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To produce the upheaval (激变) in the United States that changed and modernized the domain of highe...
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在刺激变量中对反应时间影响比较大的因素有等
割裂事物发展的前进性与曲折性的统一会导致
循环论
诡辩论
激变论
直线论
因变量又叫
反应变量
原因变量
条件变量
刺激变量
除自变量以外其他一切对实验有干扰的变量称为
自变量
无关变量
刺激变量
反应变量
通常由主试者给予不同的指示语造成的自变量属于
刺激变量
环境变量
被试特点自变量
额外变量
处于生理上的激变期的学生是
小学生
初中生
高中生
大学生
刺激变量
批重的在个不同特征的区间是激变区缓变区微变区
刺激变温结实性菌类子实体分化的因素是和
炉料批重的特征曲线分为以下区间
激变区
缓变区
微变区
不变区
批重的三个不同的特征区间是激变区缓变区微变区
只承认量变而否认质变就会导致
庸俗进化论
诡辩论
激变论
均衡论
托尔斯泰世界观激变指的是他从转到立场上来
关于戏剧性的学说包括激变说情境说
激变变星发生光变的本质是什么
怎样理解渐变和激变的交叉
疲劳焦虑饥饿动机等自变量属于
刺激变量
环境变量
被试固有的特性
暂时的被试变量
当无关刺激变成条件刺激条件反射就建立起来了
在刺激变化时所产生的最小感觉差异称为
感受性
绝对感觉阈限
差别感觉阈限
最小可觉差
日常操作中批重应选择在
激变区
微变区
缓变区
无所谓
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GermanChancellorAngelaMerkelwonoverGermanvotersintheFederalElectiononSept.27.CanshenowbewonoverbyaFrenchcharmoffensive1atrepairingtherelationshipthatwasonceattheheartofEuropeThat’sthequestionbeingaskedinParis2topgovernmentofficialsare3talkingabouttheirdesiretorekindlecloserties4theirneighborsacrosstheRhine.5theendofWorldWarIItheFranco-GermanrelationshiphasbeenthemotorofEuropeanintegrationthe6forcebehindthecreationoftheEuropeanUnionandmorerecentlytheintroductionoftheeuro.Buttheardorhas7inthisdecadeparticularlyunderMerkelwhohasregularlystruggledto8herirritationwithFrenchPresidentNicolasSarkozy’sgrandstanding.Sarkozy9hasoftenbeenimpatientwithwhathe10Merkel’slackofresolve. Thesometimes11personalrapportisalongwayfromthepublicshowsofaffectiontheirpredecessorsstagedparticularlyHelmutKohlandFranCoisMitterrandwhomovinglyheld12in1984inaVerduncemetery.There’sbeentensionon13too.CharlesGrantdirectoroftheLondon-basedthinktankCentreforEuropeanReformpointsoutthatFranceandGermanyhavebeen14onissuesfromhowbesttoreflatetheireconomiesduringtheeconomic15tothesmarteststrategiesfordealingwithRussia. ButinfluentialmoversinFrancearenow16toputtherelationshipbackonafriendlierfooting.InarecentpaperFrenchthinktankInstituteMontaigne17anambitiousagendaforthetwonations18thatanewimpetusisneededifEurope’svoiceistobeheardinaworld19ofbignewplayerssuchasBrazilandIndiaandatatimewhenPresidentObamaseemsfaxmore20withChinaandtherestofAsiathanwithAmerica’straditionalalliesinEurope. 5
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Studythefollowingparagraphcarefullyandwritealetterinatleast100words. OnSeptember92004LiJinwhoisastudentofTsinghuaUniversityposedanoffertotheOfficeofGraduateAdmissionsofBostonUniversity.Asanofficerinityoushouldwritebacktohim.
GermanChancellorAngelaMerkelwonoverGermanvotersintheFederalElectiononSept.27.CanshenowbewonoverbyaFrenchcharmoffensive1atrepairingtherelationshipthatwasonceattheheartofEuropeThat’sthequestionbeingaskedinParis2topgovernmentofficialsare3talkingabouttheirdesiretorekindlecloserties4theirneighborsacrosstheRhine.5theendofWorldWarIItheFranco-GermanrelationshiphasbeenthemotorofEuropeanintegrationthe6forcebehindthecreationoftheEuropeanUnionandmorerecentlytheintroductionoftheeuro.Buttheardorhas7inthisdecadeparticularlyunderMerkelwhohasregularlystruggledto8herirritationwithFrenchPresidentNicolasSarkozy’sgrandstanding.Sarkozy9hasoftenbeenimpatientwithwhathe10Merkel’slackofresolve. Thesometimes11personalrapportisalongwayfromthepublicshowsofaffectiontheirpredecessorsstagedparticularlyHelmutKohlandFranCoisMitterrandwhomovinglyheld12in1984inaVerduncemetery.There’sbeentensionon13too.CharlesGrantdirectoroftheLondon-basedthinktankCentreforEuropeanReformpointsoutthatFranceandGermanyhavebeen14onissuesfromhowbesttoreflatetheireconomiesduringtheeconomic15tothesmarteststrategiesfordealingwithRussia. ButinfluentialmoversinFrancearenow16toputtherelationshipbackonafriendlierfooting.InarecentpaperFrenchthinktankInstituteMontaigne17anambitiousagendaforthetwonations18thatanewimpetusisneededifEurope’svoiceistobeheardinaworld19ofbignewplayerssuchasBrazilandIndiaandatatimewhenPresidentObamaseemsfaxmore20withChinaandtherestofAsiathanwithAmerica’straditionalalliesinEurope. 1
Addictionissuchaharmfulbehaviorinfactthatevolutionshouldhavelongagoweededitoutofthepopulation:ifit’shardtodrivesafelyundertheinfluenceimaginetryingtorunfromasaber-toothedtigerorcatchasquirrelforlunch.AndyetsaysDr.NoraVolkowdirectorofNIDAandapioneerintheuseofimagingtounderstandaddiction"theuseofdrugshasbeenrecordedsincethebeginningofcivilization.Humansinmyviewwillalwayswanttoexperimentwiththingstomakethemfeelgood." That’sbecausedrugsofabuseco-opttheverybrainfunctionsthatallowedourdistantancestorstosurviveinahostileworld.Ourmindsareprogrammedtopayextraattentiontowhatneurologistscallsalience--thatisspecialrelevance.Threatsforexamplearehighlysalientwhichiswhyweinstinctivelytrytogetawayfromthem.Butsoarefoodandsexbecausetheyhelptheindividualandthespeciessurvive.Drugsofabusecapitalizeonthisready-madeprogramming.Whenexposedtodrugsourmemorysystemsrewardcircuitsdecision-makingskillsandconditioningkickin--salienceinoverdrive--tocreateanallconsumingpatternofuncontrollablecraving."Somepeoplehaveageneticpredispositiontoaddiction"saysVolkow."Butbecauseitinvolvesthesebasicbrainfunctionseveryonewillbecomeanaddictifsufficientlyexposedtodrugsoralcohol." Thatcangofornonchemicaladdictionsaswell.Behaviorsfromgamblingtoshoppingtosexmaystartoutashabitsbutslideintoaddictions.Sometimestheremightbeabehavior-specificrootoftheproblem.Volkow’sresearchgroupforexamplehasshownthatpathologicallyobesepeoplewhoarecompulsiveeatersexhibithyperactivityintheareasofthebrainthatprocessfoodstimuli--includingthemouthlipsandtongue.Forthemactivatingtheseregionsislikeopeningthefloodgatestothepleasurecenter.Almostanythingdeeplyenjoyablecanturnintoanaddictionthough. Ofcoursenoteveryonebecomesanaddict.That’sbecausewehaveothermoreanalyticalregionsthatcanevaluateconsequencesandoverridemerepleasureseeking.Brainimagingisshowingexactlyhowthathappens.PaulusforexamplelookedatdrugaddictsenrolledinaVAhospital’sintensivefour-weekrehabilitationprogram.Thosewhoweremorelikelytorelapseinthefirstyearaftercompletingtheprogramwerealsolessabletocompletetasksinvolvingcognitiveskillsandlessabletoadjusttonewrulesquickly.Thissuggestedthatthosepatientsmightalsobelessadeptatusinganalyticalareasofthebrainwhileperformingdecision-makingtasks.Sureenoughbrainscansshowedthattherewerereducedlevelsofactivationintheprefrontalcortexwhererationalthoughtcanoverrideimpulsivebehavior.It’simpossibletosayifthedrugsmighthavedamagedtheseabilitiesintherelapsers--aneffectratherthanacauseofthechemicalabuse--butthefactthatthecognitivedeficitexistedinonlysomeofthedruguserssuggeststhattherewassomethinginnatethatwasuniquetothem.TohissurprisePaulusfoundthat80%to90%ofthetimehecouldaccuratelypredictwhowouldrelapsewithinayearsimplybyexaminingthescans. Anotherareaoffocusforresearchersinvolvesthebrain’srewardsystempoweredlargelybytheneurotransmitterdopamine.Investigatorsarelookingspecificallyatthefamilyofdopaminereceptorsthatpopulatenervecellsandbindtothecompound.ThehopeisthatifyoucanreducetheeffectOfthebrainchemicalthatcarriesthepleasurablesignalyoucanloosenthedrug’shold. Wecaninferfromthepassagethatwemaycureaddictionby
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 5
Addictionissuchaharmfulbehaviorinfactthatevolutionshouldhavelongagoweededitoutofthepopulation:ifit’shardtodrivesafelyundertheinfluenceimaginetryingtorunfromasaber-toothedtigerorcatchasquirrelforlunch.AndyetsaysDr.NoraVolkowdirectorofNIDAandapioneerintheuseofimagingtounderstandaddiction"theuseofdrugshasbeenrecordedsincethebeginningofcivilization.Humansinmyviewwillalwayswanttoexperimentwiththingstomakethemfeelgood." That’sbecausedrugsofabuseco-opttheverybrainfunctionsthatallowedourdistantancestorstosurviveinahostileworld.Ourmindsareprogrammedtopayextraattentiontowhatneurologistscallsalience--thatisspecialrelevance.Threatsforexamplearehighlysalientwhichiswhyweinstinctivelytrytogetawayfromthem.Butsoarefoodandsexbecausetheyhelptheindividualandthespeciessurvive.Drugsofabusecapitalizeonthisready-madeprogramming.Whenexposedtodrugsourmemorysystemsrewardcircuitsdecision-makingskillsandconditioningkickin--salienceinoverdrive--tocreateanallconsumingpatternofuncontrollablecraving."Somepeoplehaveageneticpredispositiontoaddiction"saysVolkow."Butbecauseitinvolvesthesebasicbrainfunctionseveryonewillbecomeanaddictifsufficientlyexposedtodrugsoralcohol." Thatcangofornonchemicaladdictionsaswell.Behaviorsfromgamblingtoshoppingtosexmaystartoutashabitsbutslideintoaddictions.Sometimestheremightbeabehavior-specificrootoftheproblem.Volkow’sresearchgroupforexamplehasshownthatpathologicallyobesepeoplewhoarecompulsiveeatersexhibithyperactivityintheareasofthebrainthatprocessfoodstimuli--includingthemouthlipsandtongue.Forthemactivatingtheseregionsislikeopeningthefloodgatestothepleasurecenter.Almostanythingdeeplyenjoyablecanturnintoanaddictionthough. Ofcoursenoteveryonebecomesanaddict.That’sbecausewehaveothermoreanalyticalregionsthatcanevaluateconsequencesandoverridemerepleasureseeking.Brainimagingisshowingexactlyhowthathappens.PaulusforexamplelookedatdrugaddictsenrolledinaVAhospital’sintensivefour-weekrehabilitationprogram.Thosewhoweremorelikelytorelapseinthefirstyearaftercompletingtheprogramwerealsolessabletocompletetasksinvolvingcognitiveskillsandlessabletoadjusttonewrulesquickly.Thissuggestedthatthosepatientsmightalsobelessadeptatusinganalyticalareasofthebrainwhileperformingdecision-makingtasks.Sureenoughbrainscansshowedthattherewerereducedlevelsofactivationintheprefrontalcortexwhererationalthoughtcanoverrideimpulsivebehavior.It’simpossibletosayifthedrugsmighthavedamagedtheseabilitiesintherelapsers--aneffectratherthanacauseofthechemicalabuse--butthefactthatthecognitivedeficitexistedinonlysomeofthedruguserssuggeststhattherewassomethinginnatethatwasuniquetothem.TohissurprisePaulusfoundthat80%to90%ofthetimehecouldaccuratelypredictwhowouldrelapsewithinayearsimplybyexaminingthescans. Anotherareaoffocusforresearchersinvolvesthebrain’srewardsystempoweredlargelybytheneurotransmitterdopamine.Investigatorsarelookingspecificallyatthefamilyofdopaminereceptorsthatpopulatenervecellsandbindtothecompound.ThehopeisthatifyoucanreducetheeffectOfthebrainchemicalthatcarriesthepleasurablesignalyoucanloosenthedrug’shold. Compulsiveeatersaretypicalexampleof
Fatigueisoneofthemostcommoncomplaintsbroughttodoctorsfriendsandrelatives.You’dthinkinthiseraoflabor-savingandconvenienttransportationthatfewpeoplewouldhavereasontobesotired.Thecausesofmodern-dayfatiguearediverseandonlyrarelyrelatedtoexcessivephysicalexertion.Todayphysiciansreporttirednessismorelikelyaconsequenceofunderexercisethanofwearingyourselfdownwithoveractivity. Physicalfatigueisthewell-knownresultofoverworkingyourmuscles.46Physicalfatigueisusuallyapleasanttirednesssuchasthatwhichyoumightexperienceafterplayingahardsetoftennischoppingwoodorclimbingamountain.Thecureissimpleandfast:Yourestgivingyourbodyachancetogetridofaccumulatedwasteandrestoremusclefuel. 47Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.Evenafteranillnesspassedyou’relikelytofeeldraggedoutforaweekormore.48Takeyourfatigueasasignaltogoslowwhileyourbodyhasachancetorecoverfullyevenifallyouhadwasacold.Pushingyourselftoresumefullactivitytoosoonwillcertainlyprolongyourperiodoffatigue. Emotionalproblemsandconflictsespeciallydepressionandanxietyarebyfarthemostcommoncausesofprolongedfatigue.Whensuchfeelingsarenotexpressedopenlytheyoftencomeoutasphysicalsymptomswithfatigueasoneofthemostcommonmanifestations.49Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness.Professionalpsychologicalhelporcareerormarriagecounselingmaybeneeded. Thereisagreatdealyoucandoonyourowntodealwithbothsevereprolongedfatigueandthoseperiodicwashed-outfeelings.Youmighttrytodomoderateexercise.50Contrarytowhatyoumaythinkexerciseenhancesratherthandrainsengeryandhelpsyoutoresistfatiguebyincreasingyourbody’sabilitytohandlemoreofaworkload.Attheendofadayexercisecanrelieveaccumulatedtensionsgiveyoumoreenergyintheeveningandhelpyousleepmorerestfully. 47Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.
[A]MarketData [B]MarketProsperity [C]SecretofSuccess [D]QuestionstoAsk [E]UnderstandingYourMarket [F]MarketResearch Successfulsmallbusinessexpansionsandnewjobformationleadthewayincreatingnewmarketsinnovationsandjobsthatfueleconomicgrowthandprosperity. InrecognitionoftheimportanceofsmallbusinesstoastrongeconomytheU.S.SmallBusinessAdministrationSBAispleasedtohelpmeettheinformationneedsofexistingbusinessownersandaspiringentrepreneurs. 41.______ Yourbusinesswillnotsucceedjustbecauseyouwantittosucceed.Determiningifthereisamarketforyourproductsorservicesisthemostcriticalitemofplanning.Onceyoudecideonyourproductorserviceyoumustanalyzeyourmarket--aprocessinvolvinginterviewingcompetitorssuppliersandnewcustomers. Beforeyoubeginresearchingyourmarkethoweveryoushouldtakeabriefbutcloselookatyourproductorservicefromanobjectivestandpoint.Youshouldaskyourselfthefollowingquestions: --Isthisproductorserviceinconstantdemand --Howmanycompetitorsprovidethesameserviceorproduct --CanIcreateademandformyproductorservice --CanIcompeteeffectivelyinpricequalityanddelivery —CanIpricemyproductorservicetoassureaprofit Onceyouaresatisfiedthatthesepreliminaryquestionsareansweredmoveontoperformingyourresearch. 42.______. Itisextremelybeneficialtoinvestigateamarketbecausetheinformationgatheredcanincreaseyourprofitpotential.Specificallyit: --Indicatesalternativesalesapproachestoyourmarket. --Providesamoreaccuratebaseformakingprofitassumptions. --Aidsintheorganizationofmarketingactivities. --Assistsinthedevelopmentofcriticalshort/mid-termgoals. --Helpsestablishyourmarket’sprofitboundaries. Unfortunatelymanyentrepreneursfailtocompletethiscriticalsectionoftheirbusinessplan.Collectingresearchdatacanbefrustratingunlessyouhavedefinedyourgoalsandorganizedthecollectionandanalysisprocess.Topreventthisfromhappeningyoumustplanhowyouwillcollectsortandanalyzetheinformation.Maintainanotebookandfileinwhichtostoreorganizeandretrievedataasneeded. 43.______. Yourresearchshouldaskthesequestions.. --Whoareyourcustomers --Wherearetheylocated --Whataretheirneedsandresources --Isyourserviceorproductessentialintheiroperationspractivities —Canthecustomeraffordyourserviceorproduct —Wherecanyoucreateademandforyourserviceorproduct --Whatareaswithinyourmarketaredecliningorgrowing --Whatisthegeneraleconomyofyourserviceorproductarea 44.______. Knowingyourmarketrequiresanunderstandingnotonlyofyourproductbutalsoofyourcustomers’socioeconomiccharacteristics.Thisinformationwillserveasamapinlettingyouknowwhatisahead. Moremarketinformationcanbefoundin --Librarylistingsoftradeassociationsandjournals. --Regionalplanningorganizations’studiesongrowthtrends. --Banksrealtorsandinsurancecompanies. —Competitors. --Customersurveysinyourmarketarea. Onceyouhaveobtainedandanalyzedthisinformationitwillbecomethefoundationofyourbusinessplan.Researchinformationisimportantbecauseitsupportsthebasicassumptionsinyourfinancialprojection--yourreasonforgoingintobusiness. 45.______ Tobesuccessfulasmallbusinessownermustknowthemarket.Marketresearchissimplyanorderlyobjectivewayoflearningaboutpeople--thepeoplewhowillbuyfromyou. 41
MichaelPorterwhohasmadehisnamethroughoutthebusinesscommunitybyadvocatinghistheoriesofcompetitiveadvantagesisnowswimmingintoevenmoreshark-infestedwatersarguingthatcompetitioncansaveevenAmerica’stroubledhealth-caresystemthelargestintheworld.Mr.Porterarguesin"RedefiningHealthCare"thatcompetitionifproperlyappliedcanalsofixwhatailsthissector. ThatisaboldclaimgiventhehorriblestateofAmerica’shealth-caresystem.Justconsiderafewofitsfailings:Americapaysmorepercapitaforhealthcarethanmostcountriesbutitstillhassome45mcitizenswithnohealthinsuranceatall.Whileafewreceiveoutstandingtreatmentheshowsinheart-wrenchingdetailthatmostdonot.Thesystemwasteshugeresourcesonpaperworkignorespreventivecareandaboveallhasperverseincentivesthatencourageshiftingcostsratherthancuttingthemoutright.Heconcludesthatitis"onadangerouspathwithatoxiccombinationofhighcostsunevenqualityfrequenterrorsandlimitedaccesstocare." Manyobserverswouldagreewiththisdiagnosisbutmanywouldundoubtedlydisagreewiththisadvocacyofmoremarketforces.Doctorshaveanintuitivedistrustofcompetitionwhichtheyoftenequatewithgreedwhilemanypublic-policythinkersarguethattheonlywaytofixAmerica’sproblemistoquashtheprivatesector’srolealtogetherandinsteadsetupagovernmentmonopolylikeBritain’sNationalHealthService. Mr.Porterstronglydisagrees.HestartsbyacknowledgingthatcompetitionasithasbeenintroducedtoAmerica’shealthsystemhasinfactdonemoreharmthangood.Buthearguesthatcompetitionhasbeenintroducedpiecemealinincoherentandcounter-productivewaysthatleadtoperverseincentivesandworseoutcomes:"health-carecompetitionisnotfocusedondeliveringvalueforpatients"hesays. Mr.Porteroffersamixofsolutionstofixthismessandtherebytoputthesectoronagenuinelycompetitivefooting.Firstcomestheseeminglyobviousbutasyetunrealizedgoalofdatatransparency.Secondisaredirectionofcompetitionfromthelevelofhealthplansdoctorsclinicsandhospitalstocompetition"atthelevelofmedicalconditionswhichisallbutabsent".Theauthorsarguethattherightmeasureof"value"forthehealthoftreatmentandwhatthecostisforthatentirecycle.Thatrightlyemphasizestheroleofearlydetectionandpreventivecareovertechno-fixespriceypillsandtheotherfailingsoftoday’ssystem. Ifthereisafailinginthisargumentitisthathesometimesstraystowardnaiveoptimism.Mr.Porterarguesforexamplethathissolutionsaresocommonsensicalthatprivateactorsinthehealthsystemcouldforgeaheadwiththemprofitablywithoutwaitingforthegovernmenttofixitspolicymistakes.Thatisatemptingnotionbutitfallsintoatrapthateconomistscallthefallacyofthe$20billonthestreet.Iftherereallywereeasymoneyonthepavementgoestheargumentsurelypreviouspassers-bywouldhavebentoverandpickeditupbynow. InthesameveinifMr.Porter’sprescriptionsaresosensiblethatcompaniescanmakemoneyevennowintheabsenceofgovernmentpolicychangeswhyintheworldhavetheynotdonesoalreadyOnereasonmaybethattheycanmakemoremoneyinthecurrentsub-optimalequilibriumthaninaperfectlycompetitivemarket--whichiswhygovernmentactionisprobablyneededtosweepasidethemanyobstaclesinthewayofMr.Porter’spowerfulvision. Thewordperverseparagraph2isclosestinmeaningto
FewbeyondCalifornia’stechnologycrowdrecognisethenameLarrySonsini;nonewithinitscirclecouldfailto.Forfourdecadeshehasbeenlawyeradviserandfriendtomanyprominentcompaniesandinvestors.SomeconsiderhimthemostpowerfulpersoninSiliconValley.Companiesbegforhislawfirmtorepresentthem.The65-year-oldchairmanofWilsonSonsiniGoodrich&RosatiWSG&Rhassuddenlybeenthrustintothespotlight:firstforcounsellingmanyofthetechnologyfirmsnowunderscrutinyforbackdatingstockoptionsandinsomecasesservingontheirboards;andmorerecentlyasoutsidecounseltoHewlett-PackardHPforinitiallydefendingtheboard’sdubiousinvestigativepractices. WSG&Rboasts600lawyersandrepresentsaroundhalfofSiliconValley’spubliccompaniesincludingAppleSunMicrosystemsandGoogle.Lastyearitrankedfirstinprivate-equityandventure-capitaldealswithnearlytwiceasmanyasitsclosestrival.OverthepastfiveyearsWSG&Rhasworkedonover1000mergersandacquisitionscollectivelyworthover$260billion. TherecenttroublescastashadowoverWSG&R’sreputation.AlthoughMr.Sonsiniisnotaccusedofwrongdoinghimselfmanyofhisfirm’sclientsareontheropes.FormerexecutivesatBrocadeCommunicationssufferedcriminalchargesinJulyMr.SonsiniServedonBrocade’sboarduntillastyearandhisfirmwasitsoutsidecounsel.HealsowasontheboardsofPixarEchelonLatticeSemiconductorLSILogicandNovellallfirmsatwhichtheissuingofstockoptionsisbeingcalledintoquestion. WSG&RdismissestheideathatMr.SonsinifacedaconflictofinterestbyactingasbothdirectorandlegaladvisertosomanyfirmsandsayshedidnotadviseHPinitsinvestigationofboardmembers.Mr.Sonsiniinitiallysaiditwas"welldoneandwithinlegallimits".Itnowseemsitwasneither. Thephraseontheropesinthesecondsentenceofthethirdparagraphdenotes
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 9
Fatigueisoneofthemostcommoncomplaintsbroughttodoctorsfriendsandrelatives.You’dthinkinthiseraoflabor-savingandconvenienttransportationthatfewpeoplewouldhavereasontobesotired.Thecausesofmodern-dayfatiguearediverseandonlyrarelyrelatedtoexcessivephysicalexertion.Todayphysiciansreporttirednessismorelikelyaconsequenceofunderexercisethanofwearingyourselfdownwithoveractivity. Physicalfatigueisthewell-knownresultofoverworkingyourmuscles.46Physicalfatigueisusuallyapleasanttirednesssuchasthatwhichyoumightexperienceafterplayingahardsetoftennischoppingwoodorclimbingamountain.Thecureissimpleandfast:Yourestgivingyourbodyachancetogetridofaccumulatedwasteandrestoremusclefuel. 47Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.Evenafteranillnesspassedyou’relikelytofeeldraggedoutforaweekormore.48Takeyourfatigueasasignaltogoslowwhileyourbodyhasachancetorecoverfullyevenifallyouhadwasacold.Pushingyourselftoresumefullactivitytoosoonwillcertainlyprolongyourperiodoffatigue. Emotionalproblemsandconflictsespeciallydepressionandanxietyarebyfarthemostcommoncausesofprolongedfatigue.Whensuchfeelingsarenotexpressedopenlytheyoftencomeoutasphysicalsymptomswithfatigueasoneofthemostcommonmanifestations.49Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness.Professionalpsychologicalhelporcareerormarriagecounselingmaybeneeded. Thereisagreatdealyoucandoonyourowntodealwithbothsevereprolongedfatigueandthoseperiodicwashed-outfeelings.Youmighttrytodomoderateexercise.50Contrarytowhatyoumaythinkexerciseenhancesratherthandrainsengeryandhelpsyoutoresistfatiguebyincreasingyourbody’sabilitytohandlemoreofaworkload.Attheendofadayexercisecanrelieveaccumulatedtensionsgiveyoumoreenergyintheeveningandhelpyousleepmorerestfully. 49Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness.
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 15
GermanChancellorAngelaMerkelwonoverGermanvotersintheFederalElectiononSept.27.CanshenowbewonoverbyaFrenchcharmoffensive1atrepairingtherelationshipthatwasonceattheheartofEuropeThat’sthequestionbeingaskedinParis2topgovernmentofficialsare3talkingabouttheirdesiretorekindlecloserties4theirneighborsacrosstheRhine.5theendofWorldWarIItheFranco-GermanrelationshiphasbeenthemotorofEuropeanintegrationthe6forcebehindthecreationoftheEuropeanUnionandmorerecentlytheintroductionoftheeuro.Buttheardorhas7inthisdecadeparticularlyunderMerkelwhohasregularlystruggledto8herirritationwithFrenchPresidentNicolasSarkozy’sgrandstanding.Sarkozy9hasoftenbeenimpatientwithwhathe10Merkel’slackofresolve. Thesometimes11personalrapportisalongwayfromthepublicshowsofaffectiontheirpredecessorsstagedparticularlyHelmutKohlandFranCoisMitterrandwhomovinglyheld12in1984inaVerduncemetery.There’sbeentensionon13too.CharlesGrantdirectoroftheLondon-basedthinktankCentreforEuropeanReformpointsoutthatFranceandGermanyhavebeen14onissuesfromhowbesttoreflatetheireconomiesduringtheeconomic15tothesmarteststrategiesfordealingwithRussia. ButinfluentialmoversinFrancearenow16toputtherelationshipbackonafriendlierfooting.InarecentpaperFrenchthinktankInstituteMontaigne17anambitiousagendaforthetwonations18thatanewimpetusisneededifEurope’svoiceistobeheardinaworld19ofbignewplayerssuchasBrazilandIndiaandatatimewhenPresidentObamaseemsfaxmore20withChinaandtherestofAsiathanwithAmerica’straditionalalliesinEurope. 3
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 17
Addictionissuchaharmfulbehaviorinfactthatevolutionshouldhavelongagoweededitoutofthepopulation:ifit’shardtodrivesafelyundertheinfluenceimaginetryingtorunfromasaber-toothedtigerorcatchasquirrelforlunch.AndyetsaysDr.NoraVolkowdirectorofNIDAandapioneerintheuseofimagingtounderstandaddiction"theuseofdrugshasbeenrecordedsincethebeginningofcivilization.Humansinmyviewwillalwayswanttoexperimentwiththingstomakethemfeelgood." That’sbecausedrugsofabuseco-opttheverybrainfunctionsthatallowedourdistantancestorstosurviveinahostileworld.Ourmindsareprogrammedtopayextraattentiontowhatneurologistscallsalience--thatisspecialrelevance.Threatsforexamplearehighlysalientwhichiswhyweinstinctivelytrytogetawayfromthem.Butsoarefoodandsexbecausetheyhelptheindividualandthespeciessurvive.Drugsofabusecapitalizeonthisready-madeprogramming.Whenexposedtodrugsourmemorysystemsrewardcircuitsdecision-makingskillsandconditioningkickin--salienceinoverdrive--tocreateanallconsumingpatternofuncontrollablecraving."Somepeoplehaveageneticpredispositiontoaddiction"saysVolkow."Butbecauseitinvolvesthesebasicbrainfunctionseveryonewillbecomeanaddictifsufficientlyexposedtodrugsoralcohol." Thatcangofornonchemicaladdictionsaswell.Behaviorsfromgamblingtoshoppingtosexmaystartoutashabitsbutslideintoaddictions.Sometimestheremightbeabehavior-specificrootoftheproblem.Volkow’sresearchgroupforexamplehasshownthatpathologicallyobesepeoplewhoarecompulsiveeatersexhibithyperactivityintheareasofthebrainthatprocessfoodstimuli--includingthemouthlipsandtongue.Forthemactivatingtheseregionsislikeopeningthefloodgatestothepleasurecenter.Almostanythingdeeplyenjoyablecanturnintoanaddictionthough. Ofcoursenoteveryonebecomesanaddict.That’sbecausewehaveothermoreanalyticalregionsthatcanevaluateconsequencesandoverridemerepleasureseeking.Brainimagingisshowingexactlyhowthathappens.PaulusforexamplelookedatdrugaddictsenrolledinaVAhospital’sintensivefour-weekrehabilitationprogram.Thosewhoweremorelikelytorelapseinthefirstyearaftercompletingtheprogramwerealsolessabletocompletetasksinvolvingcognitiveskillsandlessabletoadjusttonewrulesquickly.Thissuggestedthatthosepatientsmightalsobelessadeptatusinganalyticalareasofthebrainwhileperformingdecision-makingtasks.Sureenoughbrainscansshowedthattherewerereducedlevelsofactivationintheprefrontalcortexwhererationalthoughtcanoverrideimpulsivebehavior.It’simpossibletosayifthedrugsmighthavedamagedtheseabilitiesintherelapsers--aneffectratherthanacauseofthechemicalabuse--butthefactthatthecognitivedeficitexistedinonlysomeofthedruguserssuggeststhattherewassomethinginnatethatwasuniquetothem.TohissurprisePaulusfoundthat80%to90%ofthetimehecouldaccuratelypredictwhowouldrelapsewithinayearsimplybyexaminingthescans. Anotherareaoffocusforresearchersinvolvesthebrain’srewardsystempoweredlargelybytheneurotransmitterdopamine.Investigatorsarelookingspecificallyatthefamilyofdopaminereceptorsthatpopulatenervecellsandbindtothecompound.ThehopeisthatifyoucanreducetheeffectOfthebrainchemicalthatcarriesthepleasurablesignalyoucanloosenthedrug’shold. AccordingtoDr.NoraVolkowtheuseofdrugs
Inascience-fictionmoviecalled"Species"amysterioussignalfromouterspaceturnsouttodescribethegenomeofanunknownorganism.WhentheinevitablemadscientistsynthesizestheDNAdescribedbytheinstructionsthecreaturehebreedsfromitturnsouttoresembleNatashaHenstridgeanathleticactress.UnfortunatelythealienharborswithinherdelicateformthedestructivepowersofaPanzerdivisionanditallendsbadlyfortherashgeneticistandhislaboratory. GlenEvanschiefexecutiveofEgeaBiosciencesinSanDiegoCaliforniaacknowledgesregretfullythatdespiteseekinghisexpertopinion--inreturnforwhichhewaspresentedwiththeposterofthestrikingMrHenstridgethathangsonhisofficewall--theproducersof"Species"didnothewverycloselytohissuggestionsaboutthefeasibilityoftheirscriptideas.Stilltheyhadcometotherightman.DrEvansbelievesthathisfirmwillsoonbeabletocreateifnotanaliensuccubusatleastatinybiologicalmachinemadeofartificialproteinsthatcouldmimicthebehaviorofalivingcell. MakingsuchproteinswillrequiretheabilitytosynthesizelongstretchesofDNA.ExistingtechnologyforsynthesizingDNAcanmanagetomakegenesthatencodeafewdozenaminoacidsbutthisistooshorttoproduceanyinterestingproteins.Egea’stechnologybycontrastwouldallowbiologiststomanufacturegeneswholesale.Thefirm’sscientistscanmakegeneslongenoughtoencode6000aminoacids.Theyaimtosynthesizeagenefor30000aminoacidswithintwoyears. Usingalibraryoftheroughly1500possible"motifs"orfoldsthataproteincanadoptEgea’sscientistsemploycomputerstodesignnewproteinsthatarelikelytohavedesirableshapesandproperties.TosynthesizetheDNAthatencodestheseproteinsEgeausesamachineithasdubbedthe"genewriter".DrEvanslikensthisdevicetoaword-processorforDNAonwhichyoucantypeinthesequenceoflettersdefiningapieceofDNAandgetthatmoleculeout. AsEgeaextendsthelengthofDNAitcansynthesizeDrEvansenvisagesencodingnotjustproteinsbutentirebiochemicalpathwayswhichareteamsofproteinsthatconductmetabolicprocesses.Acollectionofsuchmoleculescouldconceivablyfunctionasaminiaturemachinethatwouldoperateinthebodyandattackdiseasejustasthebody’sowndefensivecellsdo.PerhapsDrEvansandhiscolleaguesoughttogetintouchwiththeirfriendsinHollywood. Theexpressionhewverycloselytocanbebestreplacedby
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 7
Researchonanimalintelligencealwaysmakesuswonderjusthowsmarthumansare.1thefruit-flyexperimentsdescribedbyCarlZimmerintheScienceTimes.Fruitflieswhoweretaughttobesmarterthantheaveragefruitfly2toliveshorterlives.Thissuggeststhat3bulbsburnlongerthatthereisan4innotbeingtoobright. Intelligenceit5isahigh-pricedoption.Ittakesmoreupkeepburnsmorefuelandisslow6thestartinglinebecauseitdependsonlearning—an7process—insteadofinstinct.Plentyofotherspeciesareabletolearnandoneofthethingsthey’veapparentlylearnediswhento8. Isthereanadaptivevalueto9intelligenceThat’sthequestionbehindthisnewresearch.Insteadofcastingawistfulglance10atallthespecieswe’veleftinthedustI.Q.-wiseitimplicitlyaskswhatthereal11ofourownintelligencemightbe.Thisis12themindofeveryanimalwe’veevermet. Researchonanimalintelligencealsomakesuswonderwhatexperimentsanimalswould13onhumansiftheyhadthechance.Everycatwithanowner14isrunningasmall-scalestudyinoperantconditioning.Webelievethat15animalsranthelabstheywouldtestusto16thelimitsofourpatienceourfaithfulnessourmemoryforlocations.Theywouldtrytodecidewhatintelligenceinhumansisreally17notmerelyhowmuchofitthereis.18theywouldhopetostudyan19question:Arehumansactuallyawareoftheworldtheylivein20theresultsareinconclusive. 19
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