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比较文学是一种开放式的文学研究，它以（）、（）、跨文化、跨学科界限的各种文学关系为研究对象.
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阅读下面所提供的材料并根据你的理解作出相应的分析晚近受西方训练的中国学者回头研究中国古典或近代文学时
比较文学一语中的文学一词的含义实际上只是的意思
文学作品
文学创作
文学研究
比较文学研究领域的各种文学关系大致包括影响关系和交叉关系三个方面
阅读下面的文字完成6—9题比较文学危机说辨从上述分析我们不难看出比较文学的发生及其演化过程中出现的危
形象学作为比较文学的一个分支是从法国比较文学家开始的
下面哪一项与美国学派的产生没有关系
第二次大战后，美国在文学方面的成就已经不亚于欧洲。
在20世纪三十年代以后，在美国兴起了一种新的文学批评思潮，名为“新批
评”。
第二次世界大战后，随着美国的强大，美国人认为美国的比较文学已经处于世
界的领先地位。
美国学派不满意比较文学研究中的“欧洲中心论”
比较文学研究的对象
中国比较文学研究的基本特点是
折衷精神
跨文化
阐发研究
影响研究
日尔蒙斯基将比较文学称作.
文学的比较研究
比较文艺学
历史比较文艺学
中国的比较文学研究开始得比较早但是形成一门独立的学科则是在世纪年代
比较文学与比较文化研究有何关系
比较文学与传统的文学研究在研究方法上有那些不同
中国比较文学研究最早可以追溯到
西汉
东汉
唐代
西晋
中国最早的比较文学研究是
中日文学比较
中印文学比较
中越文学比较
中俄文学比较
简述比较文学形象学的研究范围与内容
自发性质的比较文学研究最早可以追溯到
下面选项中哪一项不是比较文学所具有的作用
比较文学研究创造了“世界文学”的时代
比较文学使文学研究的视野和范围更扩大了
比较文学有助于我们认识文学的共同规律
比较文学研究能使各民族增强相互了解
比较文学研究的四个跨越包括
跨民族
跨语言
跨文化
跨学科
跨理论
比较文学的变异研究包括文学变异和文化过滤形象学接受学和文学的他国化研究
下面有关比较文学的译介学的研究对象的说明中哪一项是正确的
译介学就是研究文学翻译和其他翻译作品
译介学就是研究文学翻译中出现的各种变异现象
译介学主要研究一个作品从一种语言转变为另一种语言，从一种文化环境中进
入另一种文化环境时所产生的种种变异现象
译介学主要研究文学翻译的语言是否准确地反映了原作语言的蕴含
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Themessagewillbethatneitherthemarketnorthegovernmentiscapableofdealingwithalloftheiruncontrollablepractices.
Whilethere’sneveragoodagetoget cancerpeopleintheir20sand30scanfeelparticularlyisolated.Theaverage ageofacancerpatientatdiagnosisis67.Childrenwithcanceroftenare treatedatpediatric小儿科的cancercentersbutyoungadultshaveatoughtime findingpeersoftensittingside-by-sideduringtreatmentswithpeoplewho couldbetheirgrandparents.InhernewbookCrazySexyCancer TipswriterKrisCarrlooksatcancerfromtheperspectiveofayoungadultwho confrontsdeathjustasshe’sdiscoveringlife.Ms.Carrwas31whenshewas diagnosedwitharareformofcancerthathadgeneratedtumorsonherliverand lungs.Ms.Carrreactedwiththenormalfeelingsofshockand sadness.Shecalledherparentsandstockeduponorganicfooddeterminedto becomeafull-timehealingaddict.Thenshepickedupthephoneandcalled everyoneinheraddressbookaskingiftheyknewotheryoungwomenwithcancer. Theresultwasherownpersonalcancerposse:arockconcerttourmanagera modelafashionmagazineeditoracartoonistandaMTVcelebritytonamea few.Thisclubofcancerbabesofferedsupportadviceandfashiontipsamong otherthings.Ms.Carrputhercancerexperienceinarecent LearningChanneldocumentaryandshehaswrittenapracticalguideabouthow shecoped.Cancerisn’tfunnybutMs.Carroftenis.Sheswearsshemakesup namesforthepeoplewhotreatherDr.FabulousandDr.Guruandsheeven makessecondopinionssoundfuncancerroadtripsshecallsthem. Sheleavesthemedicaladvicetodoctorsinsteadofferinginsightfuland practicaltipsthatreflecttheworldviewofayoungadult.Irefusedtolet cancerruinmypartyshewrites.Therearejusttoomanycoolthingstodo andplanandlivefor.Ms.Carrstillhascancerbutithas stoppedprogressing.Hercancertipsincludeusingtime-savingmasse-mailsto keepfriendsinformedsewingorbuyingfashionablehospitalgownssoyou’renot stuckwithregulationblueorgrayandplayingGloriaGaynor’sIWillSurvive soloudyourneighborscallthepolice.Ms.Carralsoadvisesaneyebrowwaxand anewoutfitbeforeyontelltheimportantpeopleinyourlifeaboutyour illness.Peopleyoutellaregoingtocautiouslyandnotsocautiouslytryto seethecancersodazzletheminsteadwithyourmiracleshewrites. Whileheradvicemaysoundsuperficialitgetstotheheartofwhatevery cancerpatientwants:thechancetolivelifejustasshealwaysdidandmaybe better.ThephrasecancerposseLine4Para.3probablyrefersto______.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Whilethere’sneveragoodagetoget cancerpeopleintheir20sand30scanfeelparticularlyisolated.Theaverage ageofacancerpatientatdiagnosisis67.Childrenwithcanceroftenare treatedatpediatric小儿科的cancercentersbutyoungadultshaveatoughtime findingpeersoftensittingside-by-sideduringtreatmentswithpeoplewho couldbetheirgrandparents.InhernewbookCrazySexyCancer TipswriterKrisCarrlooksatcancerfromtheperspectiveofayoungadultwho confrontsdeathjustasshe’sdiscoveringlife.Ms.Carrwas31whenshewas diagnosedwitharareformofcancerthathadgeneratedtumorsonherliverand lungs.Ms.Carrreactedwiththenormalfeelingsofshockand sadness.Shecalledherparentsandstockeduponorganicfooddeterminedto becomeafull-timehealingaddict.Thenshepickedupthephoneandcalled everyoneinheraddressbookaskingiftheyknewotheryoungwomenwithcancer. Theresultwasherownpersonalcancerposse:arockconcerttourmanagera modelafashionmagazineeditoracartoonistandaMTVcelebritytonamea few.Thisclubofcancerbabesofferedsupportadviceandfashiontipsamong otherthings.Ms.Carrputhercancerexperienceinarecent LearningChanneldocumentaryandshehaswrittenapracticalguideabouthow shecoped.Cancerisn’tfunnybutMs.Carroftenis.Sheswearsshemakesup namesforthepeoplewhotreatherDr.FabulousandDr.Guruandsheeven makessecondopinionssoundfuncancerroadtripsshecallsthem. Sheleavesthemedicaladvicetodoctorsinsteadofferinginsightfuland practicaltipsthatreflecttheworldviewofayoungadult.Irefusedtolet cancerruinmypartyshewrites.Therearejusttoomanycoolthingstodo andplanandlivefor.Ms.Carrstillhascancerbutithas stoppedprogressing.Hercancertipsincludeusingtime-savingmasse-mailsto keepfriendsinformedsewingorbuyingfashionablehospitalgownssoyou’renot stuckwithregulationblueorgrayandplayingGloriaGaynor’sIWillSurvive soloudyourneighborscallthepolice.Ms.Carralsoadvisesaneyebrowwaxand anewoutfitbeforeyontelltheimportantpeopleinyourlifeaboutyour illness.Peopleyoutellaregoingtocautiouslyandnotsocautiouslytryto seethecancersodazzletheminsteadwithyourmiracleshewrites. Whileheradvicemaysoundsuperficialitgetstotheheartofwhatevery cancerpatientwants:thechancetolivelifejustasshealwaysdidandmaybe better.FromKrisCarr’scancertipswemayinferthat
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In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
HenricIbsenauthoroftheplayA Doll’sHouseinwhichaprettyhelplesshousewifeabandonsherhusbandand childrentoseekamoreseriouslifewouldsurelyhaveapproved.FromJanuary 1st2008allpubliccompaniesinNorwayareobligedtoensurethatatleast 40%oftheirboarddirectorsarewomen.Mostfirmshaveobeyedthelawwhich waspassedin2003.Butabout75outofthe480orsocompaniesitaffectsare stilltoomaleforthegovernment’sliking.Theywillshortlyreceivealetter informingthemthattheyhaveuntiltheendofFebruarytoactorfacethe legalconsequences—whichcouldincludebeingdissolved.Before thelawwasproposedabout7%ofboardmembersinNorwaywerefemaleaccording totheCentreforCorporateDiversity.Thenumberhassincejumpedto36%.That isfarhigherthantheaverageof9%forbigcompaniesacrossEuropeor America’s15%fortheFortune500.Norway’sstockexchangeanditsmainbusiness lobbyopposethelawasdomanybusinessmen.Iamagainstquotasforwomenor menasamatterofprinciplesaysSverreMunckheadofinternational operationsatamediafirm.Boardmembersofpubliccompaniesshouldbechosen solelyonthebasisofmeritandexperiencehesays.Severalfirmshaveeven givenuptheirpublicstatusinordertoescapethenewlaw. Companieshavehadtorecruitabout1000womeninfouryears.Many complainthatithasbeendifficulttofindexperiencedcandidates.Becauseof thissomeofthebestwomenhavecollectedasmanyas25-35directorshipseach andareknowninNorwegianbusinesscirclesasthegoldenskirts.Onereason forthescarcityisthattherearefairlyfewwomeninmanagementinNorwegian companies—theyoccupyaround15%ofseniorpositions.Ithasbeenparticularly hardforfirmsintheoiltechnologyandfinancialindustriestofindwomen withenoughexperience.Somepeopleworrythattheirrelative lackofexperiencemaykeepwomenquietonboardsandthatinturncouldmean thatboardsmightbecomelessabletoholdmanagerstoaccount.Recenthistory inNorwayhoweversuggeststhattherightwomencanmakestrongdirectors. WomenfeelmorecompelledthanmentodotheirhomeworksaysMsReksten SkaugenwhowasvotedNorway’schairmanoftheyearfor2007andwecan affordtoaskthehardquestionsbecausewomenarenotalwaysexpectedtoknow theanswers.Theauthorattributesthephenomenonofgoldenskirtsto______.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Jenniferhasneverreally______herson'sdeath.It'sveryhardtoacceptthefactthatshe'llneverhaveachild.
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Whilethere’sneveragoodagetoget cancerpeopleintheir20sand30scanfeelparticularlyisolated.Theaverage ageofacancerpatientatdiagnosisis67.Childrenwithcanceroftenare treatedatpediatric小儿科的cancercentersbutyoungadultshaveatoughtime findingpeersoftensittingside-by-sideduringtreatmentswithpeoplewho couldbetheirgrandparents.InhernewbookCrazySexyCancer TipswriterKrisCarrlooksatcancerfromtheperspectiveofayoungadultwho confrontsdeathjustasshe’sdiscoveringlife.Ms.Carrwas31whenshewas diagnosedwitharareformofcancerthathadgeneratedtumorsonherliverand lungs.Ms.Carrreactedwiththenormalfeelingsofshockand sadness.Shecalledherparentsandstockeduponorganicfooddeterminedto becomeafull-timehealingaddict.Thenshepickedupthephoneandcalled everyoneinheraddressbookaskingiftheyknewotheryoungwomenwithcancer. Theresultwasherownpersonalcancerposse:arockconcerttourmanagera modelafashionmagazineeditoracartoonistandaMTVcelebritytonamea few.Thisclubofcancerbabesofferedsupportadviceandfashiontipsamong otherthings.Ms.Carrputhercancerexperienceinarecent LearningChanneldocumentaryandshehaswrittenapracticalguideabouthow shecoped.Cancerisn’tfunnybutMs.Carroftenis.Sheswearsshemakesup namesforthepeoplewhotreatherDr.FabulousandDr.Guruandsheeven makessecondopinionssoundfuncancerroadtripsshecallsthem. Sheleavesthemedicaladvicetodoctorsinsteadofferinginsightfuland practicaltipsthatreflecttheworldviewofayoungadult.Irefusedtolet cancerruinmypartyshewrites.Therearejusttoomanycoolthingstodo andplanandlivefor.Ms.Carrstillhascancerbutithas stoppedprogressing.Hercancertipsincludeusingtime-savingmasse-mailsto keepfriendsinformedsewingorbuyingfashionablehospitalgownssoyou’renot stuckwithregulationblueorgrayandplayingGloriaGaynor’sIWillSurvive soloudyourneighborscallthepolice.Ms.Carralsoadvisesaneyebrowwaxand anewoutfitbeforeyontelltheimportantpeopleinyourlifeaboutyour illness.Peopleyoutellaregoingtocautiouslyandnotsocautiouslytryto seethecancersodazzletheminsteadwithyourmiracleshewrites. Whileheradvicemaysoundsuperficialitgetstotheheartofwhatevery cancerpatientwants:thechancetolivelifejustasshealwaysdidandmaybe better.Whichofthefollowinggroupsismorevulnerabletocancer
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Americansdon’tliketolosewars.Of coursealotdependsonhowyoudefinejustwhatawaris.Thereareshooting wars—thekindthattestpatriotismandcourage—andthosearethekindatwhich theU.S.excels.Butotherstrugglestestthosequalitiestoo.Whatelsewasthe GreatDepressionorthespaceraceortheconstructionoftherailroadsIf Americansindulgeinabitofflag-wavingwhenthejobisdonetheyearned it.Nowthereisasimilarchallenge:globalwarming.Thesteady deterioration恶化oftheveryclimateofthisveryplanetisbecomingawarof thefirstorderandbyanymeasuretheU.S.islosing.IndeedifAmericais fightingatallit’sfightingonthewrongside.TheU.S.producesnearlya quarteroftheworld’sgreenhousegaseseachyearandhasstubbornlymadeit clearthatitdoesn’tintendtodoawholelotaboutit.Although174nations approvedtheadmittedlyflawedKyotoaccordstoreducecarbonlevelstheU.S. walkedawayfromthem.Therearevaguepromisesofmanufacturingfuelfromherbs orpoweringcarswithhydrogen.Butforacountrythattightlycitespatriotism asoneofitscorevaluestheU.S.istakingapassonwhatmightbethemost patrioticstruggleofall.It’shardtoimagineabiggerfightthanoneforthe survivalofacountry’scoastsandfarmsthehealthofitspeopleandthe stabilityofitseconomy.Therubisifthevastmajorityof peopleincreasinglyagreethatclimatechangeisaglobalemergencythere’sfar lessagreementonhowtofixit.Industryoffersitsplanswhichtoooften wouldfixlittle.Environmentalistsoffertheirswhichtoooftenamounttona; vewishliststhatcouldweakenAmerica’sgrowth.Butlet’sassumethatthose interestedpartiesandotherswillalwaysbeatthetableandwillalwaysdemand thattheirvoicesbeheardandthattheirneedsbeaddressed.Whatwouldan aggressiveambitiouseffectiveplanlooklike—onethatwouldleavetheU.S. bothenvironmentallysafeandeconomicallysoundHalting climatechangewillbefarharder.Oneofthemoreconservativeplansfor addressingtheproblemcallsforareductionof25billiontonsofcarbon emissionsoverthenext52years.Andyetbydevisingaconsistentstrategythat mixesshort-termsolutionswithfar-sightedgoalscombinesgovernmentactivism withprivate-sectorenterpriseandblendspragmatism实用主义withambitionthe U.S.canwithoutmajordamagetotheeconomyhelphalttheworsteffectsof climatechangeandensurethesurvivalofitswayoflifeforfuture generations.Moneywilldosomeoftheworkbutwhat’sneededmostiswill. I’mnotsayingthechallengeisn’talmostoverwhelmingsaysFredKrupp.But thisisAmericaandAmericahasrisentothesechallenges before.Whatdoesthepassagemainlydiscuss
Sheworkedhardathertaskbeforeshefeltsurethattheresultswould____________herlongeffort.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Shouldaleaderstrivetobelovedor fearedThisquestionfamouslyposedbyMachiavelliliesattheheartof JosephNye’snewbook.Mr.NyeaformerdeanoftheKennedySchoolof GovernmentatHarvardandone-timechairmanofAmerica’sNationalIntelligence Councilisbestknownforpromotingtheideaofsoftpowerbasedon persuasionandinfluenceasacounterpointtohardpowerbasedoncoercion 强迫andforce.Havinganalyzedtheuseofsoftandhardpower inpoliticsanddiplomacyinhispreviousbooksMr.Nyehasnowturnedhis attentiontotherelationshipbetweenpowerandleadershipinboththe politicalandbusinessspheres.Machiavellihenotesconcludedthatoneought tobebothfearedandlovedbutasitisdifficultforthetwotogotogether itismuchsafertobefearedthanloved.Inshorthardpowerispreferableto softpower.Butmodernleadershiptheoristshavecometotheopposite conclusion.Thecontextofleadershipischangingtheyobserve andthehistoricalemphasisonhardpowerisbecomingoutdated.Inmodern companiesanddemocraciespowerisincreasinglydiffusedandtraditional hierarchies等级制arebeingunderminedmakingsoftpowerevermoreimportant. ButthatdoesnotmeancoercionshouldnowtakeabackseattopersuasionMr. Nyeargues.Insteadheadvocatesasynthesisofthesetwoviews.Theconclusion ofThePowerstoLeadhissurveyofthetheoryofleadershipisthata combinationofhardandsoftpowerwhichhecallssmartpoweristhebest approach.Thedominanttheoreticalmodelofleadershipatthe momentisapparentlythetransformationalleadershippattern.Anyone allergic反感tomanagementtermwillalreadyberunningfortheexitbutMr. Nyehasperformedavaluableserviceinroundingupandsummarizingthevarious academicstudiesandtheoriesofleadershipintoasingleslimvolume.He examinesdifferentapproachestoleadershipthemoralityofleadershipandhow thewidercontextcandeterminetheeffectivenessofaparticularleader.There areplentyofanecdotesandexamplesbothhistoricalandcontemporary politicalandcorporate.Alasleadershipisaslipperysubject andashedepictsvarioustheoriesevenMr.Nyeneverquitenailsthejellyto thewall.Heisathismostinterestingwhendiscussingthemoralaspectsof leadership—inparticularthequestionofwhetheritissometimesnecessaryfor goodleaderstolie—andheprovidesahelpful12-pointsummaryofhis conclusions.Arecurringthemeisthatascircumstanceschangedifferentsorts ofleadersarerequired;aleaderwhothrivesinoneenvironmentmaystrugglein anotherandviceversa.Ultimatelythatisjustafancywayofsayingthat leadershipoffersnoeasyanswers.WhichofthefollowingmakessoftpowermoreimportanttodayaccordingtoMr.Nye
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Sometimesthestudentmaybeaskedtowriteabouthis____________toacertainbookorarticlethathassomebearingonthesubjectbeingstudied.
HenricIbsenauthoroftheplayA Doll’sHouseinwhichaprettyhelplesshousewifeabandonsherhusbandand childrentoseekamoreseriouslifewouldsurelyhaveapproved.FromJanuary 1st2008allpubliccompaniesinNorwayareobligedtoensurethatatleast 40%oftheirboarddirectorsarewomen.Mostfirmshaveobeyedthelawwhich waspassedin2003.Butabout75outofthe480orsocompaniesitaffectsare stilltoomaleforthegovernment’sliking.Theywillshortlyreceivealetter informingthemthattheyhaveuntiltheendofFebruarytoactorfacethe legalconsequences—whichcouldincludebeingdissolved.Before thelawwasproposedabout7%ofboardmembersinNorwaywerefemaleaccording totheCentreforCorporateDiversity.Thenumberhassincejumpedto36%.That isfarhigherthantheaverageof9%forbigcompaniesacrossEuropeor America’s15%fortheFortune500.Norway’sstockexchangeanditsmainbusiness lobbyopposethelawasdomanybusinessmen.Iamagainstquotasforwomenor menasamatterofprinciplesaysSverreMunckheadofinternational operationsatamediafirm.Boardmembersofpubliccompaniesshouldbechosen solelyonthebasisofmeritandexperiencehesays.Severalfirmshaveeven givenuptheirpublicstatusinordertoescapethenewlaw. Companieshavehadtorecruitabout1000womeninfouryears.Many complainthatithasbeendifficulttofindexperiencedcandidates.Becauseof thissomeofthebestwomenhavecollectedasmanyas25-35directorshipseach andareknowninNorwegianbusinesscirclesasthegoldenskirts.Onereason forthescarcityisthattherearefairlyfewwomeninmanagementinNorwegian companies—theyoccupyaround15%ofseniorpositions.Ithasbeenparticularly hardforfirmsintheoiltechnologyandfinancialindustriestofindwomen withenoughexperience.Somepeopleworrythattheirrelative lackofexperiencemaykeepwomenquietonboardsandthatinturncouldmean thatboardsmightbecomelessabletoholdmanagerstoaccount.Recenthistory inNorwayhoweversuggeststhattherightwomencanmakestrongdirectors. WomenfeelmorecompelledthanmentodotheirhomeworksaysMsReksten SkaugenwhowasvotedNorway’schairmanoftheyearfor2007andwecan affordtoaskthehardquestionsbecausewomenarenotalwaysexpectedtoknow theanswers.Apubliccompanythatfailstoobeythenewlawcouldbeforcedto______.
Itisunimaginableforsomeoneinsuchahigh______inthegovernmenttobehavesobadlyinpublic.
Americansdon’tliketolosewars.Of coursealotdependsonhowyoudefinejustwhatawaris.Thereareshooting wars—thekindthattestpatriotismandcourage—andthosearethekindatwhich theU.S.excels.Butotherstrugglestestthosequalitiestoo.Whatelsewasthe GreatDepressionorthespaceraceortheconstructionoftherailroadsIf Americansindulgeinabitofflag-wavingwhenthejobisdonetheyearned it.Nowthereisasimilarchallenge:globalwarming.Thesteady deterioration恶化oftheveryclimateofthisveryplanetisbecomingawarof thefirstorderandbyanymeasuretheU.S.islosing.IndeedifAmericais fightingatallit’sfightingonthewrongside.TheU.S.producesnearlya quarteroftheworld’sgreenhousegaseseachyearandhasstubbornlymadeit clearthatitdoesn’tintendtodoawholelotaboutit.Although174nations approvedtheadmittedlyflawedKyotoaccordstoreducecarbonlevelstheU.S. walkedawayfromthem.Therearevaguepromisesofmanufacturingfuelfromherbs orpoweringcarswithhydrogen.Butforacountrythattightlycitespatriotism asoneofitscorevaluestheU.S.istakingapassonwhatmightbethemost patrioticstruggleofall.It’shardtoimagineabiggerfightthanoneforthe survivalofacountry’scoastsandfarmsthehealthofitspeopleandthe stabilityofitseconomy.Therubisifthevastmajorityof peopleincreasinglyagreethatclimatechangeisaglobalemergencythere’sfar lessagreementonhowtofixit.Industryoffersitsplanswhichtoooften wouldfixlittle.Environmentalistsoffertheirswhichtoooftenamounttona; vewishliststhatcouldweakenAmerica’sgrowth.Butlet’sassumethatthose interestedpartiesandotherswillalwaysbeatthetableandwillalwaysdemand thattheirvoicesbeheardandthattheirneedsbeaddressed.Whatwouldan aggressiveambitiouseffectiveplanlooklike—onethatwouldleavetheU.S. bothenvironmentallysafeandeconomicallysoundHalting climatechangewillbefarharder.Oneofthemoreconservativeplansfor addressingtheproblemcallsforareductionof25billiontonsofcarbon emissionsoverthenext52years.Andyetbydevisingaconsistentstrategythat mixesshort-termsolutionswithfar-sightedgoalscombinesgovernmentactivism withprivate-sectorenterpriseandblendspragmatism实用主义withambitionthe U.S.canwithoutmajordamagetotheeconomyhelphalttheworsteffectsof climatechangeandensurethesurvivalofitswayoflifeforfuture generations.Moneywilldosomeoftheworkbutwhat’sneededmostiswill. I’mnotsayingthechallengeisn’talmostoverwhelmingsaysFredKrupp.But thisisAmericaandAmericahasrisentothesechallenges before.Theparagraphsimmediatelyfollowingthispassagewouldmostprobablydealwith
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Johnwasveryupsetbecausehewas______bythepolicewithbreakingthelaw.
In1999thepriceofoilhovered around＄16abarrel.By2008ithad21the＄100abarrel mark.Thereasonsforthesurge22fromthedramatic growthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread23 inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion. Triple-digitoilpriceshave24theeconomicandpolitical mapoftheworld25someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-rich nationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities26 majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’s population—27risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral28 ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachother to29scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithany government30howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption 31thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.And oilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments 32someintheWestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrising oil33achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeign policies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits34 costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.35 itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewitha boomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia36 128percentfrom2001to2006.IntheUnitedStates asalreadyhighgaspricesrose37higherinthespringof 2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCain andObama38forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeak summerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto39as salesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems40 thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders.
Thereareover100nightschoolsinthecitymakingitpossibleforaprofessionaltobereeducatednomatter____________hedoes.
Themorethan50000nuclearweaponsinthehandsofvariousnationstodayaremorethanampledestroyingeverycityintheworldseveraltimesover.
Shouldaleaderstrivetobelovedor fearedThisquestionfamouslyposedbyMachiavelliliesattheheartof JosephNye’snewbook.Mr.NyeaformerdeanoftheKennedySchoolof GovernmentatHarvardandone-timechairmanofAmerica’sNationalIntelligence Councilisbestknownforpromotingtheideaofsoftpowerbasedon persuasionandinfluenceasacounterpointtohardpowerbasedoncoercion 强迫andforce.Havinganalyzedtheuseofsoftandhardpower inpoliticsanddiplomacyinhispreviousbooksMr.Nyehasnowturnedhis attentiontotherelationshipbetweenpowerandleadershipinboththe politicalandbusinessspheres.Machiavellihenotesconcludedthatoneought tobebothfearedandlovedbutasitisdifficultforthetwotogotogether itismuchsafertobefearedthanloved.Inshorthardpowerispreferableto softpower.Butmodernleadershiptheoristshavecometotheopposite conclusion.Thecontextofleadershipischangingtheyobserve andthehistoricalemphasisonhardpowerisbecomingoutdated.Inmodern companiesanddemocraciespowerisincreasinglydiffusedandtraditional hierarchies等级制arebeingunderminedmakingsoftpowerevermoreimportant. ButthatdoesnotmeancoercionshouldnowtakeabackseattopersuasionMr. Nyeargues.Insteadheadvocatesasynthesisofthesetwoviews.Theconclusion ofThePowerstoLeadhissurveyofthetheoryofleadershipisthata combinationofhardandsoftpowerwhichhecallssmartpoweristhebest approach.Thedominanttheoreticalmodelofleadershipatthe momentisapparentlythetransformationalleadershippattern.Anyone allergic反感tomanagementtermwillalreadyberunningfortheexitbutMr. Nyehasperformedavaluableserviceinroundingupandsummarizingthevarious academicstudiesandtheoriesofleadershipintoasingleslimvolume.He examinesdifferentapproachestoleadershipthemoralityofleadershipandhow thewidercontextcandeterminetheeffectivenessofaparticularleader.There areplentyofanecdotesandexamplesbothhistoricalandcontemporary politicalandcorporate.Alasleadershipisaslipperysubject andashedepictsvarioustheoriesevenMr.Nyeneverquitenailsthejellyto thewall.Heisathismostinterestingwhendiscussingthemoralaspectsof leadership—inparticularthequestionofwhetheritissometimesnecessaryfor goodleaderstolie—andheprovidesahelpful12-pointsummaryofhis conclusions.Arecurringthemeisthatascircumstanceschangedifferentsorts ofleadersarerequired;aleaderwhothrivesinoneenvironmentmaystrugglein anotherandviceversa.Ultimatelythatisjustafancywayofsayingthat leadershipoffersnoeasyanswers.Mr.Nye’sbookisparticularlyvaluableinthatit______.
Whenapsychologistdoesageneralexperimentaboutthehumanmindheselectspeople______andasksthemquestions.
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