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It is hard to predict how science is going to turn out, and if it is really good science it is im...
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IfyouareanythinglikemeyouleftthetheaterafterSexandtheCity2andthoughtthereoughttobealawagainstalooks-basedcultureinwhichtheonlywayfor40-year-oldactressestobecompensatedlike40-year-oldactorsistohavethemlookanddressliketheteenagedaughtersof40-year-oldactors.MeetDeborahRhodeaStanfordlawprofessorwhoproposesalegalregimeinwhichdiscriminationonthebasisoflooksisasseriousasdiscriminationbasedongenderorrace.InaprovocativenewbookTheBeautyBiasRhodelaysoutthecaseforanAmericainwhichappearancediscriminationisnolongerallowed．ThatmeansHooterscan’tfireitsserversforbeingtooheavyasallegedlyhappenedlastmonthtoawaitressinMichiganwhosaysshereceivednothingbutexcellentreviewsbutweighed132pounds.RhodeisathermostpersuasivewhenarguingthatinAmericadiscriminationagainstunattractivewomenandshortmenisasperniciousandwidespreadasbiasbasedonracesexageethnicityreligionanddisability.Rhodecitesresearchtoproveherpoint:11percentofsurveyedcouplessaytheywouldabortafetuspredisposedtowardobesity.Collegestudentstellsurveyorsthey’dratherhaveaspousewhoisanembezzlerdruguserorashoplifterthanonewhoisobese.Andallofthisiscompoundedbyavirtuallyunregulatedbeautyanddietindustryandsoaringratesofelectivecosmeticsurgery.RhoderemindsushowHillaryClintonandSoniaSotomayorweresavagedbythemediafortheirlooksandsaysit’snosurprisethatSarahPalinpaidhermakeupartistmorethananymemberofherstaffinherrunforthevicepresidency.AndtheproblemwithmakingappearancediscriminationillegalisthatAmericansjustreallyreallylikehotgirls.Andsolongasbeingahotgirlisdeemedabonafideoccupationalqualificationtherewillbecocktailwaitressesfiredforgainingthreepounds.It’snotjustAmericanmenwholikethingsthisway.Thetruthisthatwomenfeelgoodaboutcompetinginbeautypageants.Toputitanotherwayappearancebiasisamassivesocietalproblemwithtangibleeconomiccoststhatmostofus—perhapsespeciallywomen—perpetuateeachtimewebuyadietpillorsneeratfatwomen.Thisdoesn’tmeanweshouldn’tworktowarderadicatingdiscriminationbasedonappearance.Butitmaymeanrecognizingthatthelawwon’tstopusfromdiscriminatingagainsttheoverweighttheagingandtheimperfectsolongasit’sthequalityweallhatemostinourselves.Whichofthefollowingisthebestdescriptionoftheauthor’semotionsafterwatchingSexandtheCity2
Todaythereiswidespreadagreementthatmultinationalcorporationswillhaveanimportanteffectoninternationalrelationsandworldeconomy.Butthereislittleagreementonexactlywhatthateffectwillbe.Therearetwogroupsofthosewhoseethemasbenevolentandthosewhoseethemasevil. Amongthosewhoseemultinationalcorporationsasbenevolentmanyemphasizetheirimportanceinhelpingreducethegapbetweenrichcountriesandpoorones.Thesebusinessgiantsarereferredtoas"enginesofdevelopment"becauseitisclaimedthattheydomoretoimprovetheeconomiclifeinlessdevelopedcountriesthanallgovernmentalforeignaidprogramshaveeverdone.Bysettingupfactoriesabroadtheyprovidejobs;byequippingthesefactorieswiththelatestmachinesandequipmenttheymakeavailablethemostmoderntechnology.41______.Infacttheydobetterontheirown.Itmayhavebeennecessaryinthemid-nineteencenturyforAdmiralPerrytothreatentheJapanesewithnavalbombardmentiftheydidnotallowwesterncountriestotradewiththem.Suchthreatswouldmakenosensetoday.42______. Theleadersofmultinationalcorporationsseepatriotismasold-fashionedthenation-stateobsoleteandwarinpursuitofnationalglorydownrightfoolish.Theybelievethatthemultinationalcorporationis"amodernconceptevolvedtomeettherequirementsofmodemage"whilethenation-stateis"stillrootedinarchaicconceptsunsympathetictotheneedofourcomplexworld."43______."Ithink"anofficialofGeneralElectriconcesaid"gettingGeneralElectriceverywhereintheworldisthebiggestthingwecandoforworldpeace." Theseproponentsofthemultinationalcorporationscomebyandlargefromthebusinessworld.Therearehowevermanycriticsamongacademicstudentsofmultinationalcorporationswhoregardthemasasinisterforce.Theyhaveproduceddetailedstudiestoprovethatthebenefitsofmultinationalcorporationsaremostlyillusory.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationsprovidejobstheypointoutthatthisisatthecostofjobsinothercountries.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationstransfertechnologytheyreply:aoftentheequipmentshippedoverseasisoutofdate;btheirtechnologyisoftenunsuitableformanyofthelessdevelopedcountrieswherelaborisplentifulandthereforecheap.44______.Thereforetheymaintainthatinsteadofbeingthe"enginesofdevelopment"themultinationalcorporationsareactually"enginesofimpoverishment". Thesecriticsdonotdenythatconsumptionoftheproductsofthesecorporationshasrisenincountriesaroundtheworld.45______.Thereforealthoughthesecorporationsmaybreakdownnationalfrontierstheystrengthenclassdistinctionswideningthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcreatinggreatersocialinjusticeandinstability. [A]ThelongexpensiveAmericanwarinVietnamdidnotbringnewopportunitiesinSoutheastAsiaforthemultinationalcorporations.ThedecisionoftheNixonadministrationtoimproverelationswithChinawasmoreprofitabletothem. [B]ThefactthatbothAmericanteenagersandMexicanpeasantsaredrinkingCocaColadoesnotmeanthatthelifeoftheMexicanpeasantsisgettingbetterduetothemultinationalcorporations. [C]Theythereforecharacterizethemselvesashard-headedpeoplewhoarehelpingtobringaboutamoreco-operativesystemorworldorderbybreakingdownnationalgeographicalpoliticaleconomicandideologicalbarriers. [D]Onestudyactuallyshowedthatmultinationalcorporationsdonotinvestcapitalfromwealthycountriesbutprefertofinancetheiroperationsfromthelocaleconomy.Inotherwordstheyaresimplytransferringwealthfrompoorercountriestoricherones. [E]Accordingtothesecriticsstateswillsoonrealizethattheyhavelosttheircontroloverissuessuchastaxationemploymentandeventhestabilityoftheirowncurrency. [F]Buttheypointoutthatthisso-called"GlobalShoppingCenter"isavailableonlytoaverysmallportionofthelocalpopulation. [G]Becausegoodsarenowproducedwithinthelessdevelopedcountriesthereislessneedforthemtoimportfromabroadandtheirbalanceofpaymentswillimprove.Multinationalcorporationstodaydonotneedtheircountriestoprovidemilitaryforcetoopenforeigncountriestotheirinvestmentproductsandsales. 41
Humanrelationshavecommandedpeople’sattentionfromearlytimes.Thewaysofpeoplehavebeenrecordedininnumerablemythsfolktalesnovelspoemsplaysandpopularorphilosophicalessays.Althoughthefullsignificanceofahumanrelationshipmaynotbedirectlyevidentthecomplexityoffeelingsandactionsthatcanbeunderstoodataglanceissurprisinglygreat.Forthisreasonpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciences.Intuitiveknowledgemayberemarkablypenetratingandcansignificantlyhelpusunderstandhumanbehaviorwhereasinthephysicalsciencessuchcommonsenseknowledgeisrelativelyprimitive.Ifweerasedallknowledgeofscientificphysicsfromourworldnotonlywouldwenothavecarsandtelevisionsetswemightevenfindthattheordinarypersonwasunabletocopewiththefundamentalmechanicalproblemsofpulleysandlevers.Ontheotherhandifweremovedallknowledgeofscientificpsychologyfromourworldproblemsininterpersonalrelationsmighteasilybecopedwithandsolvedmuchasbefore.Wewouldstillknowhowtoavoiddoingsomethingaskedofusandhowtogetsomeonetoagreewithus:wewouldstillknowwhensomeonewasangryandwhensomeonewaspleased.Onecouldevenoffersensibleexplanationsforthewhysofmuchoftheself’sbehaviorandfeelings.Inotherwordstheordinarypersonhasagreatandprofoundunderstandingoftheselfandofotherpeoplewhichthoughunformulatedoronlyvaguelyconceivedenablesonetointeractwithothersinmoreorlessadaptiveways.Kohlerinreferringtothelackofgreatdiscoveriesinpsychologyascomparedwithphysicsaccountsforthisbysayingthatpeoplewereacquaintedwithpracticallyallterritoriesofmentallifealongtimebeforethefoundingofscientificpsychology.Paradoxicallywithallthisnaturalintuitivecommonsensecapacitytograsphumanrelationsthescienceofhumanrelationshadbeenoneofthelasttodevelop.Differentexplanationsofthisparadoxhavebeensuggested.Oneisthatsciencewoulddestroythevainandpleasingillusionspeoplehaveaboutthemselves;butwemightaskwhypeoplehavealwayslovedtoreadpessimisticdebunkingwritingsfromEcclesiastestoFreud.Ithasalsobeenproposedthatjustbecauseweknowsomuchaboutpeopleintuitivelytherehasbeenlessincentiveforstudyingthemscientifically:whyshouldonedevelopatheorycarryoutsystematicobservationsormakepredictionsabouttheobviousInanycasethefieldofhumanrelationswithitsvastliterarydocumentationbutmeagerscientifictreatmentisingreatcontrasttothefieldofphysicsinwhichtherearerelativelyfewnonscientificbooks.Whichofthefollowingclaimsofthepassagesupportstheauthor’sargumentthatpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciencesLine4-5Para.1
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 19
Todaythereiswidespreadagreementthatmultinationalcorporationswillhaveanimportanteffectoninternationalrelationsandworldeconomy.Butthereislittleagreementonexactlywhatthateffectwillbe.Therearetwogroupsofthosewhoseethemasbenevolentandthosewhoseethemasevil. Amongthosewhoseemultinationalcorporationsasbenevolentmanyemphasizetheirimportanceinhelpingreducethegapbetweenrichcountriesandpoorones.Thesebusinessgiantsarereferredtoas"enginesofdevelopment"becauseitisclaimedthattheydomoretoimprovetheeconomiclifeinlessdevelopedcountriesthanallgovernmentalforeignaidprogramshaveeverdone.Bysettingupfactoriesabroadtheyprovidejobs;byequippingthesefactorieswiththelatestmachinesandequipmenttheymakeavailablethemostmoderntechnology.41______.Infacttheydobetterontheirown.Itmayhavebeennecessaryinthemid-nineteencenturyforAdmiralPerrytothreatentheJapanesewithnavalbombardmentiftheydidnotallowwesterncountriestotradewiththem.Suchthreatswouldmakenosensetoday.42______. Theleadersofmultinationalcorporationsseepatriotismasold-fashionedthenation-stateobsoleteandwarinpursuitofnationalglorydownrightfoolish.Theybelievethatthemultinationalcorporationis"amodernconceptevolvedtomeettherequirementsofmodemage"whilethenation-stateis"stillrootedinarchaicconceptsunsympathetictotheneedofourcomplexworld."43______."Ithink"anofficialofGeneralElectriconcesaid"gettingGeneralElectriceverywhereintheworldisthebiggestthingwecandoforworldpeace." Theseproponentsofthemultinationalcorporationscomebyandlargefromthebusinessworld.Therearehowevermanycriticsamongacademicstudentsofmultinationalcorporationswhoregardthemasasinisterforce.Theyhaveproduceddetailedstudiestoprovethatthebenefitsofmultinationalcorporationsaremostlyillusory.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationsprovidejobstheypointoutthatthisisatthecostofjobsinothercountries.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationstransfertechnologytheyreply:aoftentheequipmentshippedoverseasisoutofdate;btheirtechnologyisoftenunsuitableformanyofthelessdevelopedcountrieswherelaborisplentifulandthereforecheap.44______.Thereforetheymaintainthatinsteadofbeingthe"enginesofdevelopment"themultinationalcorporationsareactually"enginesofimpoverishment". Thesecriticsdonotdenythatconsumptionoftheproductsofthesecorporationshasrisenincountriesaroundtheworld.45______.Thereforealthoughthesecorporationsmaybreakdownnationalfrontierstheystrengthenclassdistinctionswideningthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcreatinggreatersocialinjusticeandinstability. [A]ThelongexpensiveAmericanwarinVietnamdidnotbringnewopportunitiesinSoutheastAsiaforthemultinationalcorporations.ThedecisionoftheNixonadministrationtoimproverelationswithChinawasmoreprofitabletothem. [B]ThefactthatbothAmericanteenagersandMexicanpeasantsaredrinkingCocaColadoesnotmeanthatthelifeoftheMexicanpeasantsisgettingbetterduetothemultinationalcorporations. [C]Theythereforecharacterizethemselvesashard-headedpeoplewhoarehelpingtobringaboutamoreco-operativesystemorworldorderbybreakingdownnationalgeographicalpoliticaleconomicandideologicalbarriers. [D]Onestudyactuallyshowedthatmultinationalcorporationsdonotinvestcapitalfromwealthycountriesbutprefertofinancetheiroperationsfromthelocaleconomy.Inotherwordstheyaresimplytransferringwealthfrompoorercountriestoricherones. [E]Accordingtothesecriticsstateswillsoonrealizethattheyhavelosttheircontroloverissuessuchastaxationemploymentandeventhestabilityoftheirowncurrency. [F]Buttheypointoutthatthisso-called"GlobalShoppingCenter"isavailableonlytoaverysmallportionofthelocalpopulation. [G]Becausegoodsarenowproducedwithinthelessdevelopedcountriesthereislessneedforthemtoimportfromabroadandtheirbalanceofpaymentswillimprove.Multinationalcorporationstodaydonotneedtheircountriestoprovidemilitaryforcetoopenforeigncountriestotheirinvestmentproductsandsales. 45
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 9
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 11
IfyouareanythinglikemeyouleftthetheaterafterSexandtheCity2andthoughtthereoughttobealawagainstalooks-basedcultureinwhichtheonlywayfor40-year-oldactressestobecompensatedlike40-year-oldactorsistohavethemlookanddressliketheteenagedaughtersof40-year-oldactors.MeetDeborahRhodeaStanfordlawprofessorwhoproposesalegalregimeinwhichdiscriminationonthebasisoflooksisasseriousasdiscriminationbasedongenderorrace.InaprovocativenewbookTheBeautyBiasRhodelaysoutthecaseforanAmericainwhichappearancediscriminationisnolongerallowed．ThatmeansHooterscan’tfireitsserversforbeingtooheavyasallegedlyhappenedlastmonthtoawaitressinMichiganwhosaysshereceivednothingbutexcellentreviewsbutweighed132pounds.RhodeisathermostpersuasivewhenarguingthatinAmericadiscriminationagainstunattractivewomenandshortmenisasperniciousandwidespreadasbiasbasedonracesexageethnicityreligionanddisability.Rhodecitesresearchtoproveherpoint:11percentofsurveyedcouplessaytheywouldabortafetuspredisposedtowardobesity.Collegestudentstellsurveyorsthey’dratherhaveaspousewhoisanembezzlerdruguserorashoplifterthanonewhoisobese.Andallofthisiscompoundedbyavirtuallyunregulatedbeautyanddietindustryandsoaringratesofelectivecosmeticsurgery.RhoderemindsushowHillaryClintonandSoniaSotomayorweresavagedbythemediafortheirlooksandsaysit’snosurprisethatSarahPalinpaidhermakeupartistmorethananymemberofherstaffinherrunforthevicepresidency.AndtheproblemwithmakingappearancediscriminationillegalisthatAmericansjustreallyreallylikehotgirls.Andsolongasbeingahotgirlisdeemedabonafideoccupationalqualificationtherewillbecocktailwaitressesfiredforgainingthreepounds.It’snotjustAmericanmenwholikethingsthisway.Thetruthisthatwomenfeelgoodaboutcompetinginbeautypageants.Toputitanotherwayappearancebiasisamassivesocietalproblemwithtangibleeconomiccoststhatmostofus—perhapsespeciallywomen—perpetuateeachtimewebuyadietpillorsneeratfatwomen.Thisdoesn’tmeanweshouldn’tworktowarderadicatingdiscriminationbasedonappearance.Butitmaymeanrecognizingthatthelawwon’tstopusfromdiscriminatingagainsttheoverweighttheagingandtheimperfectsolongasit’sthequalityweallhatemostinourselves.Whatconclusioncanwedrawfromthepassage
Despitedecadesofscientificresearchnooneyetknowshowmuchdamagehumanactivityisdoingtotheenvironment.Humansarethoughttoberesponsibleforawholehostofenvironmentalproblemsrangingfromglobalwarningtoozonedepletion.Whatisnotindoubthoweveristhedevastatingeffecthumansarehavingontheanimalandplantlifeoftheplanet.Currentlyanestimated50000speciesbecomeextincteveryyear.IfthiscarriesontheimpactonalllivingcreaturesislikelytobeprofoundsaysDr.NickMiddletonageographeratOxfordUniversity.Allspeciesdependinsomewayoneachothertosurvive.Andthedangeristhatifyouremoveonespeciesfromthisverycomplexwebofinterrelationshipsyouhaveverylittleideaabouttheknock-oneffectsofotherextinctions.Complicatingmattersisthefactthattherearenoobvioussolutionstotheproblem.Unlikeglobalwarningandozonedepletion—whichifthepoliticalwillwastherecouldbereducedbycuttinggasemissions—preservingbiodiversityremainsanintractableproblem.Thelatestideaissustainablemanagementwhichisseenasapracticalandeconomicalwayofprotectingspeciesfromextinction.Thismeanshumansshouldbeabletouseanyspeciesofanimalorplantfortheirbenefitprovidedenoughindividualsofthatspeciesareleftalivetoensureitscontinuedexistence.Forinstanceinsteadofdependingonlargelyineffectivelawsagainstpoachingitgiveslocalpeopleagoodeconomicreasontopreserveplantsandanimals.InZimbabwethereisasustainablemanagementprojectelephants.Foreigntouristspaylargesumsofmoneytokilltheseanimalsforsport.Thismoneyisthengiventotheinhabitantsoftheareawherethehuntingtakesplace.Intheorylocalswillbeencouragedtoprotectelephantsinsteadofpoachingthem—orallowingotherstopoachthem—becauseoftheeconomicbenefitinvolved.Thissoundslikeasensiblestrategybutitremainstobeseenwhetheritwillwork.Withcorruptionendemicinmanydevelopingcountriessomeobserversareskepticalthatthemoneywillactuallyreachthepeopleitisintendedfor．Otherswonderhoweffectivethelocalswillbeatstoppingpoachers.Therearealsoquestionsaboutwhethersustainablemanagementispracticalwhenitcomestoprotectingareasofgreat-bio-diversitysuchastheworld’stropicalforests.Intheorytheprincipleshouldbethesameaswithelephants—allowloggingcompaniestocutdownacertainnumberoftreesbutnotsomanyastocompletelydestroytheforest.Sustainablemanagementofforestsrequirescontrolsonthenumberoftreeswhicharecutdownaswellasinvestmentinreplacingthem.Butbecausealmostalltropicalforestsarelocatedincountrieswhichdesperatelyneedrevenuefromloggingtherearefewregulationstodothis.Moreoverunrestrictedloggingissomuchmoreprofitablethatwoodpricesfrommanagedforestswouldcostuptofivetimesmore—anincreasethatconsumersnomatterhowgreenareunlikelytopay.Forthesereasonssustainablemanagementoftropicalforestsisunlikelytobecomewidespreadinthenearfuture.Thisisdishearteningnews.It’sestimatedtheseforestscontainanythingfrom50to90percentofallanimalandplantspeciesonEarth.Inonestudyofafive-square-kilometerareaofrainforestinPeruforinstancescientistscounted1300speciesofbutterflyand600speciesofbird.IntheentirecontinentalUnitedStatesonly400speciesofbutterflyand700speciesofbirdhavebeenrecorded.ScientistProfessorNormanMyersseesthissituationasagiganticexperimentwe’reconductingwithourplanet.Wedon’tknowwhattheoutcomewillbe.Ifwemakeamessofitwecan’tmovetoanotherplanetIt’sacaseofoneplanetoneexperiment./WhatfactorsmightNOTaffectthepracticalityofsustainablemanagement
Humanrelationshavecommandedpeople’sattentionfromearlytimes.Thewaysofpeoplehavebeenrecordedininnumerablemythsfolktalesnovelspoemsplaysandpopularorphilosophicalessays.Althoughthefullsignificanceofahumanrelationshipmaynotbedirectlyevidentthecomplexityoffeelingsandactionsthatcanbeunderstoodataglanceissurprisinglygreat.Forthisreasonpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciences.Intuitiveknowledgemayberemarkablypenetratingandcansignificantlyhelpusunderstandhumanbehaviorwhereasinthephysicalsciencessuchcommonsenseknowledgeisrelativelyprimitive.Ifweerasedallknowledgeofscientificphysicsfromourworldnotonlywouldwenothavecarsandtelevisionsetswemightevenfindthattheordinarypersonwasunabletocopewiththefundamentalmechanicalproblemsofpulleysandlevers.Ontheotherhandifweremovedallknowledgeofscientificpsychologyfromourworldproblemsininterpersonalrelationsmighteasilybecopedwithandsolvedmuchasbefore.Wewouldstillknowhowtoavoiddoingsomethingaskedofusandhowtogetsomeonetoagreewithus:wewouldstillknowwhensomeonewasangryandwhensomeonewaspleased.Onecouldevenoffersensibleexplanationsforthewhysofmuchoftheself’sbehaviorandfeelings.Inotherwordstheordinarypersonhasagreatandprofoundunderstandingoftheselfandofotherpeoplewhichthoughunformulatedoronlyvaguelyconceivedenablesonetointeractwithothersinmoreorlessadaptiveways.Kohlerinreferringtothelackofgreatdiscoveriesinpsychologyascomparedwithphysicsaccountsforthisbysayingthatpeoplewereacquaintedwithpracticallyallterritoriesofmentallifealongtimebeforethefoundingofscientificpsychology.Paradoxicallywithallthisnaturalintuitivecommonsensecapacitytograsphumanrelationsthescienceofhumanrelationshadbeenoneofthelasttodevelop.Differentexplanationsofthisparadoxhavebeensuggested.Oneisthatsciencewoulddestroythevainandpleasingillusionspeoplehaveaboutthemselves;butwemightaskwhypeoplehavealwayslovedtoreadpessimisticdebunkingwritingsfromEcclesiastestoFreud.Ithasalsobeenproposedthatjustbecauseweknowsomuchaboutpeopleintuitivelytherehasbeenlessincentiveforstudyingthemscientifically:whyshouldonedevelopatheorycarryoutsystematicobservationsormakepredictionsabouttheobviousInanycasethefieldofhumanrelationswithitsvastliterarydocumentationbutmeagerscientifictreatmentisingreatcontrasttothefieldofphysicsinwhichtherearerelativelyfewnonscientificbooks.WhichofthefollowingisTRUEaccordingtothepassage
Thefollowingisatextabouttheperpetualmotionmachine.Intheparagraphswithnumbersthesupportingdetailsdataorfactshavebeenomittedandarelistedfollowingthetextinrandomorder.Matcheachofthedetailswiththestatementitsupports. PerpetualMotionMachineisafascinatingandlong-discussedtopicthatmoveswellbeyondthescopeofphysics.Inshortaperpetualmotionmachinecanbelikenedtoamagiccowthatcontinuestoliveandbreatheandyetneedsnosustenance.Aperpetualmotionengineinstalledinacarwouldcontinuetorunindefinitelybutwouldneedneithergastanknorpetrol.Ofcourseasaperpetualmotionmachineisinviolationofnaturallawsitwilllikelynevermoveoutoftherealmofimaginationandintoreality.Whenthephrase"perpetualmotionmachine"isenteredintoGoogle’ssearchengine34400itemsarereturned.Ofthese34400itemstheforty-firsttotheforty-fifthholdreasonableinterestandwillbefurtherdiscussedherein. 41.Mythsandlegends Longbeforetheadventofthesteamenginehumanbeingshaveruminatedonthepossibilityofaperpetualmotionmachine.Throughouthistorymanyhaveattemptedtoinventsuchadevicethoughnonehavethusfarbeensuccessful. 42.Fameandglory Somepeopleholdthatanyinventorattemptingtocreateaperpetualmotionmachinemustonlybeinitforcreditandaccoladeswishingtobethefirstinhisfieldtodiscoverthemuch-covetedsecret. 43.Wealthandriches Itisalsosuspectedbysomethatthoseseekingtounlockthemysteryofperpetualmotionmachinemustbemotivatedbythemonetaryrewards.Ifsuchadeviceweretofallintopopularusetheinventorwouldbeawealthymanindeed. 44.Anticsandcapers Evensomeofthosewhoareawareoftheimpossibilityofperpetualmotionmachinehaveinventedsomethingsimilarundertheguiseofperpetualmotionmachineinordertoteaseus. 45.Deceptionandtrickery Somepeoplethoughfullyawarethattheyareincapableofinventingaperpetualmotionmachinepersistinarguingthattheycanwiththeintentionofscammingus. Thoughtheperpetualmotionmachineisadreamlong-soughtafterbythescientificcommunityitisimprobablethatitwilleverberealized.Wecanhoweverpourourresourcesintoresearchingmorepracticalenergyconservingformsofpowersuchasgeothermalhydro-electricandsolarpowersolutions. [A]InventorKdeclared"Theexperimentswithperpetualmotionareonthevergeofsuccess.Myproductswillsoonbedistributedthroughouttheworldandusedinawiderangeofindustrialapplications.Whenthathappensmycompanywillexpandexponentially.I’llmakeafortune!" [B]InventorFtoldmeexcitedly"Somecomplexdetailsarecurrentlyunderdiscussiontounearththekeytoperpetualmotion.IfmyexperimentprovestobeeffectualIwillbecomeaNobelPrizewinner.YouknowtheceremonyisheldannuallyinSwedenandisbroadcastedlivetoeverycorneroftheglobe."ItisnogreatwonderthatInventorFespousedenthusiasm.Afunctionalperpetualmotionmachineisawonderthatwouldbemarveledatforgenerationstocome. [C]InancientChinatherewasanextremelyadroitmanbythenameofZhuGeliang.Itissaidthatheconstructedawoodenhorsewhichcouldwalkunaidedandcouldbeusedinthetransportationofmilitarysupplies.Asnorecordsofthisoccurrencehavebeenfoundthistalehaspassedintolegend. [D]OneoftheclosestthingstoaperpetualmotionenginewastheoneinstalledontheTraveler1spacecraftthefirstspaceshipinhumanhistorytoflybeyondtheedgesofoursolarsystem.ThoughTraveler’sengineisabletoFunwithoutmaintenanceformanyyearsitstillrequiresenergy—nuclearenergy.SostrictlyspeakingTraveler1doesnotrunonaperpetualmotionenginebutinfactneedsenergyasdoallothermachines. [E]MrGoofyannouncedthathehadeffectivelydiagrammedthefirstperpetualmotionmachine.Whenaprivatecorporatepartypurchasedthepatenttheyfoundtotheirdismaythatmanufacturingitaccordingtothedesignlayoutwastechnicallyinfeasible.FurioustheysuedMr.GoofyforfraudbuteveninthecourtroomMr.Goofywouldnotbeshamed.Hesimplyretorted"I’mjustjokingaround." [F]Tomproudlyproclaimingthathehadinventedaclockthatranonperpetualmotionandhaditplacedinthecentralsquareofhistown.Theclockhesaidwouldworkperfectlydespitealackofspringsintheinternalmechanism.Ascientistlaterascertainedthesecretandrevealedittothetownspeople:theclockhadbeencleverlydevisedtorunontemperaturedifferentials. 43
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 3
Todaythereiswidespreadagreementthatmultinationalcorporationswillhaveanimportanteffectoninternationalrelationsandworldeconomy.Butthereislittleagreementonexactlywhatthateffectwillbe.Therearetwogroupsofthosewhoseethemasbenevolentandthosewhoseethemasevil. Amongthosewhoseemultinationalcorporationsasbenevolentmanyemphasizetheirimportanceinhelpingreducethegapbetweenrichcountriesandpoorones.Thesebusinessgiantsarereferredtoas"enginesofdevelopment"becauseitisclaimedthattheydomoretoimprovetheeconomiclifeinlessdevelopedcountriesthanallgovernmentalforeignaidprogramshaveeverdone.Bysettingupfactoriesabroadtheyprovidejobs;byequippingthesefactorieswiththelatestmachinesandequipmenttheymakeavailablethemostmoderntechnology.41______.Infacttheydobetterontheirown.Itmayhavebeennecessaryinthemid-nineteencenturyforAdmiralPerrytothreatentheJapanesewithnavalbombardmentiftheydidnotallowwesterncountriestotradewiththem.Suchthreatswouldmakenosensetoday.42______. Theleadersofmultinationalcorporationsseepatriotismasold-fashionedthenation-stateobsoleteandwarinpursuitofnationalglorydownrightfoolish.Theybelievethatthemultinationalcorporationis"amodernconceptevolvedtomeettherequirementsofmodemage"whilethenation-stateis"stillrootedinarchaicconceptsunsympathetictotheneedofourcomplexworld."43______."Ithink"anofficialofGeneralElectriconcesaid"gettingGeneralElectriceverywhereintheworldisthebiggestthingwecandoforworldpeace." Theseproponentsofthemultinationalcorporationscomebyandlargefromthebusinessworld.Therearehowevermanycriticsamongacademicstudentsofmultinationalcorporationswhoregardthemasasinisterforce.Theyhaveproduceddetailedstudiestoprovethatthebenefitsofmultinationalcorporationsaremostlyillusory.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationsprovidejobstheypointoutthatthisisatthecostofjobsinothercountries.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationstransfertechnologytheyreply:aoftentheequipmentshippedoverseasisoutofdate;btheirtechnologyisoftenunsuitableformanyofthelessdevelopedcountrieswherelaborisplentifulandthereforecheap.44______.Thereforetheymaintainthatinsteadofbeingthe"enginesofdevelopment"themultinationalcorporationsareactually"enginesofimpoverishment". Thesecriticsdonotdenythatconsumptionoftheproductsofthesecorporationshasrisenincountriesaroundtheworld.45______.Thereforealthoughthesecorporationsmaybreakdownnationalfrontierstheystrengthenclassdistinctionswideningthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcreatinggreatersocialinjusticeandinstability. [A]ThelongexpensiveAmericanwarinVietnamdidnotbringnewopportunitiesinSoutheastAsiaforthemultinationalcorporations.ThedecisionoftheNixonadministrationtoimproverelationswithChinawasmoreprofitabletothem. [B]ThefactthatbothAmericanteenagersandMexicanpeasantsaredrinkingCocaColadoesnotmeanthatthelifeoftheMexicanpeasantsisgettingbetterduetothemultinationalcorporations. [C]Theythereforecharacterizethemselvesashard-headedpeoplewhoarehelpingtobringaboutamoreco-operativesystemorworldorderbybreakingdownnationalgeographicalpoliticaleconomicandideologicalbarriers. [D]Onestudyactuallyshowedthatmultinationalcorporationsdonotinvestcapitalfromwealthycountriesbutprefertofinancetheiroperationsfromthelocaleconomy.Inotherwordstheyaresimplytransferringwealthfrompoorercountriestoricherones. [E]Accordingtothesecriticsstateswillsoonrealizethattheyhavelosttheircontroloverissuessuchastaxationemploymentandeventhestabilityoftheirowncurrency. [F]Buttheypointoutthatthisso-called"GlobalShoppingCenter"isavailableonlytoaverysmallportionofthelocalpopulation. [G]Becausegoodsarenowproducedwithinthelessdevelopedcountriesthereislessneedforthemtoimportfromabroadandtheirbalanceofpaymentswillimprove.Multinationalcorporationstodaydonotneedtheircountriestoprovidemilitaryforcetoopenforeigncountriestotheirinvestmentproductsandsales. 43
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 1
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage."Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluid脑脊液surroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecortical脑皮层的shrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluid脑脊液surroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecortical脑皮层的shrinkage.
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 17
Thefollowingisatextabouttheperpetualmotionmachine.Intheparagraphswithnumbersthesupportingdetailsdataorfactshavebeenomittedandarelistedfollowingthetextinrandomorder.Matcheachofthedetailswiththestatementitsupports. PerpetualMotionMachineisafascinatingandlong-discussedtopicthatmoveswellbeyondthescopeofphysics.Inshortaperpetualmotionmachinecanbelikenedtoamagiccowthatcontinuestoliveandbreatheandyetneedsnosustenance.Aperpetualmotionengineinstalledinacarwouldcontinuetorunindefinitelybutwouldneedneithergastanknorpetrol.Ofcourseasaperpetualmotionmachineisinviolationofnaturallawsitwilllikelynevermoveoutoftherealmofimaginationandintoreality.Whenthephrase"perpetualmotionmachine"isenteredintoGoogle’ssearchengine34400itemsarereturned.Ofthese34400itemstheforty-firsttotheforty-fifthholdreasonableinterestandwillbefurtherdiscussedherein. 41.Mythsandlegends Longbeforetheadventofthesteamenginehumanbeingshaveruminatedonthepossibilityofaperpetualmotionmachine.Throughouthistorymanyhaveattemptedtoinventsuchadevicethoughnonehavethusfarbeensuccessful. 42.Fameandglory Somepeopleholdthatanyinventorattemptingtocreateaperpetualmotionmachinemustonlybeinitforcreditandaccoladeswishingtobethefirstinhisfieldtodiscoverthemuch-covetedsecret. 43.Wealthandriches Itisalsosuspectedbysomethatthoseseekingtounlockthemysteryofperpetualmotionmachinemustbemotivatedbythemonetaryrewards.Ifsuchadeviceweretofallintopopularusetheinventorwouldbeawealthymanindeed. 44.Anticsandcapers Evensomeofthosewhoareawareoftheimpossibilityofperpetualmotionmachinehaveinventedsomethingsimilarundertheguiseofperpetualmotionmachineinordertoteaseus. 45.Deceptionandtrickery Somepeoplethoughfullyawarethattheyareincapableofinventingaperpetualmotionmachinepersistinarguingthattheycanwiththeintentionofscammingus. Thoughtheperpetualmotionmachineisadreamlong-soughtafterbythescientificcommunityitisimprobablethatitwilleverberealized.Wecanhoweverpourourresourcesintoresearchingmorepracticalenergyconservingformsofpowersuchasgeothermalhydro-electricandsolarpowersolutions. [A]InventorKdeclared"Theexperimentswithperpetualmotionareonthevergeofsuccess.Myproductswillsoonbedistributedthroughouttheworldandusedinawiderangeofindustrialapplications.Whenthathappensmycompanywillexpandexponentially.I’llmakeafortune!" [B]InventorFtoldmeexcitedly"Somecomplexdetailsarecurrentlyunderdiscussiontounearththekeytoperpetualmotion.IfmyexperimentprovestobeeffectualIwillbecomeaNobelPrizewinner.YouknowtheceremonyisheldannuallyinSwedenandisbroadcastedlivetoeverycorneroftheglobe."ItisnogreatwonderthatInventorFespousedenthusiasm.Afunctionalperpetualmotionmachineisawonderthatwouldbemarveledatforgenerationstocome. [C]InancientChinatherewasanextremelyadroitmanbythenameofZhuGeliang.Itissaidthatheconstructedawoodenhorsewhichcouldwalkunaidedandcouldbeusedinthetransportationofmilitarysupplies.Asnorecordsofthisoccurrencehavebeenfoundthistalehaspassedintolegend. [D]OneoftheclosestthingstoaperpetualmotionenginewastheoneinstalledontheTraveler1spacecraftthefirstspaceshipinhumanhistorytoflybeyondtheedgesofoursolarsystem.ThoughTraveler’sengineisabletoFunwithoutmaintenanceformanyyearsitstillrequiresenergy—nuclearenergy.SostrictlyspeakingTraveler1doesnotrunonaperpetualmotionenginebutinfactneedsenergyasdoallothermachines. [E]MrGoofyannouncedthathehadeffectivelydiagrammedthefirstperpetualmotionmachine.Whenaprivatecorporatepartypurchasedthepatenttheyfoundtotheirdismaythatmanufacturingitaccordingtothedesignlayoutwastechnicallyinfeasible.FurioustheysuedMr.GoofyforfraudbuteveninthecourtroomMr.Goofywouldnotbeshamed.Hesimplyretorted"I’mjustjokingaround." [F]Tomproudlyproclaimingthathehadinventedaclockthatranonperpetualmotionandhaditplacedinthecentralsquareofhistown.Theclockhesaidwouldworkperfectlydespitealackofspringsintheinternalmechanism.Ascientistlaterascertainedthesecretandrevealedittothetownspeople:theclockhadbeencleverlydevisedtorunontemperaturedifferentials. 45
Despitedecadesofscientificresearchnooneyetknowshowmuchdamagehumanactivityisdoingtotheenvironment.Humansarethoughttoberesponsibleforawholehostofenvironmentalproblemsrangingfromglobalwarningtoozonedepletion.Whatisnotindoubthoweveristhedevastatingeffecthumansarehavingontheanimalandplantlifeoftheplanet.Currentlyanestimated50000speciesbecomeextincteveryyear.IfthiscarriesontheimpactonalllivingcreaturesislikelytobeprofoundsaysDr.NickMiddletonageographeratOxfordUniversity.Allspeciesdependinsomewayoneachothertosurvive.Andthedangeristhatifyouremoveonespeciesfromthisverycomplexwebofinterrelationshipsyouhaveverylittleideaabouttheknock-oneffectsofotherextinctions.Complicatingmattersisthefactthattherearenoobvioussolutionstotheproblem.Unlikeglobalwarningandozonedepletion—whichifthepoliticalwillwastherecouldbereducedbycuttinggasemissions—preservingbiodiversityremainsanintractableproblem.Thelatestideaissustainablemanagementwhichisseenasapracticalandeconomicalwayofprotectingspeciesfromextinction.Thismeanshumansshouldbeabletouseanyspeciesofanimalorplantfortheirbenefitprovidedenoughindividualsofthatspeciesareleftalivetoensureitscontinuedexistence.Forinstanceinsteadofdependingonlargelyineffectivelawsagainstpoachingitgiveslocalpeopleagoodeconomicreasontopreserveplantsandanimals.InZimbabwethereisasustainablemanagementprojectelephants.Foreigntouristspaylargesumsofmoneytokilltheseanimalsforsport.Thismoneyisthengiventotheinhabitantsoftheareawherethehuntingtakesplace.Intheorylocalswillbeencouragedtoprotectelephantsinsteadofpoachingthem—orallowingotherstopoachthem—becauseoftheeconomicbenefitinvolved.Thissoundslikeasensiblestrategybutitremainstobeseenwhetheritwillwork.Withcorruptionendemicinmanydevelopingcountriessomeobserversareskepticalthatthemoneywillactuallyreachthepeopleitisintendedfor．Otherswonderhoweffectivethelocalswillbeatstoppingpoachers.Therearealsoquestionsaboutwhethersustainablemanagementispracticalwhenitcomestoprotectingareasofgreat-bio-diversitysuchastheworld’stropicalforests.Intheorytheprincipleshouldbethesameaswithelephants—allowloggingcompaniestocutdownacertainnumberoftreesbutnotsomanyastocompletelydestroytheforest.Sustainablemanagementofforestsrequirescontrolsonthenumberoftreeswhicharecutdownaswellasinvestmentinreplacingthem.Butbecausealmostalltropicalforestsarelocatedincountrieswhichdesperatelyneedrevenuefromloggingtherearefewregulationstodothis.Moreoverunrestrictedloggingissomuchmoreprofitablethatwoodpricesfrommanagedforestswouldcostuptofivetimesmore—anincreasethatconsumersnomatterhowgreenareunlikelytopay.Forthesereasonssustainablemanagementoftropicalforestsisunlikelytobecomewidespreadinthenearfuture.Thisisdishearteningnews.It’sestimatedtheseforestscontainanythingfrom50to90percentofallanimalandplantspeciesonEarth.Inonestudyofafive-square-kilometerareaofrainforestinPeruforinstancescientistscounted1300speciesofbutterflyand600speciesofbird.IntheentirecontinentalUnitedStatesonly400speciesofbutterflyand700speciesofbirdhavebeenrecorded.ScientistProfessorNormanMyersseesthissituationasagiganticexperimentwe’reconductingwithourplanet.Wedon’tknowwhattheoutcomewillbe.Ifwemakeamessofitwecan’tmovetoanotherplanetIt’sacaseofoneplanetoneexperiment./Whatisaneffectivewaytopreservebiodiversity
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 7
Schoolauthoritiesoftenrefusetofacetheproblemofdrug-abuse;governmentdrug-abuseagencieshavedonetoolittletoinformthepublicaboutit;manyphysiciansstillseemunawareofitwhentheyexamineteenagers.AsaresultparentsmaystillbethelasttoknowthattheirchildrenhavefallenvictimtothedrugepidemicthathasbeenragingformorethanadecadeamongAmerican’syouth.Inasurveyofamiddle-incomeCincinnatisuburb38percentofthesixthgradeand89percentoftheseniorclasssaidtheyuseddrugandalcohol;48percentoftheparentsthoughttheirchildrenusedalcoholbutonly8percentthoughttheirchildrenuseddrug.Fortunatelythereisanewforceatworkagainstthisepidemic—anationwidemovementofmorethan400parentgroupsformedtoexposeandbattledruguseamongteenagersandpreteens.Thegroupshavedifferentapproachesandwidelyvaryingratesofsuccess.Yetthisparentalcrusadeistheonlymajorforceinthecountrytohavetakenactiveorganizedandeffectivestepsaimedatstoppingmarijuanause.WhytheconcentrationonmarijuanaMarijuanaistheillegaldrugmostusedbykids.AccordingtoaNationalHighSchoolSurvey44percentofU.S.highschoolseniorshadsmokedpotduringtheirschoolyearsandoneoutofsevenoftheseweredailyorneardailysmokers.Therewasaclose-relatedconnectionbetweenpotsmokingandsubsequentuseofcocaineandheroinbyyoungmen.Ofthosewhohadsmokedpotfewerthan100timessevenpercenthadgraduatedtococainefourpercenttoheroin.Butofthosewhohadsmokedpotatleast1000times73percenthadgoneontococaineandoneoutofthreehadgraduatedtoheroin.Parentgroupshavefoundthatbystoppingtheirkidsfromsmokingpottheyalmostautomaticallystopallotherillegaldrugsandcutdownonalcoholuseaswell.TheHighSchoolSeniorSurvey’sstatisticsshowthatheavypotsmokerstendtobeheavydrinkerswhilethosewhodonotusepottendnottodrinkheavily.SincevirtuallyalloverthecountryteenagepartyinghascometomeangettingsmashedandgettingstonedonanythingfrompottopillstohashishLSDandalcoholsomeparentgroupshomeinonthepartyingaspect.ParentsWhoCarePWCwasstartedin1979by15PaloAltoCalif.parentswhowereupsetbystoriesofseriousdrugproblemsatparties.Theyheldtalksessionswiththeirchildrenandlearnedthatmostoftheirchildrenhadneverbeentoapartywherethemainactivitywasnotgettinghigh.Theparents’solution:workshopsshowingkidshowtogivesuccessfuldrug-and-alcohol-freeparties.SaysMargeryRanchPWCdirectorWe’veseenachangeinattitude.Youngpeoplearefeelingmorecomfortablesayingno./Inthistexttheauthorisprimarilyconcernedwith______.
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove． 46"BYshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid. AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’s12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’s12secondsinadvance.
Schoolauthoritiesoftenrefusetofacetheproblemofdrug-abuse;governmentdrug-abuseagencieshavedonetoolittletoinformthepublicaboutit;manyphysiciansstillseemunawareofitwhentheyexamineteenagers.AsaresultparentsmaystillbethelasttoknowthattheirchildrenhavefallenvictimtothedrugepidemicthathasbeenragingformorethanadecadeamongAmerican’syouth.Inasurveyofamiddle-incomeCincinnatisuburb38percentofthesixthgradeand89percentoftheseniorclasssaidtheyuseddrugandalcohol;48percentoftheparentsthoughttheirchildrenusedalcoholbutonly8percentthoughttheirchildrenuseddrug.Fortunatelythereisanewforceatworkagainstthisepidemic—anationwidemovementofmorethan400parentgroupsformedtoexposeandbattledruguseamongteenagersandpreteens.Thegroupshavedifferentapproachesandwidelyvaryingratesofsuccess.Yetthisparentalcrusadeistheonlymajorforceinthecountrytohavetakenactiveorganizedandeffectivestepsaimedatstoppingmarijuanause.WhytheconcentrationonmarijuanaMarijuanaistheillegaldrugmostusedbykids.AccordingtoaNationalHighSchoolSurvey44percentofU.S.highschoolseniorshadsmokedpotduringtheirschoolyearsandoneoutofsevenoftheseweredailyorneardailysmokers.Therewasaclose-relatedconnectionbetweenpotsmokingandsubsequentuseofcocaineandheroinbyyoungmen.Ofthosewhohadsmokedpotfewerthan100timessevenpercenthadgraduatedtococainefourpercenttoheroin.Butofthosewhohadsmokedpotatleast1000times73percenthadgoneontococaineandoneoutofthreehadgraduatedtoheroin.Parentgroupshavefoundthatbystoppingtheirkidsfromsmokingpottheyalmostautomaticallystopallotherillegaldrugsandcutdownonalcoholuseaswell.TheHighSchoolSeniorSurvey’sstatisticsshowthatheavypotsmokerstendtobeheavydrinkerswhilethosewhodonotusepottendnottodrinkheavily.SincevirtuallyalloverthecountryteenagepartyinghascometomeangettingsmashedandgettingstonedonanythingfrompottopillstohashishLSDandalcoholsomeparentgroupshomeinonthepartyingaspect.ParentsWhoCarePWCwasstartedin1979by15PaloAltoCalif.parentswhowereupsetbystoriesofseriousdrugproblemsatparties.Theyheldtalksessionswiththeirchildrenandlearnedthatmostoftheirchildrenhadneverbeentoapartywherethemainactivitywasnotgettinghigh.Theparents’solution:workshopsshowingkidshowtogivesuccessfuldrug-and-alcohol-freeparties.SaysMargeryRanchPWCdirectorWe’veseenachangeinattitude.Youngpeoplearefeelingmorecomfortablesayingno./Theauthorbelievesthattheparentgroups______．
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove． 46"BYshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid. AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’s12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegmentsthemagazinesaid.
IfyouareanythinglikemeyouleftthetheaterafterSexandtheCity2andthoughtthereoughttobealawagainstalooks-basedcultureinwhichtheonlywayfor40-year-oldactressestobecompensatedlike40-year-oldactorsistohavethemlookanddressliketheteenagedaughtersof40-year-oldactors.MeetDeborahRhodeaStanfordlawprofessorwhoproposesalegalregimeinwhichdiscriminationonthebasisoflooksisasseriousasdiscriminationbasedongenderorrace.InaprovocativenewbookTheBeautyBiasRhodelaysoutthecaseforanAmericainwhichappearancediscriminationisnolongerallowed．ThatmeansHooterscan’tfireitsserversforbeingtooheavyasallegedlyhappenedlastmonthtoawaitressinMichiganwhosaysshereceivednothingbutexcellentreviewsbutweighed132pounds.RhodeisathermostpersuasivewhenarguingthatinAmericadiscriminationagainstunattractivewomenandshortmenisasperniciousandwidespreadasbiasbasedonracesexageethnicityreligionanddisability.Rhodecitesresearchtoproveherpoint:11percentofsurveyedcouplessaytheywouldabortafetuspredisposedtowardobesity.Collegestudentstellsurveyorsthey’dratherhaveaspousewhoisanembezzlerdruguserorashoplifterthanonewhoisobese.Andallofthisiscompoundedbyavirtuallyunregulatedbeautyanddietindustryandsoaringratesofelectivecosmeticsurgery.RhoderemindsushowHillaryClintonandSoniaSotomayorweresavagedbythemediafortheirlooksandsaysit’snosurprisethatSarahPalinpaidhermakeupartistmorethananymemberofherstaffinherrunforthevicepresidency.AndtheproblemwithmakingappearancediscriminationillegalisthatAmericansjustreallyreallylikehotgirls.Andsolongasbeingahotgirlisdeemedabonafideoccupationalqualificationtherewillbecocktailwaitressesfiredforgainingthreepounds.It’snotjustAmericanmenwholikethingsthisway.Thetruthisthatwomenfeelgoodaboutcompetinginbeautypageants.Toputitanotherwayappearancebiasisamassivesocietalproblemwithtangibleeconomiccoststhatmostofus—perhapsespeciallywomen—perpetuateeachtimewebuyadietpillorsneeratfatwomen.Thisdoesn’tmeanweshouldn’tworktowarderadicatingdiscriminationbasedonappearance.Butitmaymeanrecognizingthatthelawwon’tstopusfromdiscriminatingagainsttheoverweighttheagingandtheimperfectsolongasit’sthequalityweallhatemostinourselves.WhichofthefollowingsisNOTincludedinProf.Rhode’sarguments
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 13
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage."Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluid脑脊液surroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecortical脑皮层的shrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 5
ViennawasoneofthemusiccentersofEuropeduringtheclassicalperiodandHaydnMozartandBeethovenwereallactivethere.Asthe1oftheHolyRomanEmpirewhichincludedpartsofpresent-dayAustriaGermanyItalyHungaryCzechandSlovakiaitwasa2culturalandcommercialcenter3acosmopolitancharacter.Itspopulationofalmost250000in1800madeViennathefourthlargestcityinEurope.Allthree4masterswerebornelsewherebuttheywere5toViennatostudyandtoseek6.InViennaHaydnandMozartbecameclosefriendsandinfluencedeachother’smusical7.BeethoventraveledtoViennaatsixteentoplayforMozart;attwenty-twohereturnedtostudywithHaydn. AristocratsfromallovertheEmpirespentthewinterinViennasometimesbringingtheirprivate8.Musicwasanimportantpartofcourtlifeandagoodorchestrawasa9ofprestige.Manyofthenobilitywereexcellentmusicians. Muchmusicwasheardin10concertswherearistocratsandwealthycommonersplayed11professionalmusicians.MozartandBeethovenoftenearnedmoneybyperformingintheseintimateconcerts.Thenobility12hiredservantswhocould13asmusicians.AnadvertisementintheViennaGazetteof178914:"Wantedforahouseofthegentryamanservantwhoknowshowtoplaytheviolinwell." InViennatherewasalso15musiclightandpopularin16.Smallstreetbandsofwindandstringplayersplayedatgardenpartiesorunderthewindowsofpeople17tothrow18money.HaydnandMozartwrotemanyoutdoorentertainment1920theycalleddivertimentosorserenades.Vienna’sgreatloveofmusicanditsenthusiasticdemandfornewworksmadeitthechosencityofHaydnMozartandBeethoven. 15
Directions:SupposeyouhaveafriendPaulwhoisabouttoattendcollege.Hewantsyoutoadvisehimonwhichsubjecttomajorin—historyinwhichheisveryinterestedorcomputersciencewhichoffersabetterjobprospect.Youshouldwritealettertotellhimyoursuggestion.Writeyourletterinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter;useLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Humanrelationshavecommandedpeople’sattentionfromearlytimes.Thewaysofpeoplehavebeenrecordedininnumerablemythsfolktalesnovelspoemsplaysandpopularorphilosophicalessays.Althoughthefullsignificanceofahumanrelationshipmaynotbedirectlyevidentthecomplexityoffeelingsandactionsthatcanbeunderstoodataglanceissurprisinglygreat.Forthisreasonpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciences.Intuitiveknowledgemayberemarkablypenetratingandcansignificantlyhelpusunderstandhumanbehaviorwhereasinthephysicalsciencessuchcommonsenseknowledgeisrelativelyprimitive.Ifweerasedallknowledgeofscientificphysicsfromourworldnotonlywouldwenothavecarsandtelevisionsetswemightevenfindthattheordinarypersonwasunabletocopewiththefundamentalmechanicalproblemsofpulleysandlevers.Ontheotherhandifweremovedallknowledgeofscientificpsychologyfromourworldproblemsininterpersonalrelationsmighteasilybecopedwithandsolvedmuchasbefore.Wewouldstillknowhowtoavoiddoingsomethingaskedofusandhowtogetsomeonetoagreewithus:wewouldstillknowwhensomeonewasangryandwhensomeonewaspleased.Onecouldevenoffersensibleexplanationsforthewhysofmuchoftheself’sbehaviorandfeelings.Inotherwordstheordinarypersonhasagreatandprofoundunderstandingoftheselfandofotherpeoplewhichthoughunformulatedoronlyvaguelyconceivedenablesonetointeractwithothersinmoreorlessadaptiveways.Kohlerinreferringtothelackofgreatdiscoveriesinpsychologyascomparedwithphysicsaccountsforthisbysayingthatpeoplewereacquaintedwithpracticallyallterritoriesofmentallifealongtimebeforethefoundingofscientificpsychology.Paradoxicallywithallthisnaturalintuitivecommonsensecapacitytograsphumanrelationsthescienceofhumanrelationshadbeenoneofthelasttodevelop.Differentexplanationsofthisparadoxhavebeensuggested.Oneisthatsciencewoulddestroythevainandpleasingillusionspeoplehaveaboutthemselves;butwemightaskwhypeoplehavealwayslovedtoreadpessimisticdebunkingwritingsfromEcclesiastestoFreud.Ithasalsobeenproposedthatjustbecauseweknowsomuchaboutpeopleintuitivelytherehasbeenlessincentiveforstudyingthemscientifically:whyshouldonedevelopatheorycarryoutsystematicobservationsormakepredictionsabouttheobviousInanycasethefieldofhumanrelationswithitsvastliterarydocumentationbutmeagerscientifictreatmentisingreatcontrasttothefieldofphysicsinwhichtherearerelativelyfewnonscientificbooks.Theauthorsuggeststhatcommonsenseknowledgeofhumanrelationsis______.
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