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AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities.41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.______Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain.42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.______Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-calledunderclasstheyaresounder-privilegedandpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement.43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.______RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem.44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.______Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving.45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.______Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities.Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue.[A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites.[B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore.[C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.DowncamethewhitesonlynoticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.GonetoowerethehideouslynchingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks--hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect.[D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem.[E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks.[F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 15
HenryKissingermaybethemostsuccessfulcertainlythemostflamboyantSecretaryofStatetoholdthatofficeinmoderntimes.Whenhewasappointedinthelate1960’stherewerenoAmericantieswithCommunistChinaVietnamandBerlinseemedreadytodrawtheUnitedStatesintoathirdworldwarandRussiawasseenas"theenemy". ButallthishaschangedandHenryKissingercausedmuchofthechange;in1971hemadehisfirsttriptoChinaatripthatwasthebeginningofthecurrenttiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.HebroughttheUnitedStatesandRussiaclosertogetheronmajorissuesbythepolicyhecalled"detente"literallymeaningarelaxation.Hisphilosophywasalwaystotalkandtobringtogether.WiththesetwopoliciesKissingerdidmuchtodrawattentionawayfromanypossibleRussia-Americanfriction. In1973hemadehisfirstvisittoEgypt.HerehewasabletobeginU.S.relationswithEgypt.HeusedhiscontactlatertobeginthesortoftalksthattheAmericanpresscalled"shuttlediplomacy".Forninety-ninedayshe"shuttled"backandforthonflightsbetweenCairoandJerusalemtoworkoutastep-by-stepwithdrawalofIsraelitroopsfromtheSinaidesert.Hiswithiscarefulapproachtodetailandhispresencemade"shuttlediplomacy"work.ItwastheonlysuccessfulapproachtoMid-eastpeaceinthethirtyyearssincethestateofIsraelwasfounded. AnothermajorworkwastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalk.ThoughhisterminofficepassedwiththetreatyunsignedKissingerleftadraftofthetreatytowhichtheRussianshadalreadyagreed.TheSALTtreatyspelledoutaone-tenthreductioninnucleararmsamajoraccomplishmentbyanystandardevenifonedoesnotconsideralltheotherconditionsandlimitationsincludedinthetreaty. EventhoughhesuccessfullyhelpedbringanendtotheVietnamWarKissinger’sfinaldaysinofficewereaffectedaswastheentireexecutivebranchinonewayoranotherbythescandalsoftheNixonWhiteHouse.Kissinger’scriticspointtohisroleinplacingwiretapsonthephonesofreportersandofficialsandtowhattheyconsiderhis"high-handed"approachtosettingforeignpolicy.ButKissingerduringthelastfewmonthsoftheNixonpresidencylimitedtheeffectsofAmericandomesticproblemsonourforeignpolicy.HecontinuedtalksintheMiddleEast.HecontinuedclosecontactwiththeSovietUnion. HistorywilldecideinthefinalviewasKissinger--andmanypresidents--oftensaidonthevalueofhisservice.Whatevertheydecidewhetherhisactionsarefinallytobeconsideredwiseorfoolishhehadapersonalvisionthatwillhedifficulttomatch. Accordingtothecontextthewordflamboyantmostlikelymeans
Directions: Youareillandcannotgotoschool.Thereforeyouhavetowriteasickleavewhichshouldinclude: 1thedescriptionofyourillness; 2youraimofwritingthesickleave. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendofthenote.Use"LiMing"instead.10points
DisabilityamongtheelderlyhasdeclinedmarkedlyintheUnitedStatesinthepasttwodecades.In198425percentoftheelderlypopulationreporteddifficultywithactivitiesassociatedwithindependentliving.By1999thesharehadfallento20percentadeclineofone-fifth.Althoughthesebasicfactsarewellknowntheirinterpretationisnotclear.IsthereductionindisabilityaresultofimprovedmedicalcareindividualbehavioralchangesenvironmentalmodificationsthatallowtheelderlytobetterfunctionbythemselvesorotherdemographicchangesWillthetrendcontinueorisittimelimitedWhatdoesthereductionindisabilitymeanforyearsofhealthylifeandlaborforceparticipation TheresearchersDavidCutlerMaryBethLandrumandKateStewartfocusondisabilitycausedbycardiovasculardiseasetoinvestigatetheroleofimprovedmedicalcareonreductionsindisability.Bylookingatjustoneconditiontheycananalyzehealthshocksandtheiroutcomesinsomedetail.CardiovasculardiseaseisanaturalconditiontoanalyzebecauseitisthemostcommoncauseofdeathintheUnitedStatesandmostotherdevelopedcountries.Alsomoreisspentoncardiovasculardiseasethanonanyotherconditionclearlyacasewheremedicalcarecouldreallymatter. Theresearchersmeasuredisabilityasthepresenceofimpairmentsin.ActivitiesofDailyLivingADLsandInstrumentalActivitiesofDailyLivingIADLs.TheirdatasourcetheNationalLong-TermCareSurveyNLTCSincludesinformationonsixADLmeasures:eatinggettinginoroutofbedwalkingaroundinsidedressingbathingandgettingtoorusingthetoilet.TherearealsoquestionsabouteightIADLmeasures:doinglighthouseworkorlaundrypreparingmealsshoppingforgroceriesgettingaroundoutsidemanagingmoneytakingmedicationsandmakingtelephonecalls.TheNLTCSisanationallyrepresentativelongitudinalsurveyofthehealthanddisabilityprofileofthepopulationaged65andover. Cutlerandhisco-researchersfindthatreduceddisabilityassociatedwithcardiovasculardiseaseaccountsforasignificantpartofthetotalreductionindisability--between14and22percent.Theevidencesuggeststhatimprovementsinmedicalcareincludingbothincreaseduseofrelevantproceduresandpharmaceuticalsledtoasignificantpartofthisdeclineindisability.Regionswithhigheruseexperiencedsubstantialreductionsinmortalityanddisability. Whileprecisedataontheimplicationsofreduceddisabilityarelackingthepossibleimpactofdisabilityreductionsisstaggering.Theresearchersestimatethatpreventingdisabilityafteranacutecardiovasculareventcanaddasmuchas3.7yearsofquality-adjustedlifeexpectancyorperhaps$316000ofvalue.Thecostofthisoutcomeissignificantlysmaller.Theinitialtreatmentcostsrangefrom$8610to$16332dependingontheprocedureused.FurtherrecentcostanalysesreportedthatannualMedicarespendingwaslowerforthenon-disabledthanthedisabledwhichsuggeststhathighertreatmentcostsmaybeoffsetbylowerfuturespendingamongamorehealthypopulation.Byvirtuallyanymeasurethereforetheresearchersconcludethatmedicaltechnologyafteracutecardiovascularepisodesisworththecost. Accordingtothetexttheresearchers’purposeis
Guthrie’scontiguityprincipleofferspracticalsuggestionsforhowtobreakhabits. Oneapplicationofthethresholdmethodinvolvesthetimeyoungchildrenspendonacademicactivities.Youngchildrenhaveshortattentionspanssothelengthoftimetheycansustainworkononeactivityislimited.Mostactivitiesarescheduledtolastnolongerthan30to40minutes.Howeveratthestartoftheschoolyearattentionspansquicklywaneandbehaviorproblemsoftenresult.ToapplyGuthrie’stheoryateachermightatthestartoftheyearlimitactivitiesto15to20minutes.Overthenextfewweekstheteachercouldgraduallyincreasethetimestudentsspendworkingonasingleactivity. Thethresholdmethodalsocanbeappliedtoteachingprintingandhandwriting.Whenchildrenfirstlearntoformletterstheirmovementsareawkwardandtheylackfinemotorcoordination.Thedistancesbetweenlinesonapagearepurposelywidesochildrencanfitthelettersintothespace.Ifpaperwithnarrowlinesisinitiallyintroducedstudents’etterswouldspilloverthebordersandstudentsmightbecomefrustrated.Oncestudentscanformletterswithinthelargerborderstheycanusepaperwithsmallerborderstohelpthemrefinetheirskills. Thefatiguemethodcanbeappliedwhendiscipliningdisruptivestudentswhobuildpaperairplanesandsailthemacrosstheroom.Theteachercanremovethestudentsfromtheclassroomgivethemalargestackofpaperandtellhimtostartmakingpaperairplanes.Afterthestudentshavemadeseveralairplanestheactivityshouldloseitsattractionandpaperwillbecomeacuefornotbuildingairplanes. Somestudentscontinuallyracearoundthegymwhentheyfirstentertheirphysicaleducationclass.Toemploythefatiguemethodtheteachermightdecidetohavethesestudentscontinuetorunafewmorelapsaftertheclasshasbegun. Theincompatibleresponsemethodcanbeusedwithstudentswhotalkandmisbehaveinthemediacenter.Readingisincompatiblewithtalking.Themediacenterteachermightaskthestudentstofindinterestingbooksandreadthemwhileinthecenter.Assumingthatthestudentsfindthebooksenjoyablethemediacenterwillovertimebecomeacueforselectingandreadingbooksratherthanfortalkingwithotherstudents. Inasocialstudiesclasssomestudentsregularlyfallasleep.Theteacherrealizedthatusingtheboardandoverheadprojectorwhilelecturingwasveryboring.Soontheteacherbegantoincorporateotherelementsintoeachlessonsuchasexperimentsanddebatesinanattempttoinvolvestudentsandraisetheirinterestinthecourse. Whichofthefollowingisnottheexampleofapplyingthethresholdmethod
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 17
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 9
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities.41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.______Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain.42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.______Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-calledunderclasstheyaresounder-privilegedandpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement.43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.______RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem.44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.______Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving.45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.______Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities.Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue.[A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites.[B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore.[C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.DowncamethewhitesonlynoticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.GonetoowerethehideouslynchingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks--hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect.[D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem.[E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks.[F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 3
Adealisadeal—exceptapparentlywhenEntergyisinvolved.ThecompanyamajorenergysupplierinNewEnglandprovokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations. InsteadthecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourtaspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove. Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplantanagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesalethecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006thestatewentastepfurtherrequiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Thentoothecompanywentalong. EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitmentsoritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidentsincludingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakageraisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehaviortheVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension. Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislationandthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpowerlegalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainlytherearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitswordthatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint. ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStatesincludingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafelythecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionNRCreviewsthecompany’sapplicationitshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth. Byenteringintothe2002agreementEntergyintendedto
Oncetheexclusivedomainofexecutiveswithexpenseaccountsmobilephonesaresettobecomeoneofthecentraltechnologiesofthe21stcentury.46Withinafewyearsthemobilephonewillevolvefromavoice-onlydevicetoamulti-functionalcommunicatorcapableoftransmittingandreceivingnotonlysoundbutvideostillimagesdataandtext.Awholeneweraofpersonalcommunicationisontheway.Thanksinparttothegrowthofwirelessnetworksthetelephoneisconvergingwiththepersonalcomputerandthetelevision.47Soonlight-weightphonesoutfittedwithhighresolutionscreens--whichcanbeembeddedineverythingfromwristwatchestopalm-heldunitswillbeconnectedtoseriesofloworbitsatellitesenablingpeopletotalksendandreceiveE-mailortakepartinvideoconferencesanytimeanywhere.Thesephonesmightalsoabsorbmanyofthekeyfunctionsofthedesktopcomputer.MobiledevicesareexpectedtobeidealforsomeofthenewpersonalizedservicesthatarebecomingavailableviatheInternet.Thecommunicationsrevolutionisalreadytakingshapearoundtheglobe.InEuropemall-scaletrialsareunderwayusingmobilephonesforelectroniccommerce.ForexamplemostphonescontainasubscriberidentificationmoduleSIMcardthatservesprimarilytoidentifyausertothephonenetwork.SomemanufacturersplantoupgradetheSIMcardtoanall-in-onepersonalidentificationandcreditcard.Anotherapproachistoaddaslottomobilephonesforasecondsmartcarddesignedspecificallyformobileecommerce.48ThesecardscouldbeusedtomakepaymentsovertheInternetorremovedfromthephoneforuseinpointof-saleterminalstopayforthingslikepublictransportationmovieticketsoraroundofdrinksatthebar.InFranceMotorolaiscurrentlytestingadualslotphonetheStarTACDinatrialwithFranceTelecomwhileinFinlandNokiaistestingaphonethatusesaspecialpluginreaderforatinysmartcard.Siemensispursuingadifferentapproach.49Sinceitisnotveryclearwhetherit’sbesttodoeverythingwithasingledeviceSiemensisdevelopingdualslotphonesandEinsteinadeviceequippedwithasmartcardreaderandkeypadthatcanbelinkedtothephoneviainfraredwirelesstechnology.50Forthosewhowanttothoughitwillbepossibletoreceivealmostallformsofelectroniccommunicationthroughasingledevicemostlikelyathree-in-onephonethatservesasacordlessathomeacellphoneontheroadandanintercomatwork.ThemobilephonewillbecomeincreasinglymultifunctionalsaysBurghardtSchallenbergervicepresidentfortechnologyandinnovationatSiemensInformationandConsumerProducts.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 19
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 5
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 11
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 7
Thoughhardlyasunwelcomeasdeathortaxescollegeentranceexamsarejustasinevitableandalmostasdreadedbyhighschoolstudents.AsthetestingdatesloomforjuniorsandseniorsfortheSATformerlycalledtheScholasticAssessmentTestandtheAmericanCollegeTestorACTmoststudentsarelookingforanedgeanyedgeinthecompetition.Andasthenumberofhomeswithcomputerscontinuestorisetestpublishersandsoftwaredevelopershavebeenquicktorecognizeagrowingniche.Withthemarketfortestpreparationmaterialsatalllevelsestimatedat$540millionannuallytheyhavejumpedonthetechbandwagontoproducecomputerizedtutorialsthatpromisetoboostscores.41Webelievethatit’simportantforastudenttobepreparedtotakethetestsnotesDonPowersaresearchscientistattheEducationalTestingServiceinPrincetonN.J.theorganizationthatadministerstheSATfortheCollegeBoard.It’simportanttoknowhowtotakethetestsothatyouwon’tgetascorethat’slowerthanyoudeserve.Butheaddsnoneoftherigorousscientificevidencethatwehaveseensupportsthesepromisestoraisetestscores.42Severalpointshoweverdoweighinfavorofsoftwareasopposedtotraditionaltest-preparation.Costisabigone.43ConvenienceisanotherastheCollegeBoardpointsoutintoutingitsnewsofware.Afewpointstorememberwhenevaluatingvarioustest-prepsoftwarepackages:44Theexamsthoughtheymayseemmysticaltothetesttakerarenotmagicandcertainlynotrandom.Thereislittlevariationinthestrategiestheprogramsusetoboosttestscoresbecausethereislittlevariationinhowthetestaredeveloped.Largelywhatdifferentiatesoneprogramfromanotheristhecomputerinterfacewhichcanmakethesoftwaremore—orless—user-friendlyandsuchfeaturesasautomatedtrackingofstudentprogress.45Acrashcoursewithtestprepsoftwareisneveranalternativetocarefullong-termpreparationfortakingtheexams.Somestudentsarebetterequippedtorespondtotheself-pacedself-motivatedapproachsoftwareoffersthanothersPowersnotes.Althoughparentsmaybeinthemarketforwhattheyconsiderseriousstudyaidstheirchildrenwhoaretheonestakingthetestsmayappreciatetheprogramsthatofferalittlehumor.FinallyasprogramsfrequentlypointouttheSATandACTwhileimportanttocollegeadmissionsofficersareonlyoneelementofasuccessfulcollegeapplication.[A]Atestprepcoursewithaliveinstructorcancostasmuchas$700.Test-prepsoftwarecosts$30to$80.[B]Mostoftheprogramsinfactemphasizetheimportanceofguessingstrategiesandeliminatingunlikelyanswerstoimprovescores.Manystudentsoftensucceedinexamsinthisway.[C]Unlikemanyprogramsthisonecangiveyouaquickeasyandcomfortablewaytoachieveahighscore.Suchprogramscanturnyourdreampassingexamsintoreality.[D]IwouldratherusetheprogramthantakeapreparationcoursebecauseIcoulddothisonmyowntimeandinmyownhomenotesonestudentintheCollegeBoardmaterials.[E]Althoughatleastoneofthetestprogramsasksyouhowlongyouhavetopreparetotaketheexaminationinordertocustomizethelearningcurveallrecommendspendingaperiodofweeksnothoursusingthesoftware.[F]Butthoughmanyprogramsoffermoney-backguaranteesprofessionaltestwriterstendtoscoffatthoseclaims.Intheirmindsuchprogramsoveremphasizeitsfunctions.[G]SATandACTispopularwiththeinternationalstudentsespeciallyAsianstudents.ManyAsianstudentschasetheirdreamthroughSATandACT.
Oncetheexclusivedomainofexecutiveswithexpenseaccountsmobilephonesaresettobecomeoneofthecentraltechnologiesofthe21stcentury.46Withinafewyearsthemobilephonewillevolvefromavoice-onlydevicetoamulti-functionalcommunicatorcapableoftransmittingandreceivingnotonlysoundbutvideostillimagesdataandtext.Awholeneweraofpersonalcommunicationisontheway.Thanksinparttothegrowthofwirelessnetworksthetelephoneisconvergingwiththepersonalcomputerandthetelevision.47Soonlight-weightphonesoutfittedwithhighresolutionscreens--whichcanbeembeddedineverythingfromwristwatchestopalm-heldunitswillbeconnectedtoseriesofloworbitsatellitesenablingpeopletotalksendandreceiveE-mailortakepartinvideoconferencesanytimeanywhere.Thesephonesmightalsoabsorbmanyofthekeyfunctionsofthedesktopcomputer.MobiledevicesareexpectedtobeidealforsomeofthenewpersonalizedservicesthatarebecomingavailableviatheInternet.Thecommunicationsrevolutionisalreadytakingshapearoundtheglobe.InEuropemall-scaletrialsareunderwayusingmobilephonesforelectroniccommerce.ForexamplemostphonescontainasubscriberidentificationmoduleSIMcardthatservesprimarilytoidentifyausertothephonenetwork.SomemanufacturersplantoupgradetheSIMcardtoanall-in-onepersonalidentificationandcreditcard.Anotherapproachistoaddaslottomobilephonesforasecondsmartcarddesignedspecificallyformobileecommerce.48ThesecardscouldbeusedtomakepaymentsovertheInternetorremovedfromthephoneforuseinpointof-saleterminalstopayforthingslikepublictransportationmovieticketsoraroundofdrinksatthebar.InFranceMotorolaiscurrentlytestingadualslotphonetheStarTACDinatrialwithFranceTelecomwhileinFinlandNokiaistestingaphonethatusesaspecialpluginreaderforatinysmartcard.Siemensispursuingadifferentapproach.49Sinceitisnotveryclearwhetherit’sbesttodoeverythingwithasingledeviceSiemensisdevelopingdualslotphonesandEinsteinadeviceequippedwithasmartcardreaderandkeypadthatcanbelinkedtothephoneviainfraredwirelesstechnology.50Forthosewhowanttothoughitwillbepossibletoreceivealmostallformsofelectroniccommunicationthroughasingledevicemostlikelyathree-in-onephonethatservesasacordlessathomeacellphoneontheroadandanintercomatwork.ThemobilephonewillbecomeincreasinglymultifunctionalsaysBurghardtSchallenbergervicepresidentfortechnologyandinnovationatSiemensInformationandConsumerProducts.
46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage.ThatmayseemlikebadnewssaidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthereservehypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare.48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal.EveryonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkageCoffeysaid.Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood.ThereishoweveraremarkablerangeofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage.Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage.ThatmayseemlikebadnewssaidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthereservehypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare.48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal.EveryonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkageCoffeysaid.Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood.ThereishoweveraremarkablerangeofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage.Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
Guthrie’scontiguityprincipleofferspracticalsuggestionsforhowtobreakhabits. Oneapplicationofthethresholdmethodinvolvesthetimeyoungchildrenspendonacademicactivities.Youngchildrenhaveshortattentionspanssothelengthoftimetheycansustainworkononeactivityislimited.Mostactivitiesarescheduledtolastnolongerthan30to40minutes.Howeveratthestartoftheschoolyearattentionspansquicklywaneandbehaviorproblemsoftenresult.ToapplyGuthrie’stheoryateachermightatthestartoftheyearlimitactivitiesto15to20minutes.Overthenextfewweekstheteachercouldgraduallyincreasethetimestudentsspendworkingonasingleactivity. Thethresholdmethodalsocanbeappliedtoteachingprintingandhandwriting.Whenchildrenfirstlearntoformletterstheirmovementsareawkwardandtheylackfinemotorcoordination.Thedistancesbetweenlinesonapagearepurposelywidesochildrencanfitthelettersintothespace.Ifpaperwithnarrowlinesisinitiallyintroducedstudents’etterswouldspilloverthebordersandstudentsmightbecomefrustrated.Oncestudentscanformletterswithinthelargerborderstheycanusepaperwithsmallerborderstohelpthemrefinetheirskills. Thefatiguemethodcanbeappliedwhendiscipliningdisruptivestudentswhobuildpaperairplanesandsailthemacrosstheroom.Theteachercanremovethestudentsfromtheclassroomgivethemalargestackofpaperandtellhimtostartmakingpaperairplanes.Afterthestudentshavemadeseveralairplanestheactivityshouldloseitsattractionandpaperwillbecomeacuefornotbuildingairplanes. Somestudentscontinuallyracearoundthegymwhentheyfirstentertheirphysicaleducationclass.Toemploythefatiguemethodtheteachermightdecidetohavethesestudentscontinuetorunafewmorelapsaftertheclasshasbegun. Theincompatibleresponsemethodcanbeusedwithstudentswhotalkandmisbehaveinthemediacenter.Readingisincompatiblewithtalking.Themediacenterteachermightaskthestudentstofindinterestingbooksandreadthemwhileinthecenter.Assumingthatthestudentsfindthebooksenjoyablethemediacenterwillovertimebecomeacueforselectingandreadingbooksratherthanfortalkingwithotherstudents. Inasocialstudiesclasssomestudentsregularlyfallasleep.Theteacherrealizedthatusingtheboardandoverheadprojectorwhilelecturingwasveryboring.Soontheteacherbegantoincorporateotherelementsintoeachlessonsuchasexperimentsanddebatesinanattempttoinvolvestudentsandraisetheirinterestinthecourse. Wecandrawtheconclusionfromthepassagethat
HenryKissingermaybethemostsuccessfulcertainlythemostflamboyantSecretaryofStatetoholdthatofficeinmoderntimes.Whenhewasappointedinthelate1960’stherewerenoAmericantieswithCommunistChinaVietnamandBerlinseemedreadytodrawtheUnitedStatesintoathirdworldwarandRussiawasseenas"theenemy". ButallthishaschangedandHenryKissingercausedmuchofthechange;in1971hemadehisfirsttriptoChinaatripthatwasthebeginningofthecurrenttiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.HebroughttheUnitedStatesandRussiaclosertogetheronmajorissuesbythepolicyhecalled"detente"literallymeaningarelaxation.Hisphilosophywasalwaystotalkandtobringtogether.WiththesetwopoliciesKissingerdidmuchtodrawattentionawayfromanypossibleRussia-Americanfriction. In1973hemadehisfirstvisittoEgypt.HerehewasabletobeginU.S.relationswithEgypt.HeusedhiscontactlatertobeginthesortoftalksthattheAmericanpresscalled"shuttlediplomacy".Forninety-ninedayshe"shuttled"backandforthonflightsbetweenCairoandJerusalemtoworkoutastep-by-stepwithdrawalofIsraelitroopsfromtheSinaidesert.Hiswithiscarefulapproachtodetailandhispresencemade"shuttlediplomacy"work.ItwastheonlysuccessfulapproachtoMid-eastpeaceinthethirtyyearssincethestateofIsraelwasfounded. AnothermajorworkwastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalk.ThoughhisterminofficepassedwiththetreatyunsignedKissingerleftadraftofthetreatytowhichtheRussianshadalreadyagreed.TheSALTtreatyspelledoutaone-tenthreductioninnucleararmsamajoraccomplishmentbyanystandardevenifonedoesnotconsideralltheotherconditionsandlimitationsincludedinthetreaty. EventhoughhesuccessfullyhelpedbringanendtotheVietnamWarKissinger’sfinaldaysinofficewereaffectedaswastheentireexecutivebranchinonewayoranotherbythescandalsoftheNixonWhiteHouse.Kissinger’scriticspointtohisroleinplacingwiretapsonthephonesofreportersandofficialsandtowhattheyconsiderhis"high-handed"approachtosettingforeignpolicy.ButKissingerduringthelastfewmonthsoftheNixonpresidencylimitedtheeffectsofAmericandomesticproblemsonourforeignpolicy.HecontinuedtalksintheMiddleEast.HecontinuedclosecontactwiththeSovietUnion. HistorywilldecideinthefinalviewasKissinger--andmanypresidents--oftensaidonthevalueofhisservice.Whatevertheydecidewhetherhisactionsarefinallytobeconsideredwiseorfoolishhehadapersonalvisionthatwillhedifficulttomatch. ThetextdoesnotdirectlysaybutimpliesthatKissinger
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities.41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.______Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain.42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.______Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-calledunderclasstheyaresounder-privilegedandpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement.43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.______RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem.44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.______Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving.45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.______Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities.Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue.[A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites.[B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore.[C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.DowncamethewhitesonlynoticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.GonetoowerethehideouslynchingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks--hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect.[D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem.[E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks.[F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica.
HenryKissingermaybethemostsuccessfulcertainlythemostflamboyantSecretaryofStatetoholdthatofficeinmoderntimes.Whenhewasappointedinthelate1960’stherewerenoAmericantieswithCommunistChinaVietnamandBerlinseemedreadytodrawtheUnitedStatesintoathirdworldwarandRussiawasseenas"theenemy". ButallthishaschangedandHenryKissingercausedmuchofthechange;in1971hemadehisfirsttriptoChinaatripthatwasthebeginningofthecurrenttiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.HebroughttheUnitedStatesandRussiaclosertogetheronmajorissuesbythepolicyhecalled"detente"literallymeaningarelaxation.Hisphilosophywasalwaystotalkandtobringtogether.WiththesetwopoliciesKissingerdidmuchtodrawattentionawayfromanypossibleRussia-Americanfriction. In1973hemadehisfirstvisittoEgypt.HerehewasabletobeginU.S.relationswithEgypt.HeusedhiscontactlatertobeginthesortoftalksthattheAmericanpresscalled"shuttlediplomacy".Forninety-ninedayshe"shuttled"backandforthonflightsbetweenCairoandJerusalemtoworkoutastep-by-stepwithdrawalofIsraelitroopsfromtheSinaidesert.Hiswithiscarefulapproachtodetailandhispresencemade"shuttlediplomacy"work.ItwastheonlysuccessfulapproachtoMid-eastpeaceinthethirtyyearssincethestateofIsraelwasfounded. AnothermajorworkwastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalk.ThoughhisterminofficepassedwiththetreatyunsignedKissingerleftadraftofthetreatytowhichtheRussianshadalreadyagreed.TheSALTtreatyspelledoutaone-tenthreductioninnucleararmsamajoraccomplishmentbyanystandardevenifonedoesnotconsideralltheotherconditionsandlimitationsincludedinthetreaty. EventhoughhesuccessfullyhelpedbringanendtotheVietnamWarKissinger’sfinaldaysinofficewereaffectedaswastheentireexecutivebranchinonewayoranotherbythescandalsoftheNixonWhiteHouse.Kissinger’scriticspointtohisroleinplacingwiretapsonthephonesofreportersandofficialsandtowhattheyconsiderhis"high-handed"approachtosettingforeignpolicy.ButKissingerduringthelastfewmonthsoftheNixonpresidencylimitedtheeffectsofAmericandomesticproblemsonourforeignpolicy.HecontinuedtalksintheMiddleEast.HecontinuedclosecontactwiththeSovietUnion. HistorywilldecideinthefinalviewasKissinger--andmanypresidents--oftensaidonthevalueofhisservice.Whatevertheydecidewhetherhisactionsarefinallytobeconsideredwiseorfoolishhehadapersonalvisionthatwillhedifficulttomatch. Theauthor’stoneinthetextmaybestbesummarizedasthatof
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 13
Guthrie’scontiguityprincipleofferspracticalsuggestionsforhowtobreakhabits. Oneapplicationofthethresholdmethodinvolvesthetimeyoungchildrenspendonacademicactivities.Youngchildrenhaveshortattentionspanssothelengthoftimetheycansustainworkononeactivityislimited.Mostactivitiesarescheduledtolastnolongerthan30to40minutes.Howeveratthestartoftheschoolyearattentionspansquicklywaneandbehaviorproblemsoftenresult.ToapplyGuthrie’stheoryateachermightatthestartoftheyearlimitactivitiesto15to20minutes.Overthenextfewweekstheteachercouldgraduallyincreasethetimestudentsspendworkingonasingleactivity. Thethresholdmethodalsocanbeappliedtoteachingprintingandhandwriting.Whenchildrenfirstlearntoformletterstheirmovementsareawkwardandtheylackfinemotorcoordination.Thedistancesbetweenlinesonapagearepurposelywidesochildrencanfitthelettersintothespace.Ifpaperwithnarrowlinesisinitiallyintroducedstudents’etterswouldspilloverthebordersandstudentsmightbecomefrustrated.Oncestudentscanformletterswithinthelargerborderstheycanusepaperwithsmallerborderstohelpthemrefinetheirskills. Thefatiguemethodcanbeappliedwhendiscipliningdisruptivestudentswhobuildpaperairplanesandsailthemacrosstheroom.Theteachercanremovethestudentsfromtheclassroomgivethemalargestackofpaperandtellhimtostartmakingpaperairplanes.Afterthestudentshavemadeseveralairplanestheactivityshouldloseitsattractionandpaperwillbecomeacuefornotbuildingairplanes. Somestudentscontinuallyracearoundthegymwhentheyfirstentertheirphysicaleducationclass.Toemploythefatiguemethodtheteachermightdecidetohavethesestudentscontinuetorunafewmorelapsaftertheclasshasbegun. Theincompatibleresponsemethodcanbeusedwithstudentswhotalkandmisbehaveinthemediacenter.Readingisincompatiblewithtalking.Themediacenterteachermightaskthestudentstofindinterestingbooksandreadthemwhileinthecenter.Assumingthatthestudentsfindthebooksenjoyablethemediacenterwillovertimebecomeacueforselectingandreadingbooksratherthanfortalkingwithotherstudents. Inasocialstudiesclasssomestudentsregularlyfallasleep.Theteacherrealizedthatusingtheboardandoverheadprojectorwhilelecturingwasveryboring.Soontheteacherbegantoincorporateotherelementsintoeachlessonsuchasexperimentsanddebatesinanattempttoinvolvestudentsandraisetheirinterestinthecourse. Thepurposeofthispassageisto
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 1
Adealisadeal—exceptapparentlywhenEntergyisinvolved.ThecompanyamajorenergysupplierinNewEnglandprovokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations. InsteadthecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourtaspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove. Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplantanagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesalethecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006thestatewentastepfurtherrequiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Thentoothecompanywentalong. EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitmentsoritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidentsincludingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakageraisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehaviortheVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension. Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislationandthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpowerlegalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainlytherearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitswordthatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint. ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStatesincludingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafelythecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionNRCreviewsthecompany’sapplicationitshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth. Intheauthor’sviewtheVermontcasewilltest
DisabilityamongtheelderlyhasdeclinedmarkedlyintheUnitedStatesinthepasttwodecades.In198425percentoftheelderlypopulationreporteddifficultywithactivitiesassociatedwithindependentliving.By1999thesharehadfallento20percentadeclineofone-fifth.Althoughthesebasicfactsarewellknowntheirinterpretationisnotclear.IsthereductionindisabilityaresultofimprovedmedicalcareindividualbehavioralchangesenvironmentalmodificationsthatallowtheelderlytobetterfunctionbythemselvesorotherdemographicchangesWillthetrendcontinueorisittimelimitedWhatdoesthereductionindisabilitymeanforyearsofhealthylifeandlaborforceparticipation TheresearchersDavidCutlerMaryBethLandrumandKateStewartfocusondisabilitycausedbycardiovasculardiseasetoinvestigatetheroleofimprovedmedicalcareonreductionsindisability.Bylookingatjustoneconditiontheycananalyzehealthshocksandtheiroutcomesinsomedetail.CardiovasculardiseaseisanaturalconditiontoanalyzebecauseitisthemostcommoncauseofdeathintheUnitedStatesandmostotherdevelopedcountries.Alsomoreisspentoncardiovasculardiseasethanonanyotherconditionclearlyacasewheremedicalcarecouldreallymatter. Theresearchersmeasuredisabilityasthepresenceofimpairmentsin.ActivitiesofDailyLivingADLsandInstrumentalActivitiesofDailyLivingIADLs.TheirdatasourcetheNationalLong-TermCareSurveyNLTCSincludesinformationonsixADLmeasures:eatinggettinginoroutofbedwalkingaroundinsidedressingbathingandgettingtoorusingthetoilet.TherearealsoquestionsabouteightIADLmeasures:doinglighthouseworkorlaundrypreparingmealsshoppingforgroceriesgettingaroundoutsidemanagingmoneytakingmedicationsandmakingtelephonecalls.TheNLTCSisanationallyrepresentativelongitudinalsurveyofthehealthanddisabilityprofileofthepopulationaged65andover. Cutlerandhisco-researchersfindthatreduceddisabilityassociatedwithcardiovasculardiseaseaccountsforasignificantpartofthetotalreductionindisability--between14and22percent.Theevidencesuggeststhatimprovementsinmedicalcareincludingbothincreaseduseofrelevantproceduresandpharmaceuticalsledtoasignificantpartofthisdeclineindisability.Regionswithhigheruseexperiencedsubstantialreductionsinmortalityanddisability. Whileprecisedataontheimplicationsofreduceddisabilityarelackingthepossibleimpactofdisabilityreductionsisstaggering.Theresearchersestimatethatpreventingdisabilityafteranacutecardiovasculareventcanaddasmuchas3.7yearsofquality-adjustedlifeexpectancyorperhaps$316000ofvalue.Thecostofthisoutcomeissignificantlysmaller.Theinitialtreatmentcostsrangefrom$8610to$16332dependingontheprocedureused.FurtherrecentcostanalysesreportedthatannualMedicarespendingwaslowerforthenon-disabledthanthedisabledwhichsuggeststhathighertreatmentcostsmaybeoffsetbylowerfuturespendingamongamorehealthypopulation.Byvirtuallyanymeasurethereforetheresearchersconcludethatmedicaltechnologyafteracutecardiovascularepisodesisworththecost. Accordingtotheresearchersreduceddisability
Directions: YouareLiMingchairmanoftheHistoryDepartment.YouwanttoinviteProfessorSwiftascholarofChinesehistorytoattendaninternationalconferenceonChinesehistory. Writehimaletterto 1invitehimtoattendthemeetingand 2askhimtomakeaspeechduringtheconference. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdon’thavetowritetheaddress.
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