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Text 3 Biologically, there is only one quality which distinguishes us from animals: the ability...
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ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.Whatcanbeinferredfromthepassage
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Howarepersonalappraisalsimportantforcompanies
Schoolshootingsacrossthecountrycontinuetodiscussthestoryofthestudentwhoisoutcastbyfellowpeersanddecidestolashout.Thesereportsmayleavesomewonderingifostracismisalegitimatecauseforviolence.KipWilliamsbelievesitis.WilliamsaprofessorofpsychologyatPurdueUniversityrecentlycametocampustospeakabouttheeffectsofbeingostracized.Theseeffectscanbedistressingbuttheyoftengounnoticedhesaid.IwouldhaveratherbeenbeatenorbulliedthanbeignoredWilliamssaidreflectingonwhatsomeoftheparticipantsinhisexperimentsfeltaftertheywereleftoutofagameoftoss.Eventwominutesofinvisibilityispainfulhesaid.OstracismtheactofignoringorexcludingisaphenomenonnotonlyfoundintheadultworldaccordingtoWilliams.Childrenplaysimplegameswhichleavepeersoutwithoutbeingtaughttodoso.EvenanimalsuseformsofostracismWilliamssaid.Lionswolvesandbeesforexampleusethetactictokeepoutburdensomemembersoftheirgroupswhichoftenresultsindeathfortheexcludedmember.Exclusionamonghumanscanbesimilarlydetrimentalhesaid.Williamsconductedacomputergameoftossandshowedtheresultsforthosewhodidnotreceivetheball.Theirangrydisappointedandsaddenedfacesshowedjusthowimportantinclusionisinhumaninteraction.Inanotherexperimenttheexcludedparticipantshadnocontroloverloudnoisesenteringtheirheadphones.Theresultwasthattheychosetoactoutagainstfellowparticipants.ThatlackofcontroliswhatWilliamsbelievestriggersaggression.Whencontrolisrobbedthenpeopledon’tcareabouthowtheyarebeinglikedanymoreWilliamssaid.Theyjustwanttoestablishcontrolbybeingrecognized.PeoplearemorelikelytobeviolentinordertogetthatrecognitionWilliamssaid.Hisresearchhasfoundthatpeoplearegenerallyostracizedatleastonceadaylikethewaiterwhorefillswaterglasseswithoutnoticeorthepersonwhositsnexttoyouonthebuswithoutaglance.TheseinteractionsmaynotseemlikemuchbutWilliamsassertsthateventheslightestsituationsinwhichpeoplefeelinvisiblecanhaveanegativeimpactonthem.Inhisstudiesatotalof70percentofpeoplesaidtheyhadbeengiventhesilenttreatmentbytheirlovedones.Whichoneofthefollowingistrueabouttheexperienceofostracism
Schoolshootingsacrossthecountrycontinuetodiscussthestoryofthestudentwhoisoutcastbyfellowpeersanddecidestolashout.Thesereportsmayleavesomewonderingifostracismisalegitimatecauseforviolence.KipWilliamsbelievesitis.WilliamsaprofessorofpsychologyatPurdueUniversityrecentlycametocampustospeakabouttheeffectsofbeingostracized.Theseeffectscanbedistressingbuttheyoftengounnoticedhesaid.IwouldhaveratherbeenbeatenorbulliedthanbeignoredWilliamssaidreflectingonwhatsomeoftheparticipantsinhisexperimentsfeltaftertheywereleftoutofagameoftoss.Eventwominutesofinvisibilityispainfulhesaid.OstracismtheactofignoringorexcludingisaphenomenonnotonlyfoundintheadultworldaccordingtoWilliams.Childrenplaysimplegameswhichleavepeersoutwithoutbeingtaughttodoso.EvenanimalsuseformsofostracismWilliamssaid.Lionswolvesandbeesforexampleusethetactictokeepoutburdensomemembersoftheirgroupswhichoftenresultsindeathfortheexcludedmember.Exclusionamonghumanscanbesimilarlydetrimentalhesaid.Williamsconductedacomputergameoftossandshowedtheresultsforthosewhodidnotreceivetheball.Theirangrydisappointedandsaddenedfacesshowedjusthowimportantinclusionisinhumaninteraction.Inanotherexperimenttheexcludedparticipantshadnocontroloverloudnoisesenteringtheirheadphones.Theresultwasthattheychosetoactoutagainstfellowparticipants.ThatlackofcontroliswhatWilliamsbelievestriggersaggression.Whencontrolisrobbedthenpeopledon’tcareabouthowtheyarebeinglikedanymoreWilliamssaid.Theyjustwanttoestablishcontrolbybeingrecognized.PeoplearemorelikelytobeviolentinordertogetthatrecognitionWilliamssaid.Hisresearchhasfoundthatpeoplearegenerallyostracizedatleastonceadaylikethewaiterwhorefillswaterglasseswithoutnoticeorthepersonwhositsnexttoyouonthebuswithoutaglance.TheseinteractionsmaynotseemlikemuchbutWilliamsassertsthateventheslightestsituationsinwhichpeoplefeelinvisiblecanhaveanegativeimpactonthem.Inhisstudiesatotalof70percentofpeoplesaidtheyhadbeengiventhesilenttreatmentbytheirlovedones.Fromparagraph3weknowthatWilliamsgothisresearchresultfrom______.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.9
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.1
Iwasjustlikeyou--I’thoughtIwasinvinciblesaysAdamBlombergstandingbefore400studentsinadarkenedauditoriumatMiami’sCoralReefSeniorHighSchool.Aphotoofabloodiedandunconsciousteenagerabreathingtubeprotrudingfromhismouthflashesonthewall.Thatwasmehesays.There’sacollectivegaspbeforetheroomgrowssilentandBlomberg31ananesthesiologistwhotrainedatBrighamandWomen’sHospitalinBostonbeginsthestoryofwhathappenedonenightinFebruary1995.Hecreatedapresentationillustratingthedangersofbehavingirresponsiblyinacarfromnotbucklinguptospeedingtodrivingundertheinfluenceofalcoholanddrugs.Hetrackeddownphotosofteencrashvictimsfromthecenter’sarchivesthenincorporatedstatisticsandhisownexperience.HespokethefirsttimetoalocalBoyScouttroopandwassoongivinghistalkASurvivor’sStoryathighschoolsaroundthestate.TheBlombergfamilyhadreasontocelebrate.Adamhadfullyrecoveredandwasonhiswaytofulfillinghislifelongdreamofbecomingadoctor.ButinJanuary2000Blomberg’s22-year-oldstep-brotherMichaelwaskilledinacrashwhiledrivingtohisAtlantahomelateonenight.Hewasn’twearingaseatbelt.AftertheaccidentBlombergstoppedtellinghisstorytocrowdsrackedwithguiltoverhisinabilitytoreachMichael.IfBlomberghadfailedhisownbrotherhereasonedhowcouldhepossiblymakeadifferencetoaroomfulofstrangersRequestsfromschoolscontinuedtorollinbutheturneddowneveryone.ThenBlomberggotacallfromahighschoolcounselor.Ashestartedintohisstandardexcuse-lackoftime—helookedacrosstheroomatastackofthank-younotesfromstudentswhohadheardhimspeak.Herealizedthatkidsneededtohearwhathehadtosay.Heagreedtovisittheschoolandbegancontactingothersonthewaitinglistforhistalks.Blombergleavestheschoolhopinghehaschangedsomeone’sbehavior.Herecallsaletterhereceivedfromastudentwhoheardhimspeakandgotintoacrashlaterthatsamedaybutwasunharmed.Shetoldmeshewaswearingherseatbeltbecauseofme.Letterslikethisreinforcehisbeliefthathesurvivedtheaccidentforareason.Therearealotofphysiciansintheworldandweallsaveliveshesays.Ihaveaspecialopportunitytosavelivesnotjustasadoctorbutalsoasahumanbeing./WhichoneofthefollowingisNOTapartoftheauthor’spresentation
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Accordingtothepassagesuccesscanmostlybemeasuredintermsof______.
IfsustainablecompetitiveadvantagedependsonworkforceskillsAmericanfirmshaveaproblem.HumanresourcemanagementisnottraditionallyseenascentraltothecompetitivesurvivalofthefirmtheUnitedStates.46Skillacquisitionisconsideredasanindividualresponsibility.Laborissimplyanotherfactorofproductiontobehired—rentedatthelowestpossiblecost—muchasonebuysrawmaterialsorequipment. Thelackofimportanceattachedtohuman-resourcemanagementcallbeseeninthecorporationhierarchy.InanAmericanfirmthechiefofficerisalmostalwayssecondincommand.47Thepostofheadofhuman-resourcemanagementisusuallyaspecializedjoboffattheedgeofthecorporatehierarchy.TheexecutivewhoholdsitisneverconsultedonmajorstrategicdecisionsandhasnochancestomoveuptoChiefExecutiveOfficerCEO.BywayofcontrastinJapantheheadofhuman-resourcemanagementiscentral—usuallythesecondmostimportantexecutiveaftertheCEOinthefirmhierarchy.48WhileAmericanfirmsoftentalkaboutthevastamountsspentontrainingtheirworkforcesinfacttheyinvestlessintheskillsoftheiremployeesthandotheJapaneseorGermanfirms. Themoneytheydoinvestisalsomorehighlyconcentratedonprofessionalandmanagerialemployees.Andthelimitedinvestmentsthataremadeintrainingworkersarealsomuchmorenarrowlyfocusedonthespecificskillsnecessarytodothenextjobratherthanonthebasicbackgroundskillsthatmakeitpossibletoabsorbnewtechnologies. Asaresultproblemsemergewhennewbreakthroughtechnologiesarrive.49IfAmericanworkersforexampletakemuchlongertolearnhowtooperatenewflexiblemanufacturingstationsthanworkersinGermanyastheydotheeffectivecostofthoseislowerinGermanythanitistheUnitedStates.50Moretimeisrequiredbeforeequipmentisupandrunningatcapacityandtheneedforextensiveretraininggeneratescostsandcreatesbottlenecksthatlimitthespeedwithwhichnewequipmentcanbeemployed.Theresultisslowerpaceoftechnologicalchange.Andintheendtheskillsofthebottomhalfofthepopulationaffectthewagesofthetophalf.Ifthebottomhalfcan’teffectivelystafftheprocessesthathavetobeoperatedthemanagementandprofessionaljobsthatgowiththeseprocesseswilldisappear. IfAmericanworkersforexampletakemuchlongertolearnhowtooperatenewflexiblemanufacturingstationsthanworkersinGermanyastheydotheeffectivecostofthoseislowerinGermanythanitistheUnitedStates.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.19
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.TheearliestwrittenrecordofEnglishavailabletousstarted______.
41Orientation Yellowstoneismuchmorethanhotgroundandgushingsteam.LocatedastridetheContinentalDividemostoftheparkoccupiesahighplateausurroundedbymountainsanddrainedbyseveralrivers.Parkboundariesenclosecraggypeaksalpinelakesdeepcanyonsandvastforests.In1872Yellowstonebecametheworld’sfirstnationalparktheresultofgreatforesightonthepartofmanypeopleaboutoureventualneedforthesolaceandbeautyofwildplaces. 42WhentoGo Morethanhalfofthe3millionannumvisitorscomeinJulyandAugust.InSeptemberandearlyOctobertheweatherisgoodthevisitorsfewandthewildlifeabundant.InMayandJuneyoucanseenewbornanimalsbuttheweathermaybecoldwetandevensnowy.BetweenaboutNo-vember1andMay1mostparkroadsareclosedtovehicles. 43GettingThere 44HowtoVisit The142-mile228.5-kilometerGrandLoopRoadformsafigureeightwithconnectingspurstothefiveentrances.OnanyvisitstartwiththegeyserbasinsandMammothHotSpringstoseewildlifeandthermalfeaturescaution:bothcanbehazardousifapproachedtooclosely.OntheseconddaytraveltotheGrandCanyonoftheYellowstoneHaydenValleyandYellowstoneLake. 45ParkInformation Parkopensyear-round. [A]RoadfromNorthEntrancetoNortheastEntranceopenallyear;mostotherparkroadsclosedtocarsNovemberthroughApril.Callheadquartersforlatestweatherandroadconditions. [B]FacilitiesforDisabledVisitorcentersMadisonandFishingBridgeCampgroundsmostrestroomsamphitheatersnumerousranger-ledactivitieswalksandexhibitsarewheelchairaccessible.Freebrochureavailable. [C]OnalongerstayvisittheNorthernRangeorconsideraboatingorfishingtriponYellowstoneLake;abackcountryexcursiononfootorhorse;oranyofthenumerouseasynaturetrailsthroughoutthepark. [D]InearlyyearswhatmadeYellowstonestandoutwastheextravaganzaofgeysersandhotsprings.ThewildlandscapeandthebisonelkandbearswerenicebutafterallAmericawasstillapioneercountryfilledwithscenicbeautyandanimals. [E]ByPlane WestYellowstoneAirportWYSattheWestEntranceofYellowstone.ThisairportisopenJunethroughSeptember. CodyAirportCODabout50miles81kilometersfromthepark. [F]Duringthewinterseasonmid-Decembertomid-MarchYellowstonebecomesafantasyofsteamandice;facilitiesarelimitedbutsufficient.OnlytheroadbetweentheNorthandNortheastEntrancesstaysopentocarsbutsnowmobilingispermittedonunplowedroads.Heatedsnowcoachesoffertoursandgivecross-countryskiersaccesstothe50miles80.5kilometersofgroomedtrails. 41
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.13
Thetermmassagetherapyalsocalledmassageforshort;massagealsoreferstoanindividualtreatmentsessioncoversagroupofpracticesandtechniques.Thereareover80typesofmassagetherapy.Inallofthemtherapistspressrubandotherwisemanipulatethemusclesandothersofttissuesofthebodyoftenvaryingpressureandmovement.Theymostoftenusetheirhandsandfingersbutmayusetheirforearmselbowsorfeet.Typicallytheintentistorelaxthesofttissuesincreasedeliveryofbloodandoxygentothemassagedareaswarmthemanddecreasepain.Massagetherapydatesbackthousandsofyears.ReferencestomassagehavebeenfoundinancientwritingsfrommanyculturesincludingthoseofAncientGreeceAncientRomeJapanChinaEgyptandtheIndiansubcontinent.IntheUnitedStatesmassagetherapyfirstbecamepopularandwaspromotedforavarietyofhealthpurposesstartinginthemid-1800s.Inthe1930sand1940showevermassagefelloutoffavormostlybecauseofscientificandtechnologicaladvancesinmedicaltreatments.Interestinmassagerevivedinthe1970sespeciallyamongathletes.Morerecentlya2002nationalsurveyonAmericans’useofCAMpublishedin2004foundthat5percentofthe31000participantshadusedmassagetherapyinthepreceding12monthsand9.3percenthadeverusedit.Accordingtorecentreviewspeopleusemassageforawidevarietyofhealth-relatedintents:forexampletorelievepainoftenfrommusculoskeletalconditionsbutfromotherconditionsaswell;rehabilitatesportsinjuries;reducestress;increaserelaxation;addressfeelingsofanxietyanddepression;andaidgeneralwellness.Massagetherapyappearstohavefewseriousrisksifappropriatecautionsarefollowed.Averysmallnumberofseriousinjurieshavebeenreportedandtheyappeartohaveoccurredmostlybecausecautionswerenotfollowedoramassagewasgivenbyapersonwhowasnotproperlytrained.Healthcareprovidersrecommendthatpatientsnothavemassagetherapybeforetheyconsulttheirdoctorsabouttheirownhealthconditions.Scientistsarestudyingmassagetounderstandwhateffectsmassagetherapyhasonpatientshowithasthoseeffectsandwhy.Someaspectsofthisarebetterunderstoodthanothers.Therearemanymoreaspectsthatarenotyetknownorwellunderstoodscientifically.Morewell-designedstudiesareneededtounderstandandconfirmthesetheoriesandotherscientificaspectsofmassage.Paragraph4ismainlyconcernedabout______.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.5
41Orientation Yellowstoneismuchmorethanhotgroundandgushingsteam.LocatedastridetheContinentalDividemostoftheparkoccupiesahighplateausurroundedbymountainsanddrainedbyseveralrivers.Parkboundariesenclosecraggypeaksalpinelakesdeepcanyonsandvastforests.In1872Yellowstonebecametheworld’sfirstnationalparktheresultofgreatforesightonthepartofmanypeopleaboutoureventualneedforthesolaceandbeautyofwildplaces. 42WhentoGo Morethanhalfofthe3millionannumvisitorscomeinJulyandAugust.InSeptemberandearlyOctobertheweatherisgoodthevisitorsfewandthewildlifeabundant.InMayandJuneyoucanseenewbornanimalsbuttheweathermaybecoldwetandevensnowy.BetweenaboutNo-vember1andMay1mostparkroadsareclosedtovehicles. 43GettingThere 44HowtoVisit The142-mile228.5-kilometerGrandLoopRoadformsafigureeightwithconnectingspurstothefiveentrances.OnanyvisitstartwiththegeyserbasinsandMammothHotSpringstoseewildlifeandthermalfeaturescaution:bothcanbehazardousifapproachedtooclosely.OntheseconddaytraveltotheGrandCanyonoftheYellowstoneHaydenValleyandYellowstoneLake. 45ParkInformation Parkopensyear-round. [A]RoadfromNorthEntrancetoNortheastEntranceopenallyear;mostotherparkroadsclosedtocarsNovemberthroughApril.Callheadquartersforlatestweatherandroadconditions. [B]FacilitiesforDisabledVisitorcentersMadisonandFishingBridgeCampgroundsmostrestroomsamphitheatersnumerousranger-ledactivitieswalksandexhibitsarewheelchairaccessible.Freebrochureavailable. [C]OnalongerstayvisittheNorthernRangeorconsideraboatingorfishingtriponYellowstoneLake;abackcountryexcursiononfootorhorse;oranyofthenumerouseasynaturetrailsthroughoutthepark. [D]InearlyyearswhatmadeYellowstonestandoutwastheextravaganzaofgeysersandhotsprings.ThewildlandscapeandthebisonelkandbearswerenicebutafterallAmericawasstillapioneercountryfilledwithscenicbeautyandanimals. [E]ByPlane WestYellowstoneAirportWYSattheWestEntranceofYellowstone.ThisairportisopenJunethroughSeptember. CodyAirportCODabout50miles81kilometersfromthepark. [F]Duringthewinterseasonmid-Decembertomid-MarchYellowstonebecomesafantasyofsteamandice;facilitiesarelimitedbutsufficient.OnlytheroadbetweentheNorthandNortheastEntrancesstaysopentocarsbutsnowmobilingispermittedonunplowedroads.Heatedsnowcoachesoffertoursandgivecross-countryskiersaccesstothe50miles80.5kilometersofgroomedtrails. 43
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.17
IfsustainablecompetitiveadvantagedependsonworkforceskillsAmericanfirmshaveaproblem.HumanresourcemanagementisnottraditionallyseenascentraltothecompetitivesurvivalofthefirmtheUnitedStates.46Skillacquisitionisconsideredasanindividualresponsibility.Laborissimplyanotherfactorofproductiontobehired—rentedatthelowestpossiblecost—muchasonebuysrawmaterialsorequipment. Thelackofimportanceattachedtohuman-resourcemanagementcallbeseeninthecorporationhierarchy.InanAmericanfirmthechiefofficerisalmostalwayssecondincommand.47Thepostofheadofhuman-resourcemanagementisusuallyaspecializedjoboffattheedgeofthecorporatehierarchy.TheexecutivewhoholdsitisneverconsultedonmajorstrategicdecisionsandhasnochancestomoveuptoChiefExecutiveOfficerCEO.BywayofcontrastinJapantheheadofhuman-resourcemanagementiscentral—usuallythesecondmostimportantexecutiveaftertheCEOinthefirmhierarchy.48WhileAmericanfirmsoftentalkaboutthevastamountsspentontrainingtheirworkforcesinfacttheyinvestlessintheskillsoftheiremployeesthandotheJapaneseorGermanfirms. Themoneytheydoinvestisalsomorehighlyconcentratedonprofessionalandmanagerialemployees.Andthelimitedinvestmentsthataremadeintrainingworkersarealsomuchmorenarrowlyfocusedonthespecificskillsnecessarytodothenextjobratherthanonthebasicbackgroundskillsthatmakeitpossibletoabsorbnewtechnologies. Asaresultproblemsemergewhennewbreakthroughtechnologiesarrive.49IfAmericanworkersforexampletakemuchlongertolearnhowtooperatenewflexiblemanufacturingstationsthanworkersinGermanyastheydotheeffectivecostofthoseislowerinGermanythanitistheUnitedStates.50Moretimeisrequiredbeforeequipmentisupandrunningatcapacityandtheneedforextensiveretraininggeneratescostsandcreatesbottlenecksthatlimitthespeedwithwhichnewequipmentcanbeemployed.Theresultisslowerpaceoftechnologicalchange.Andintheendtheskillsofthebottomhalfofthepopulationaffectthewagesofthetophalf.Ifthebottomhalfcan’teffectivelystafftheprocessesthathavetobeoperatedthemanagementandprofessionaljobsthatgowiththeseprocesseswilldisappear. Thepostofheadofhuman-resourcemanagementisusuallyaspecializedjoboffattheedgeofthecorporatehierarchy.TheexecutivewhoholdsitisneverconsultedonmajorstrategicdecisionsandhasnochancestomoveuptoChiefExecutiveOfficerCEO.
Directions:Inalmosteveryvocationcollegestudentsaresupposedtoundertakesuchactivitiesasofferingtheirknowledgetothosewhoneedmostperformingsomesocialinvestigationstakingparttimejobsorvolunteeringtodowhateverthatthesocietyneeds.Writesomethingyoudidthatwasworthmentioninginprevioussummervocationasalettertooneoftheeditorsofanewspaper.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.WhatisthemostremarkablecharacteristicofModernEnglish
Schoolshootingsacrossthecountrycontinuetodiscussthestoryofthestudentwhoisoutcastbyfellowpeersanddecidestolashout.Thesereportsmayleavesomewonderingifostracismisalegitimatecauseforviolence.KipWilliamsbelievesitis.WilliamsaprofessorofpsychologyatPurdueUniversityrecentlycametocampustospeakabouttheeffectsofbeingostracized.Theseeffectscanbedistressingbuttheyoftengounnoticedhesaid.IwouldhaveratherbeenbeatenorbulliedthanbeignoredWilliamssaidreflectingonwhatsomeoftheparticipantsinhisexperimentsfeltaftertheywereleftoutofagameoftoss.Eventwominutesofinvisibilityispainfulhesaid.OstracismtheactofignoringorexcludingisaphenomenonnotonlyfoundintheadultworldaccordingtoWilliams.Childrenplaysimplegameswhichleavepeersoutwithoutbeingtaughttodoso.EvenanimalsuseformsofostracismWilliamssaid.Lionswolvesandbeesforexampleusethetactictokeepoutburdensomemembersoftheirgroupswhichoftenresultsindeathfortheexcludedmember.Exclusionamonghumanscanbesimilarlydetrimentalhesaid.Williamsconductedacomputergameoftossandshowedtheresultsforthosewhodidnotreceivetheball.Theirangrydisappointedandsaddenedfacesshowedjusthowimportantinclusionisinhumaninteraction.Inanotherexperimenttheexcludedparticipantshadnocontroloverloudnoisesenteringtheirheadphones.Theresultwasthattheychosetoactoutagainstfellowparticipants.ThatlackofcontroliswhatWilliamsbelievestriggersaggression.Whencontrolisrobbedthenpeopledon’tcareabouthowtheyarebeinglikedanymoreWilliamssaid.Theyjustwanttoestablishcontrolbybeingrecognized.PeoplearemorelikelytobeviolentinordertogetthatrecognitionWilliamssaid.Hisresearchhasfoundthatpeoplearegenerallyostracizedatleastonceadaylikethewaiterwhorefillswaterglasseswithoutnoticeorthepersonwhositsnexttoyouonthebuswithoutaglance.TheseinteractionsmaynotseemlikemuchbutWilliamsassertsthateventheslightestsituationsinwhichpeoplefeelinvisiblecanhaveanegativeimpactonthem.Inhisstudiesatotalof70percentofpeoplesaidtheyhadbeengiventhesilenttreatmentbytheirlovedones.Thecentralconceptofthepassageostracismmostprobablyrefersto______.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.7
Iwasjustlikeyou--I’thoughtIwasinvinciblesaysAdamBlombergstandingbefore400studentsinadarkenedauditoriumatMiami’sCoralReefSeniorHighSchool.Aphotoofabloodiedandunconsciousteenagerabreathingtubeprotrudingfromhismouthflashesonthewall.Thatwasmehesays.There’sacollectivegaspbeforetheroomgrowssilentandBlomberg31ananesthesiologistwhotrainedatBrighamandWomen’sHospitalinBostonbeginsthestoryofwhathappenedonenightinFebruary1995.Hecreatedapresentationillustratingthedangersofbehavingirresponsiblyinacarfromnotbucklinguptospeedingtodrivingundertheinfluenceofalcoholanddrugs.Hetrackeddownphotosofteencrashvictimsfromthecenter’sarchivesthenincorporatedstatisticsandhisownexperience.HespokethefirsttimetoalocalBoyScouttroopandwassoongivinghistalkASurvivor’sStoryathighschoolsaroundthestate.TheBlombergfamilyhadreasontocelebrate.Adamhadfullyrecoveredandwasonhiswaytofulfillinghislifelongdreamofbecomingadoctor.ButinJanuary2000Blomberg’s22-year-oldstep-brotherMichaelwaskilledinacrashwhiledrivingtohisAtlantahomelateonenight.Hewasn’twearingaseatbelt.AftertheaccidentBlombergstoppedtellinghisstorytocrowdsrackedwithguiltoverhisinabilitytoreachMichael.IfBlomberghadfailedhisownbrotherhereasonedhowcouldhepossiblymakeadifferencetoaroomfulofstrangersRequestsfromschoolscontinuedtorollinbutheturneddowneveryone.ThenBlomberggotacallfromahighschoolcounselor.Ashestartedintohisstandardexcuse-lackoftime—helookedacrosstheroomatastackofthank-younotesfromstudentswhohadheardhimspeak.Herealizedthatkidsneededtohearwhathehadtosay.Heagreedtovisittheschoolandbegancontactingothersonthewaitinglistforhistalks.Blombergleavestheschoolhopinghehaschangedsomeone’sbehavior.Herecallsaletterhereceivedfromastudentwhoheardhimspeakandgotintoacrashlaterthatsamedaybutwasunharmed.Shetoldmeshewaswearingherseatbeltbecauseofme.Letterslikethisreinforcehisbeliefthathesurvivedtheaccidentforareason.Therearealotofphysiciansintheworldandweallsaveliveshesays.Ihaveaspecialopportunitytosavelivesnotjustasadoctorbutalsoasahumanbeing./Whatmakeshimregainhisbeliefinthevalueofhisspeeches
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Whyaretheresomanyproblemswithappraisals
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.15
41Orientation Yellowstoneismuchmorethanhotgroundandgushingsteam.LocatedastridetheContinentalDividemostoftheparkoccupiesahighplateausurroundedbymountainsanddrainedbyseveralrivers.Parkboundariesenclosecraggypeaksalpinelakesdeepcanyonsandvastforests.In1872Yellowstonebecametheworld’sfirstnationalparktheresultofgreatforesightonthepartofmanypeopleaboutoureventualneedforthesolaceandbeautyofwildplaces. 42WhentoGo Morethanhalfofthe3millionannumvisitorscomeinJulyandAugust.InSeptemberandearlyOctobertheweatherisgoodthevisitorsfewandthewildlifeabundant.InMayandJuneyoucanseenewbornanimalsbuttheweathermaybecoldwetandevensnowy.BetweenaboutNo-vember1andMay1mostparkroadsareclosedtovehicles. 43GettingThere 44HowtoVisit The142-mile228.5-kilometerGrandLoopRoadformsafigureeightwithconnectingspurstothefiveentrances.OnanyvisitstartwiththegeyserbasinsandMammothHotSpringstoseewildlifeandthermalfeaturescaution:bothcanbehazardousifapproachedtooclosely.OntheseconddaytraveltotheGrandCanyonoftheYellowstoneHaydenValleyandYellowstoneLake. 45ParkInformation Parkopensyear-round. [A]RoadfromNorthEntrancetoNortheastEntranceopenallyear;mostotherparkroadsclosedtocarsNovemberthroughApril.Callheadquartersforlatestweatherandroadconditions. [B]FacilitiesforDisabledVisitorcentersMadisonandFishingBridgeCampgroundsmostrestroomsamphitheatersnumerousranger-ledactivitieswalksandexhibitsarewheelchairaccessible.Freebrochureavailable. [C]OnalongerstayvisittheNorthernRangeorconsideraboatingorfishingtriponYellowstoneLake;abackcountryexcursiononfootorhorse;oranyofthenumerouseasynaturetrailsthroughoutthepark. [D]InearlyyearswhatmadeYellowstonestandoutwastheextravaganzaofgeysersandhotsprings.ThewildlandscapeandthebisonelkandbearswerenicebutafterallAmericawasstillapioneercountryfilledwithscenicbeautyandanimals. [E]ByPlane WestYellowstoneAirportWYSattheWestEntranceofYellowstone.ThisairportisopenJunethroughSeptember. CodyAirportCODabout50miles81kilometersfromthepark. [F]Duringthewinterseasonmid-Decembertomid-MarchYellowstonebecomesafantasyofsteamandice;facilitiesarelimitedbutsufficient.OnlytheroadbetweentheNorthandNortheastEntrancesstaysopentocarsbutsnowmobilingispermittedonunplowedroads.Heatedsnowcoachesoffertoursandgivecross-countryskiersaccesstothe50miles80.5kilometersofgroomedtrails. 45
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.11
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Whatdoseniorstafffinddifficultaboutdoingappraisals
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.3
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Intheauthor’sopinionwhatisthelastproductofcivilization
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