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阅读下列材料： 材料一：改革的目的“就是要深刻革新国家生活的各个方面，使社会主义具有最现代化的社会组织形式，最充分地揭示我们制度在其各个决定性方面，即经济方面、社会主义政治方面和道德方面的人道主义性...
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阅读材料完成下列要求.材料一经济体制改革在走向深入的同时暴露了各种矛盾与冲突经济发展和社会转型所诱发
材料一2013年夏季达沃斯论坛9月11日—13日在大连举行创新势在必行——大会主题鲜明而深刻__总
阅读材料完成下列各题生活处处有哲学材料一中学政治各学科都闪耀着哲学的光辉比如物质资料的生产实践是人类
阅读材料完成下列要求供给侧改革已成为我国经济领域的热门话题何谓供给侧改革需求侧有投资消费出口三驾马车
改革的目的是要通过社会主义制度的自我完善和革新来促进中国特色社会主义事业的发展
让社会安定
让经济发展更快
让国家更富强、更繁荣
让人民生活更美满、更幸福
阅读下列材料材料一改革的目的就是要深刻革新国家生活的各个方面使社会主义具有最现代化的社会组织形式最充
阅读下列材料材料一农奴在法律上是自由人地主再也不许买卖农奴和干涉他们的生活材料二允许土地买卖引进西方
改革是立国之本改革是强国之路因此要坚持改革材料一管仲相桓公霸诸侯一匡天下——论语材料二治世不一道便国
阅读材料回答问题材料一2013年夏季达沃斯论坛9月11日—13日在大连举行创新势在必行——大会主题鲜
阅读下列材料材料一为什么要进行这种改革呢简单地说就是因为中国原来的土地制度极不合理这就是我们民族被侵
阅读下面材料回答下列问题阅读是一个民族文明程度的重要标志也是民众获取知识传承文化最重要最直接的渠道材
阅读下列材料材料一政治上建立中央集权的天皇制封建国家废除贵族世袭制以才选官经济上把很多贵族土地收归国
2014年是我国全面深化改革的元年也是开局破冰之年阅读材料回答问题材料一中央新班子既有整体推进又有重
阅读下列材料材料一农奴在法律上是‘自由人’地主再也不许买卖农奴和干涉他们的生活材料二政治方面‘废藩置
改革开放是决定当代中国命运的关键选择改革不仅要摸着石头过河要大胆探索敢于涉险又要架起桥梁过河明确分工
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近代中国在经济社会生活方面具有明显的近代化趋势阅读下列材料结合所学知识回答问题材料一材料二轮船火车等
阅读材料回答下列问题共12分材料一梭伦颁布的第一条法令就是解负令根据这个法令平民所欠的各种债务一律废
阅读下列材料6分彼得看到国家当前的历史任务他努力去把欧洲的文化栽植在落后的俄罗斯彼得痛恨懦弱虚伪矫饰
阅读下列材料回答问题材料一他主张兼爱非攻希望人们互助互爱反对以小欺大以强凌弱的侵略战争支持正义战争材
这是一个高速发展的国家30年的改革开放.让她走上了伟大的复兴之路她就是中国在这30年中中国经济保持年
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Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
法律解释的主体只能是有权的国家机关及其工作人员
MoneyspentonadvertisingismoneyspentaswellasanyIknowof.Itservesdirectlytoassistarapiddistributionofgoodsatreasonablepricestherebyestablishingafirmhomemarketandsomakingitpossibletoprovideforexportatcompetitiveprices.Bydrawingattentiontonewideasithelpsenormouslytoraisestandardsofliving.Byhelpingtoincreasedemanditensuresanincreasedneedforlabourandisthereforeaneffectivewaytofightunemployment.Itlowersthecostsofmanyservices:withoutadvertisementsyourdailynewspaperwouldcostfourtimesasmuchthepriceofyourtelevisionlicencewouldneedtobedoubledandtravelbybusortubewouldcost20percentmore. Andperhapsmostimportantofalladvertisingprovidesaguaranteeofreasonablevalueintheproductsandservicesyoubuy.Apartfromthefactthattwenty-sevenActsofParliamentgovernthetermsofadvertisingnoregularadvertiserdarepromoteaproductthatfailstoliveuptothepromiseofhisadvertisements.Hemightfoolsomepeopleforalittlewhilethroughmisleadingadvertising.Hewillnotdosoforlongformercifullythepublichasthegoodsensenottobuytheinferiorarticlemorethanonce.IfyouseeanarticleconsistentlyadvertiseditisthesurestproofIknowthatthearticledoeswhatisclaimedforitandthatitrepresentsgoodvalue. AdvertisingdoesmoreforthematerialbenefitofthecommunitythananyotherforceIcanthinkof. ThereisonepointIfeelIoughttotouchon.RecentlyIheardawell-knowntelevisionpersonalitydeclarethathewasagainstadvertisingbecauseitpersuadesratherthaninforms.Hewasdrawingexcessivelyfinedistinctions.Ofcourseadvertisingseekstopersuade. Ifitsmessagewereconfinedmerelytoinformation―andthatinitselfwouldbedifficultifnotimpossibletoachieveforevenadetailsuchasthechoiceofthecolourofashirtissubtletypersuasiveadvertisingwouldbesoboringthatnoonewouldpayanyattention.Butperhapsthatiswhatthewell-knowntelevisionpersonalitywants. InthepassagewhichofthefollowingisNOTincludedintheadvantagesofadvertising
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Theworldisgoingthroughthebiggestwaveofmergersandacquisitionseverwitnessed.TheprocesssweepsfromhyperactiveAmericatoEuropeandreachestheemergingcountrieswithunsurpassedmight.Manyinthesecountriesarelookingatthisprocessandworrying:Won’’tthewaveofbusinessconcentrationturnintoanuncontrollableanti-competitiveforce There’’snoquestionthatthebigaregettingbiggerandmorepowerful.Multinationalcorporationsaccountedforlessthan20%ofinternationaltradein1982.Todaythefigureismorethan25%andgrowingrapidly.Internationalaffiliatesaccountforafast-growingsegmentofproductionineconomiesthatopenupandwelcomeforeigninvestment.InArgentinaforinstanceafterthereformsoftheearly1990smultinationalswentfrom43%toalmost70%oftheindustrialproductionofthe200largestfirms.Thisphenomenonhascreatedseriousconcernsovertheroleofsmallereconomicfirmsofnationalbusinessmenandovertheultimatestabilityoftheworldeconomy. IbelievethatthemostimportantforcesbehindthemassiveM&Awavearethesamethatunderlietheglobalizationprocess:fallingtransportationandcommunicationcostslowertradeandinvestmentbarriersandenlargedmarketsthatrequireenlargedoperationscapableofmeetingcustomers’’demands.Allthesearebeneficialnotdetrimentaltoconsumers.Asproductivitygrowstheworld’’swealthincreases. Examplesofbenefitsorcostsofthecurrentconcentrationwavearescanty.Yetitishardtoimaginethatthemergerofafewoilfirmstodaycouldre-createthesamethreatstocompetitionthatwerefearednearlyacenturyagointheU.S.whentheStandardOiltrustwasbrokenup.ThemergersoftelecomcompaniessuchasWorldComhardlyseembringhigherpricesforconsumersorareductioninthepaceoftechnicalprogress.Onthecontrarythepriceofcommunicationsiscomingdownfast.Incarstooconcentrationisincreasing--witnessDaimlerandChryslerRemaultandNissan--butitdoesnotappearthatconsumersarebeinghurt. Yetthefactremainsthatthemergermovementmustbewatched.AfewweeksagoAlanGreenspanwarnedagainstthemegamergersinthebankingindustry.Whoisgoingtosuperviseregulateandoperateaslenderoflastresortwiththegiganticbanksthatarebeingcreated.’’Won’’tmultinationalsshiftproductionfromoneplacetoanotherwhenanationgetstoostrictaboutinfringementstofaircompetition.’’AndshouldonecountrytakeuponitselftheroleofdefendingcompetitiononissuesthataffectmanyothernationsasintheU.S.vs.Microsoftcase7 Whatisthetypicaltrendofbusinessestoday
法律推理的基本方法包括演绎推理的方法归纳推理的方法和辩证推理的方法下列各种情形中需要采用辩证推理方法的有
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Financialengineersdon’’twearwhitelabcoats.Theydon’’texperimentonratsorperformgaschromatography气相层析.Theirrawmaterial-money-isn’’tasshowyaswhatbiologistsandphysicistsinvestigate.Buttheinnovationstheyproducewillcontributejustasmuchtoeconomicgrowth. Maybemoreinfactbecausewithoutthescienceoffinanceallothersciencesarejustabunchofneatconcepts.Ideasbegintotributetohumanbettermentwhenthey’’refinanced-byventurecapitalstockofferingsloansorbuyouts.Asmoothlyoperatingfinancialsystemshowersmoneyongoodideas.Equallyimportantitcutsofffundingtotiredideasandtiredcompaniessotheirassetscanbeemployedmoreefficientlyelsewhere. Inthe21stcenturyeconomyinnovationinfinancewillincreaseinconcertwiththeincreaseincompetition.Partlybecauseofderegulationandglobalizationcompetitionshouldgettougherandmarginsthinner.Asproductssuchashomemortgageloansbecomecommoditizedfinancial-servicecompanieswillbeforcedtogetmorecreative. Financialtechnologywillkeepfeedingoffinformationtechnology.Thesecrettosuccesswillbeastrongsoftwareplatformwhichwilllowerthecostofgeneralserviceswhilemakingitpossibletocreatehigh-marginvariationsaswell.Afewcompaniesthatgetitrightcanspinawayfromtherestandbecomestrongerandstronger. Inthenewworldoffinancesizecounts.Bigcompaniesenjoyeconomiesofscaleandnamerecognitionandtheycanbesaferbecausetheirbetsarespreadacrossmoreregionsandmarketsegments.ThevalueofU.S.bankmergersinthefirsthalfof1998wasgreaterthanthatofthethreepreviousyearscombined.Themergersareoccurringacrossindustriesaswell. Attheotherextremewillbespecialiststhatsurvivebydoingonethingeitherverycheaplyorexceptionallywell.Byofferinglowerpricesorbetterservicespecialistswilldisciplinethefinancialsupermarkets;thebigguysknowtheircustomerscanwalkawayiftheygetarawdeal.Thereisnowaywearegoingtomaximizeashort-termtransactionalbenefitattheriskofdestroyingalong-termrelationshipsaysChaseManhattanCorp.Vice-ChairmanJosephG.Sponholz. Predictablythebiggestwinnersfromfinancialinnovationwillbecompaniesandfamiliesthathavecomplexfinances.Banksalreadyshowsignsoflosinginterestinpeoplewhowantjustplaincheckingaccounts. Butasincomesandwealthrisemorepeoplewillfindthemselvesthrustintotheroleofassetmanagers.Businessestoowillhavetobecomemoresophisticated-ifonlytokeeppacewithfinanciallyinnovativerivals. .Incomparisonwithnaturalscientistsfinancialengineers
辩证推理又称
Financialengineersdon’’twearwhitelabcoats.Theydon’’texperimentonratsorperformgaschromatography气相层析.Theirrawmaterial-money-isn’’tasshowyaswhatbiologistsandphysicistsinvestigate.Buttheinnovationstheyproducewillcontributejustasmuchtoeconomicgrowth. Maybemoreinfactbecausewithoutthescienceoffinanceallothersciencesarejustabunchofneatconcepts.Ideasbegintotributetohumanbettermentwhenthey’’refinanced-byventurecapitalstockofferingsloansorbuyouts.Asmoothlyoperatingfinancialsystemshowersmoneyongoodideas.Equallyimportantitcutsofffundingtotiredideasandtiredcompaniessotheirassetscanbeemployedmoreefficientlyelsewhere. Inthe21stcenturyeconomyinnovationinfinancewillincreaseinconcertwiththeincreaseincompetition.Partlybecauseofderegulationandglobalizationcompetitionshouldgettougherandmarginsthinner.Asproductssuchashomemortgageloansbecomecommoditizedfinancial-servicecompanieswillbeforcedtogetmorecreative. Financialtechnologywillkeepfeedingoffinformationtechnology.Thesecrettosuccesswillbeastrongsoftwareplatformwhichwilllowerthecostofgeneralserviceswhilemakingitpossibletocreatehigh-marginvariationsaswell.Afewcompaniesthatgetitrightcanspinawayfromtherestandbecomestrongerandstronger. Inthenewworldoffinancesizecounts.Bigcompaniesenjoyeconomiesofscaleandnamerecognitionandtheycanbesaferbecausetheirbetsarespreadacrossmoreregionsandmarketsegments.ThevalueofU.S.bankmergersinthefirsthalfof1998wasgreaterthanthatofthethreepreviousyearscombined.Themergersareoccurringacrossindustriesaswell. Attheotherextremewillbespecialiststhatsurvivebydoingonethingeitherverycheaplyorexceptionallywell.Byofferinglowerpricesorbetterservicespecialistswilldisciplinethefinancialsupermarkets;thebigguysknowtheircustomerscanwalkawayiftheygetarawdeal.Thereisnowaywearegoingtomaximizeashort-termtransactionalbenefitattheriskofdestroyingalong-termrelationshipsaysChaseManhattanCorp.Vice-ChairmanJosephG.Sponholz. Predictablythebiggestwinnersfromfinancialinnovationwillbecompaniesandfamiliesthathavecomplexfinances.Banksalreadyshowsignsoflosinginterestinpeoplewhowantjustplaincheckingaccounts. Butasincomesandwealthrisemorepeoplewillfindthemselvesthrustintotheroleofassetmanagers.Businessestoowillhavetobecomemoresophisticated-ifonlytokeeppacewithfinanciallyinnovativerivals. Thestartlinggrowthofbankmergersindicatesthat
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Theworldisgoingthroughthebiggestwaveofmergersandacquisitionseverwitnessed.TheprocesssweepsfromhyperactiveAmericatoEuropeandreachestheemergingcountrieswithunsurpassedmight.Manyinthesecountriesarelookingatthisprocessandworrying:Won’’tthewaveofbusinessconcentrationturnintoanuncontrollableanti-competitiveforce There’’snoquestionthatthebigaregettingbiggerandmorepowerful.Multinationalcorporationsaccountedforlessthan20%ofinternationaltradein1982.Todaythefigureismorethan25%andgrowingrapidly.Internationalaffiliatesaccountforafast-growingsegmentofproductionineconomiesthatopenupandwelcomeforeigninvestment.InArgentinaforinstanceafterthereformsoftheearly1990smultinationalswentfrom43%toalmost70%oftheindustrialproductionofthe200largestfirms.Thisphenomenonhascreatedseriousconcernsovertheroleofsmallereconomicfirmsofnationalbusinessmenandovertheultimatestabilityoftheworldeconomy. IbelievethatthemostimportantforcesbehindthemassiveM&Awavearethesamethatunderlietheglobalizationprocess:fallingtransportationandcommunicationcostslowertradeandinvestmentbarriersandenlargedmarketsthatrequireenlargedoperationscapableofmeetingcustomers’’demands.Allthesearebeneficialnotdetrimentaltoconsumers.Asproductivitygrowstheworld’’swealthincreases. Examplesofbenefitsorcostsofthecurrentconcentrationwavearescanty.Yetitishardtoimaginethatthemergerofafewoilfirmstodaycouldre-createthesamethreatstocompetitionthatwerefearednearlyacenturyagointheU.S.whentheStandardOiltrustwasbrokenup.ThemergersoftelecomcompaniessuchasWorldComhardlyseembringhigherpricesforconsumersorareductioninthepaceoftechnicalprogress.Onthecontrarythepriceofcommunicationsiscomingdownfast.Incarstooconcentrationisincreasing--witnessDaimlerandChryslerRemaultandNissan--butitdoesnotappearthatconsumersarebeinghurt. Yetthefactremainsthatthemergermovementmustbewatched.AfewweeksagoAlanGreenspanwarnedagainstthemegamergersinthebankingindustry.Whoisgoingtosuperviseregulateandoperateaslenderoflastresortwiththegiganticbanksthatarebeingcreated.’’Won’’tmultinationalsshiftproductionfromoneplacetoanotherwhenanationgetstoostrictaboutinfringementstofaircompetition.’’AndshouldonecountrytakeuponitselftheroleofdefendingcompetitiononissuesthataffectmanyothernationsasintheU.S.vs.Microsoftcase7 Fromparagraph4wecaninferthat______.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
与一般解释相比法律解释的特点有
在法律解释中扩充解释是指
Financialengineersdon’’twearwhitelabcoats.Theydon’’texperimentonratsorperformgaschromatography气相层析.Theirrawmaterial-money-isn’’tasshowyaswhatbiologistsandphysicistsinvestigate.Buttheinnovationstheyproducewillcontributejustasmuchtoeconomicgrowth. Maybemoreinfactbecausewithoutthescienceoffinanceallothersciencesarejustabunchofneatconcepts.Ideasbegintotributetohumanbettermentwhenthey’’refinanced-byventurecapitalstockofferingsloansorbuyouts.Asmoothlyoperatingfinancialsystemshowersmoneyongoodideas.Equallyimportantitcutsofffundingtotiredideasandtiredcompaniessotheirassetscanbeemployedmoreefficientlyelsewhere. Inthe21stcenturyeconomyinnovationinfinancewillincreaseinconcertwiththeincreaseincompetition.Partlybecauseofderegulationandglobalizationcompetitionshouldgettougherandmarginsthinner.Asproductssuchashomemortgageloansbecomecommoditizedfinancial-servicecompanieswillbeforcedtogetmorecreative. Financialtechnologywillkeepfeedingoffinformationtechnology.Thesecrettosuccesswillbeastrongsoftwareplatformwhichwilllowerthecostofgeneralserviceswhilemakingitpossibletocreatehigh-marginvariationsaswell.Afewcompaniesthatgetitrightcanspinawayfromtherestandbecomestrongerandstronger. Inthenewworldoffinancesizecounts.Bigcompaniesenjoyeconomiesofscaleandnamerecognitionandtheycanbesaferbecausetheirbetsarespreadacrossmoreregionsandmarketsegments.ThevalueofU.S.bankmergersinthefirsthalfof1998wasgreaterthanthatofthethreepreviousyearscombined.Themergersareoccurringacrossindustriesaswell. Attheotherextremewillbespecialiststhatsurvivebydoingonethingeitherverycheaplyorexceptionallywell.Byofferinglowerpricesorbetterservicespecialistswilldisciplinethefinancialsupermarkets;thebigguysknowtheircustomerscanwalkawayiftheygetarawdeal.Thereisnowaywearegoingtomaximizeashort-termtransactionalbenefitattheriskofdestroyingalong-termrelationshipsaysChaseManhattanCorp.Vice-ChairmanJosephG.Sponholz. Predictablythebiggestwinnersfromfinancialinnovationwillbecompaniesandfamiliesthathavecomplexfinances.Banksalreadyshowsignsoflosinginterestinpeoplewhowantjustplaincheckingaccounts. Butasincomesandwealthrisemorepeoplewillfindthemselvesthrustintotheroleofassetmanagers.Businessestoowillhavetobecomemoresophisticated-ifonlytokeeppacewithfinanciallyinnovativerivals. Companiesorfamiliesmayfailinfinancingifthey
在我国法律适用过程中较少使用归纳推理的直接原因悬
Ifambitionistobewellregardedtherewardsofambition--wealthdistinctioncontroloverone’’sdestiny--mustbedeemedworthyofthesacrificesmadeonambition’’sbehalf.Ifthetraditionofambitionistohavevitalityitmustbewidelyshared;anditespeciallymustbehighlyregardedbypeoplewhoarethemselvesadmiredtheeducatednotleastamongthem.Inanoddwayhoweveritistheeducatedwhohaveclaimedtohavegivenuponambitionasanideal.Whatisoddisthattheyhaveperhapsmostbenefitedfromambition--ifnotalwaystheirownthenthatoftheirparentsandgrandparents.Thereisaheavynoteofhypocrisyinthisacaseofclosingthebarndoorafterthehorseshaveescaped--withtheeducatedthemselvesridingonthem. Certainlypeopledonotseemlessinterestedinsuccessanditssignsnowthanformerly.SummerhomesEuropeantravelBMWs--thelocationsplacenamesandnamebrandsmaychangebutsuchitemsdonotseemlessindemandtodaythanadecadeortwoyearsago.Whathashappenedisthatpeoplecannotconfessfullytotheirdreamsaseasilyandopenlyasoncetheycouldlesttheybethoughtpushingacquisitiveandvulgar.Insteadwearetreatedtofinehypocriticalspectacleswhichnowmorethaneverseeminamplesupply:thecriticofAmericanmaterialismwithaSouthamptonsummerhome;thepublisherofradicalbookswhotakeshismealsinthree-starrestaurants;thejournalistadvocatingparticipatorydemocracyinallphasesoflifewhoseownchildrenareenrolledinprivateschools.ForsuchpeopleandmanymoreperhapsnotsoexceptionaltheproperformulationisSucceedatallcostsbutavoidappearingambitious. Theattacksonambitionaremanyandcomefromvariousangles;itspublicdefendersarefewandunimpressivewheretheyarenotextremelyunattractive.AsaresultthesupportforambitionasahealthyimpulseaqualitytobeadmiredandfixedinthemindoftheyoungisprobablylowerthanithaseverbeenintheUnitedStates.Thisdoesnotmeanthatambitionisatanendthatpeoplenolongerfeelitsstirringsandpromptingsbutonlythatnolongeropenlyhonoreditislessopenlyprofessed.Consequencesfollowfromthisofcoursesomeofwhicharethatambitionisdrivenundergroundormadesly.Suchthenisthewaythingsstand:ontheleftangrycriticsontherightstupidsupportersandinthemiddleasusualthemajorityofearnestpeopletryingtogetoninlife. Somepeopledonotopenlyadmittheyhaveambitionbecause___________.
Ifambitionistobewellregardedtherewardsofambition--wealthdistinctioncontroloverone’’sdestiny--mustbedeemedworthyofthesacrificesmadeonambition’’sbehalf.Ifthetraditionofambitionistohavevitalityitmustbewidelyshared;anditespeciallymustbehighlyregardedbypeoplewhoarethemselvesadmiredtheeducatednotleastamongthem.Inanoddwayhoweveritistheeducatedwhohaveclaimedtohavegivenuponambitionasanideal.Whatisoddisthattheyhaveperhapsmostbenefitedfromambition--ifnotalwaystheirownthenthatoftheirparentsandgrandparents.Thereisaheavynoteofhypocrisyinthisacaseofclosingthebarndoorafterthehorseshaveescaped--withtheeducatedthemselvesridingonthem. Certainlypeopledonotseemlessinterestedinsuccessanditssignsnowthanformerly.SummerhomesEuropeantravelBMWs--thelocationsplacenamesandnamebrandsmaychangebutsuchitemsdonotseemlessindemandtodaythanadecadeortwoyearsago.Whathashappenedisthatpeoplecannotconfessfullytotheirdreamsaseasilyandopenlyasoncetheycouldlesttheybethoughtpushingacquisitiveandvulgar.Insteadwearetreatedtofinehypocriticalspectacleswhichnowmorethaneverseeminamplesupply:thecriticofAmericanmaterialismwithaSouthamptonsummerhome;thepublisherofradicalbookswhotakeshismealsinthree-starrestaurants;thejournalistadvocatingparticipatorydemocracyinallphasesoflifewhoseownchildrenareenrolledinprivateschools.ForsuchpeopleandmanymoreperhapsnotsoexceptionaltheproperformulationisSucceedatallcostsbutavoidappearingambitious. Theattacksonambitionaremanyandcomefromvariousangles;itspublicdefendersarefewandunimpressivewheretheyarenotextremelyunattractive.AsaresultthesupportforambitionasahealthyimpulseaqualitytobeadmiredandfixedinthemindoftheyoungisprobablylowerthanithaseverbeenintheUnitedStates.Thisdoesnotmeanthatambitionisatanendthatpeoplenolongerfeelitsstirringsandpromptingsbutonlythatnolongeropenlyhonoreditislessopenlyprofessed.Consequencesfollowfromthisofcoursesomeofwhicharethatambitionisdrivenundergroundormadesly.Suchthenisthewaythingsstand:ontheleftangrycriticsontherightstupidsupportersandinthemiddleasusualthemajorityofearnestpeopletryingtogetoninlife. Itisgenerallybelievedthatambitionmaybewellregardedif__________.
ItisnoteasytotalkabouttheroleofthemassmediainthisoverwhelminglysignificantphaseinEuropeanhistory.Historyandnewsbecomeconfusedandone’’simpressionstendtobeamixtureofskepticismandoptimism.46Televisionisoneofthemeansbywhichthesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyed--andperhapsneverbeforehasitservedsomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.TheEuropethatisnowformingcannotbeanythingotherthanitspeoplestheirculturesandnationalidentifies.WiththisinmindwecanbegintoanalyzetheEuropeantelevisionscene.47InEurope.aselsewheremulti-mediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessful:groupswhichbringtogethertelevisionradionewspapersmagazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.OneItalianexamplewouldbetheBerlusconigroupwhileabroadMaxwellandMurdochcometomind. Clearlyonlythebiggestandmostflexibletelevisioncompaniesaregoingtobeabletocompeteinsucharichandhotly-contestedmarket.48Thisalonedemonstratesthatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein.afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989. MoreovertheintegrationoftheEuropeancommunitywillobligetelevisioncompaniestocooperatemorecloselyintermsofbothproductionanddistribution. 49CreatingaEuropeanidentitythatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoice―thatofproducingprogramsinEuropeforEurope.ThisentailsreducingourdependenceontheNorthAmericanmarketwhoseprogramsrelatetoexperiencesandculturaltraditionswhicharedifferentfromourown Inordertoachievetheseobjectiveswemustconcentratemoreonco-productionstheexchangeofnewsdocumentaryservicesandtraining.ThisalsoinvolvestheagreementsbetweenEuropeancountriesforthecreationofaEuropeanbankforTelevisionProductionwhichonthemodeloftheEuropeanInvestmentsBankwillhandlethefinancesnecessaryforproductioncosts.50Indealingwithachallengeonsuchascaleitisnoexaggerationtosay.Unitedwestanddividedwefall―andifIhadtochooseasloganitwouldbeUnityinourdiversityAunityofobjectivesthatnonethelessrespectthevariedpeculiaritiesofeachcountry.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
ItisnoteasytotalkabouttheroleofthemassmediainthisoverwhelminglysignificantphaseinEuropeanhistory.Historyandnewsbecomeconfusedandone’’simpressionstendtobeamixtureofskepticismandoptimism.46Televisionisoneofthemeansbywhichthesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyed--andperhapsneverbeforehasitservedsomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.TheEuropethatisnowformingcannotbeanythingotherthanitspeoplestheirculturesandnationalidentifies.WiththisinmindwecanbegintoanalyzetheEuropeantelevisionscene.47InEurope.aselsewheremulti-mediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessful:groupswhichbringtogethertelevisionradionewspapersmagazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.OneItalianexamplewouldbetheBerlusconigroupwhileabroadMaxwellandMurdochcometomind. Clearlyonlythebiggestandmostflexibletelevisioncompaniesaregoingtobeabletocompeteinsucharichandhotly-contestedmarket.48Thisalonedemonstratesthatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein.afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989. MoreovertheintegrationoftheEuropeancommunitywillobligetelevisioncompaniestocooperatemorecloselyintermsofbothproductionanddistribution. 49CreatingaEuropeanidentitythatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoice―thatofproducingprogramsinEuropeforEurope.ThisentailsreducingourdependenceontheNorthAmericanmarketwhoseprogramsrelatetoexperiencesandculturaltraditionswhicharedifferentfromourown Inordertoachievetheseobjectiveswemustconcentratemoreonco-productionstheexchangeofnewsdocumentaryservicesandtraining.ThisalsoinvolvestheagreementsbetweenEuropeancountriesforthecreationofaEuropeanbankforTelevisionProductionwhichonthemodeloftheEuropeanInvestmentsBankwillhandlethefinancesnecessaryforproductioncosts.50Indealingwithachallengeonsuchascaleitisnoexaggerationtosay.Unitedwestanddividedwefall―andifIhadtochooseasloganitwouldbeUnityinourdiversityAunityofobjectivesthatnonethelessrespectthevariedpeculiaritiesofeachcountry. ItisnoteasytotalkabouttheroleofthemassmediainthisoverwhelminglysignificantphaseinEuropeanhistory.Historyandnewsbecomeconfusedandone’’simpressionstendtobeamixtureofskepticismandoptimism.46Televisionisoneofthemeansbywhichthesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyed--andperhapsneverbeforehasitservedsomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.TheEuropethatisnowformingcannotbeanythingotherthanitspeoplestheirculturesandnationalidentifies.WiththisinmindwecanbegintoanalyzetheEuropeantelevisionscene.47InEurope.aselsewheremulti-mediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessful:groupswhichbringtogethertelevisionradionewspapersmagazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.OneItalianexamplewouldbetheBerlusconigroupwhileabroadMaxwellandMurdochcometomind. Clearlyonlythebiggestandmostflexibletelevisioncompaniesaregoingtobeabletocompeteinsucharichandhotly-contestedmarket.48Thisalonedemonstratesthatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein.afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989. MoreovertheintegrationoftheEuropeancommunitywillobligetelevisioncompaniestocooperatemorecloselyintermsofbothproductionanddistribution. 49CreatingaEuropeanidentitythatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoice―thatofproducingprogramsinEuropeforEurope.ThisentailsreducingourdependenceontheNorthAmericanmarketwhoseprogramsrelatetoexperiencesandculturaltraditionswhicharedifferentfromourown Inordertoachievetheseobjectiveswemustconcentratemoreonco-productionstheexchangeofnewsdocumentaryservicesandtraining.ThisalsoinvolvestheagreementsbetweenEuropeancountriesforthecreationofaEuropeanbankforTelevisionProductionwhichonthemodeloftheEuropeanInvestmentsBankwillhandlethefinancesnecessaryforproductioncosts.50Indealingwithachallengeonsuchascaleitisnoexaggerationtosay.Unitedwestanddividedwefall―andifIhadtochooseasloganitwouldbeUnityinourdiversityAunityofobjectivesthatnonethelessrespectthevariedpeculiaritiesofeachcountry.
MoneyspentonadvertisingismoneyspentaswellasanyIknowof.Itservesdirectlytoassistarapiddistributionofgoodsatreasonablepricestherebyestablishingafirmhomemarketandsomakingitpossibletoprovideforexportatcompetitiveprices.Bydrawingattentiontonewideasithelpsenormouslytoraisestandardsofliving.Byhelpingtoincreasedemanditensuresanincreasedneedforlabourandisthereforeaneffectivewaytofightunemployment.Itlowersthecostsofmanyservices:withoutadvertisementsyourdailynewspaperwouldcostfourtimesasmuchthepriceofyourtelevisionlicencewouldneedtobedoubledandtravelbybusortubewouldcost20percentmore. Andperhapsmostimportantofalladvertisingprovidesaguaranteeofreasonablevalueintheproductsandservicesyoubuy.Apartfromthefactthattwenty-sevenActsofParliamentgovernthetermsofadvertisingnoregularadvertiserdarepromoteaproductthatfailstoliveuptothepromiseofhisadvertisements.Hemightfoolsomepeopleforalittlewhilethroughmisleadingadvertising.Hewillnotdosoforlongformercifullythepublichasthegoodsensenottobuytheinferiorarticlemorethanonce.IfyouseeanarticleconsistentlyadvertiseditisthesurestproofIknowthatthearticledoeswhatisclaimedforitandthatitrepresentsgoodvalue. AdvertisingdoesmoreforthematerialbenefitofthecommunitythananyotherforceIcanthinkof. ThereisonepointIfeelIoughttotouchon.RecentlyIheardawell-knowntelevisionpersonalitydeclarethathewasagainstadvertisingbecauseitpersuadesratherthaninforms.Hewasdrawingexcessivelyfinedistinctions.Ofcourseadvertisingseekstopersuade. Ifitsmessagewereconfinedmerelytoinformation―andthatinitselfwouldbedifficultifnotimpossibletoachieveforevenadetailsuchasthechoiceofthecolourofashirtissubtletypersuasiveadvertisingwouldbesoboringthatnoonewouldpayanyattention.Butperhapsthatiswhatthewell-knowntelevisionpersonalitywants. Intheauthor’’sopinion__________________.
ItisnoteasytotalkabouttheroleofthemassmediainthisoverwhelminglysignificantphaseinEuropeanhistory.Historyandnewsbecomeconfusedandone’’simpressionstendtobeamixtureofskepticismandoptimism.46Televisionisoneofthemeansbywhichthesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyed--andperhapsneverbeforehasitservedsomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.TheEuropethatisnowformingcannotbeanythingotherthanitspeoplestheirculturesandnationalidentifies.WiththisinmindwecanbegintoanalyzetheEuropeantelevisionscene.47InEurope.aselsewheremulti-mediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessful:groupswhichbringtogethertelevisionradionewspapersmagazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.OneItalianexamplewouldbetheBerlusconigroupwhileabroadMaxwellandMurdochcometomind. Clearlyonlythebiggestandmostflexibletelevisioncompaniesaregoingtobeabletocompeteinsucharichandhotly-contestedmarket.48Thisalonedemonstratesthatthetelevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein.afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeantelevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989. MoreovertheintegrationoftheEuropeancommunitywillobligetelevisioncompaniestocooperatemorecloselyintermsofbothproductionanddistribution. 49CreatingaEuropeanidentitythatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoice―thatofproducingprogramsinEuropeforEurope.ThisentailsreducingourdependenceontheNorthAmericanmarketwhoseprogramsrelatetoexperiencesandculturaltraditionswhicharedifferentfromourown Inordertoachievetheseobjectiveswemustconcentratemoreonco-productionstheexchangeofnewsdocumentaryservicesandtraining.ThisalsoinvolvestheagreementsbetweenEuropeancountriesforthecreationofaEuropeanbankforTelevisionProductionwhichonthemodeloftheEuropeanInvestmentsBankwillhandlethefinancesnecessaryforproductioncosts.50Indealingwithachallengeonsuchascaleitisnoexaggerationtosay.Unitedwestanddividedwefall―andifIhadtochooseasloganitwouldbeUnityinourdiversityAunityofobjectivesthatnonethelessrespectthevariedpeculiaritiesofeachcountry.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
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