistriesoftheInteriortotheMinistriesofHealthorSocialAffairs.InBritainthegovernmenthassetupaNationalTreatmentAgencytocoordinatetheeffortsofsocial-serviceagenciesandtheDepartmentofHealth.Anddrug-preventionandsupportagenciestherearegettingabout30percentmorefundingthisyear.Changingthemainnationalstrategyfromattackingdrugpusherstorehabilitatingaddictswon’’tcomeeasy.ButslowlysteadilyAmericanslikeEuropeansseemdeterminedtotry. Thereseemstobegrowingawarenessof
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Theimmunesystemisequalincomplexitytothecombinedintricaciesofthebrainandnervoussystem.Thesuccessoftheimmunesystemindefendingthebodyreliesonadynamicregulatorycommunicationsnetworkconsistingofmillionsandmillionsofcells.Organizedintosetsandsubsetsthesecellspassinformationbackandforthlikecloudsofbeesswarmingaroundahive.Theresultisasensitivesystemofchecksandbalancesthatproducesanimmuneresponsethatispromptappropriateeffectiveandself-limiting. Attheheartoftheimmunesystemistheabilitytodistinguishbetweenselfandnon-self.Whenimmunedefendersencountercellsororganismscarryingforeignornon-selfmoleculestheimmunetroopsmovequicklytoeliminatetheinvaders.Virtuallyeverybodycellcarriesdistinctivemoleculesthatidentifyitasself.Thebody’’simmunedefensesdonotnormallyattacktissuesthatcarryaselfmarker.Ratherimmunecellsandotherbodycellscoexistpeaceablyinastateknownasself-tolerance.Whenanormallyfunctioningimmunesystemattacksanon-selfmoleculethesystemhastheabilitytorememberthespecificsoftheforeignbody.Uponsubsequentencounterswiththesamespeciesofmoleculestheimmunesystemreactsaccordingly.Withthepossibleexceptionofantibodiespassedduringlactation哺乳期thisso-calledimmunesystemmemoryisnotinherited.Despitetheoccurrenceofavirusinyourfamilyyourimmunesystemmustlearnfromexperiencewiththemanymillionsofdistinctivenon-selfmoleculesintheseaofmicrobesinwhichwelive.Learningnecessitatesproducingtheappropriatemoleculesandcellstomatchupwithandcounteracteachnon-selfinvader. Anysubstancecapableofstimulatinganimmuneresponseiscalledanantigen.Tissuesorcellsfromanotherindividualexceptanidenticaltwinwhosecellscarryidenticalself-markersactasantigens;becausetheimmunesystemrecognizestransplantedtissuesasforeignitrejectsthem.Thebodywillevenrejectnourishingproteinsunlesstheyarefirstbrokendownbythedigestivesystemintotheirprimarynon-antigenicbuildingblocks.Anantigenannouncesitsforeignnessbymeansofintricateandcharacteristicshapescalledepitopes抗原决定基whichstickoutfromitssurface.Mostantigenseventhesimplestmicrobescarryseveraldifferentkindsofepitopesontheirsurfacesomemayevencarryseveralhundred.Someepitopeswillbemoreeffectivethanothersatstimulatinganimmuneresponse.Onlyinabnormalsituationsdoestheimmunesystemwronglyidentifyselfasnon-selfandexecuteamisdirectedimmuneattack.Theresultcanbeso-calledautoimmunedisease.Thepainfulsideeffectsofthesediseasesarecausedbyaperson’’simmunesystemactuallyattackingitself Atissuetransplantedfromfathertodaughterwouldbelessacceptablethanthattransplantedbetweentwinsbecause
71．Whiletherearealmostasmanydefinitionsofhistoryastherearehistoriansmodernpracticemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesignificanteventsofthepast.Caughtinthewebofitsowntimeandplaceeachgenerationofhistoriansdeterminesanewwhatissignificantforitinthepast.Inthissearchtheevidencefoundisalwaysincompleteandscattereditisalsofrequentlypartialorpartisan.Theironyofthehistorian’’scraftisthatitsractitionersalwaysknowthattheireffortsarebutcontributionstoanunendingprocess. 72．Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasanintellectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.Whilehistoryoncerevereditsaffinitytoliteratureandphilosophytheemergingsocialsciencesseemedtoaffordgreateropportunitiesforaskingnewquestionsandprovidingrewardingapproachestoanunderstandingofthepast.Socialsciencemethodologieshadtobeadaptedtoadisciplinegovernedbytheprimacyofhistoricalsourcesratherthantheimperativesofthecontemporaryworld. 73．Duringthistransfertraditionalhistoricalmethodswereaugmentedbyadditionalmethodologiesdesignedtointerpretthenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalstudy. Methodologyisatermthatremainsinherentlyambiguousinthehistoricalprofession.74．Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Historiansespeciallythosesoblindedbytheirresearchintereststhattheyhavebeenaccusedoftunnelmethodfrequentlyfallvictimtothetechnicistfallacy.Alsocommoninthenaturalsciencesthetechnicistfallacymistakenlyidentifiesthedisciplineasawholewithcertainpartsofitstechnicalimplementation.75．Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsourcesandtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecifictechniques.
WiththestartofBBCWorldServiceTelevisionmillionsofviewersinAsiaandAmericacannowwatchtheCorporation’’snewscoverageaswellaslistentoit. AndofcourseinBritainlistenersandviewerscantuneintotwoBBCtelevisionchannelsfiveBBCnationalradioservicesanddozensoflocalradiostations.Theyarebroughtsportcomedydramamusicnewsandcurrentaffairseducationreligionparliamentarycoveragechildren’’sprogrammesandfilmsforanannualliceneefeeof￡83perhousehold. Itisaremarkablerecordstretchingbackover70years―yettheBBC’’sfutureisnowindoubt.TheCorporationwillsurviveasapublicly-fundedbroadcastingorganizationatleastforthetimebeingbutitsroleitssizeanditsprogrammesarenowthesubjectofanation-widedebateinBritain. ThedebatewaslaunchedbytheGovernmentwhichinvitedanyonewithanopinionoftheBBC―includingordinarylistenersandviewers―tosaywhatwasgoodorbadabouttheCorporationandevenwhethertheythoughtitwasworthkeeping.ThereasonforitsinquiryisthattheBBC’’sroyalcharterrunsoutin1996anditmustdecidewhethertokeeptheorganizationasitisortomakechanges. DefendersoftheCorporation―ofwhomtherearemany―arefondofquotingtheAmericansloganIfitain’’tbrokedon’’tfixit.TheBBCain’’tbroketheysaybywhichtheymeanitisnotbrokenasdistinctfromtheword’’broke’’meaninghavingnomoneysowhybothertochangeit YettheBBCwillhavetochangebecausethebroadcastingworldarounditischanging.ThecommercialTVchannels―ITVandChannel4―wererequiredbytheThatcherGovernment’’sBroadcastingActtobecomemorecommercialcompetingwitheachotherforadvertisersandcuttingcostsandjobs.Butitisthearrivalofnewsatellitechannels―fundedpartlybyadvertisingandpartlybyviewers’’subscriptions―whichwillbringaboutthebiggestchangesinthelongterm. InthepassagewhichofthefollowingabouttheBBCisnotmentionedasthekeyissue
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
YouareagraduateofHistory.Writealettertooneofyourcollegeprofessortorequestarecommendationlettertosupportyourapplicationforapositionwithapublishingcompany.Yourlettershouldcover: 1remindinghimofyouandyourperformance 2thingsyouhopetobereflectedinhisletterand 3thewayofmailingtheletter. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Ahistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicapbutifproperlyhandleditmaybecomeadrivingforce.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarithadamarketeighttimeslargerthananycompetitorgivingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld’’sbestitsworkerswerethemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed. Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitablytheretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid-1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustriessuchasconsumerelectronicshadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericantelevisionmakerleftZenith.Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea’’sLGElectronicsinJuly.Foreign-madecarsandtextilesweresweepingintothedomesticmarket.America’’smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.ForawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductorswhichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputeragewasgoingtobethenextcasualty. Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofdoingbusinesswasfailingandthattheirincomeswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica’’sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas. Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Self-doubthasyieldedtoblindpride.Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructurehasgoneonadiethaslearnttobemorequick-wittedaccordingtoRichardCavanaghexecutivedeanofHarvard’’sKennedySchoolofGovernment.ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivitysaysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstituteathink-tankinWashingtonD.C.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodasagoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates. TheU.S.achieveditspredominanceafterWorldWarⅡbecause__________.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
WiththestartofBBCWorldServiceTelevisionmillionsofviewersinAsiaandAmericacannowwatchtheCorporation’’snewscoverageaswellaslistentoit. AndofcourseinBritainlistenersandviewerscantuneintotwoBBCtelevisionchannelsfiveBBCnationalradioservicesanddozensoflocalradiostations.Theyarebroughtsportcomedydramamusicnewsandcurrentaffairseducationreligionparliamentarycoveragechildren’’sprogrammesandfilmsforanannualliceneefeeof￡83perhousehold. Itisaremarkablerecordstretchingbackover70years―yettheBBC’’sfutureisnowindoubt.TheCorporationwillsurviveasapublicly-fundedbroadcastingorganizationatleastforthetimebeingbutitsroleitssizeanditsprogrammesarenowthesubjectofanation-widedebateinBritain. ThedebatewaslaunchedbytheGovernmentwhichinvitedanyonewithanopinionoftheBBC―includingordinarylistenersandviewers―tosaywhatwasgoodorbadabouttheCorporationandevenwhethertheythoughtitwasworthkeeping.ThereasonforitsinquiryisthattheBBC’’sroyalcharterrunsoutin1996anditmustdecidewhethertokeeptheorganizationasitisortomakechanges. DefendersoftheCorporation―ofwhomtherearemany―arefondofquotingtheAmericansloganIfitain’’tbrokedon’’tfixit.TheBBCain’’tbroketheysaybywhichtheymeanitisnotbrokenasdistinctfromtheword’’broke’’meaninghavingnomoneysowhybothertochangeit YettheBBCwillhavetochangebecausethebroadcastingworldarounditischanging.ThecommercialTVchannels―ITVandChannel4―wererequiredbytheThatcherGovernment’’sBroadcastingActtobecomemorecommercialcompetingwitheachotherforadvertisersandcuttingcostsandjobs.Butitisthearrivalofnewsatellitechannels―fundedpartlybyadvertisingandpartlybyviewers’’subscriptions―whichwillbringaboutthebiggestchangesinthelongterm. TheforemostreasonwhytheBBChastoreadjustitselfisnootherthan_________________.
U.S.prisonsarefilledwithdrugoffenders;thenumberofprisonerstripledoverthepast20yearstonearly2millionwith60to70percenttestingpositiveforsubstanceabuseonarrest.Thecountryhasspentbillionsofdollarsattackingtheproblematitsroots.Butthereisgrowingconsensusthatthewarondrughasbeenlost.TheUnitedStatesisstilltheworld’’slargestconsumerofillegalsubstances;cocainecontinuestopourovertheborderfromMexico.Traffictapsintothenationalfrustrationdepictingthehorrorsofbothdrugsandthedrugwar.WithouttakingsidesthefilmilluminatesthenationaldebateandposesonalternativethatAmericansseemincreasinglywillingtoconsider:findingnewwaystotreatratherthanmerelypunishdrugabuse. Policyrevolutions―likelegalizingnarcoticsdrugsproducingsleeporinsensibility―remainadistantdream.ButthereisgrowingpublicawarenessthatthemoneyandenergywastedontryingtochecktheflowofdrugsintotheUnitedStatesmightbebetterspentontryingtocontroldemandinstead.Votersinseveralstatesarefaraheadofthepoliticiansapprovingballotinitiativesthatoffermoretreatmentopinions.Drugscourtsthatallowjudgestousecarrotsandstickstocompelsubstance-abusetreatmenthavegrownfifty-foldsincethemid-1990spartofanewunderstandingthatevenwithfrequentrelapsesreturnstoaformalstatetreatmentismuchlessexpensiveforsocietythanjailandban. Drugaddictionisincreasinglybeingviewedasmoreadiseasethanacrime.Scienceisyieldingcluesaboutthehedonicofpleasureregionofthebrainwhilebreakthroughmedicationsandgreaterunderstandingofthemental-healthproblemsthatunderliemanyaddictionsaregivingtherapistsnewtools. OfficialsacrosstheContinenthavealreadybegunshiftingtheirfocusfrompreventingdrugflowtorehabilitatingmakingabletoliveanormallifeagaindrugusers.ThenewEuropeanUnionDrugsStrategyfor2000-2004makesacommitmenttoincreasingthenumberofsuccessfullytreatedaddicts.GemanyItalyandLuxembourghavetransferredresponsibilityfordrugpolicyfromtheirMinistriesoftheInteriortotheMinistriesofHealthorSocialAffairs.InBritainthegovernmenthassetupaNationalTreatmentAgencytocoordinatetheeffortsofsocial-serviceagenciesandtheDepartmentofHealth.Anddrug-preventionandsupportagenciestherearegettingabout30percentmorefundingthisyear.Changingthemainnationalstrategyfromattackingdrugpusherstorehabilitatingaddictswon’’tcomeeasy.ButslowlysteadilyAmericanslikeEuropeansseemdeterminedtotry. ThewordTrafficinPar.1mostprobablymeans
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