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The making of weathervanes (devices fixed on the top of buildings to show directions of the wind)...
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Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentence
? ?阅读下面的短文文章中有5处空白文章后面有6组文字请根据文章的内容选择5组文字将其分别放回文章
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentence
Themakingofweathervanesdevicesfixedonthetopofbu
Shesucceeded___________herselfunderstoodbytheforei
to make
making
in making
by making
Whenthethievessawthebigdogthemtheyranaway.
making at
making for
making on
making up
Themakingofweathervanesdevicesfixedonthetopofbu
Themakingofweathervanesdevicesfixedonthetopofbu
? ?阅读下面的短文文章中有5处空白文章后面有6组文字请根据文章的内容选择5组文字将其分别放回文章
Themakingofweathervanesdevicesfixedonthetopofbu
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentence
Whenthethievessawthebigdogthemtheyranaway.
making into
making for
making to
making up
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentence
Inordertopromotetourismthelocalgovernment______pla
is making
are making
have made
was making
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentence
Herfatherlikesdinnerbuthatesthedishes.
making; making
doing; doing
making; doing
doing; making
Whatisthepurposeoftheradar reflector?
Making objects less visible
Making echoes weaker on theradar
Making large echoes smailer
Making small objects bettervisible
Don’tbelievehim.Heisjust_____anexcuse.
making out
making up of
making up
making from
Representativesof192countriesheldtalksinCopenhagen
making promises of
making compromises on
making commitments to
making contribution to
MysisterwithmyparentsdumplingswhenIgothomeyesterda
are making
is making
was making
were making
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[A]Theimpotenceofcreationism. [B]Naturalselectionactsbycompetition. [C]Theroleofnaturalselectioninthiscolorfulworld [D]Thedelicatehierarchyofthenaturalsystem. [E]Theagencyofselectioncanaccountformorecases. [F]Noleapsinnaturalevolution. Aseachspeciestendsbyitsgeometricalrateofreproductiontoincreaseexcessivelyinnumber;andasthemodifieddescendantsofeachspecieswillbeenabledtoincreasebyasmuchastheybecomemorediversifiedinhabitsandstructuresoastobeabletoseizeonmanyandwidelydifferentplacesinnaturalselectiontopreservethemostdivergentoffspringofanyonespecies.Henceduringalong-continuedcourseofmodificationtheslightdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiesofthesamespeciestendtobeaugmentedintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofthespeciesofthesamegenus. 41.__________ Newandimprovedvarietieswillinevitablydisplaceanddestroytheolderlessimprovedandintermediatevarieties;andthusspeciesarerenderedtoalargeextentdefinedanddistinctobjects.Dominantspeciesbelongingtothelargergroupswithineachclasstendtogivebirthtonewanddominantforms;sothateachlargegrouptendstobecomestilllargerandatthesametimemoredivergentincharacter.Butasallgroupscannotthusgoonincreasinginsizefortheworldwouldnotholdthemthemoredominantgroupsbeatthelessdominant. 42.__________ Thistendencyinthelargegroupstogoonincreasinginsizeanddivergingincharactertogetherwiththeinevitabilityofmuchextinctionexplainsthearrangementofalltheformsoflifeingroupssubordinatetogroupsallwithinafewgreatclasseswhichhasprevailedthroughoutalltime.ThisgrandfactofthegroupingofallorganicbeingsunderwhatiscalledtheNaturalSystemisutterlyunexplainableonthetheoryofcreation. 43.__________ Asnaturalselectionactssolelybyaccumulatingslightsuccessivefavorablevariationsitcanproducenogreatorsuddenmodifications;itcanactonlybyshortandslowsteps.Wecanseewhythroughoutnaturethesamegeneralendisgainedbyanalmostinfinitediversityofmeansforeverypeculiaritywhenonceacquiredinlonginheritedandstructuresalreadymodifiedinmanydifferentwayshavetobeadaptedforthesamegeneralpurpose.Wecaninshortseewhynatureisextravagantinvarietythoughnotgenerousininnovation.Butwhythisshouldbealawofnatureifeachspecieshasbeenindependentlycreatednomancanexplain. 44.__________ Manyotherfactsareasitseemstomeexplicableonthistheory.Howstrangeitisthatabirdundertheformofawoodpeckershouldpreyoninsectsonthegroundandthatuplandgeesewhichrarelyorneverswimshouldpossesswebbedfeetandsoinendlessothercases.Butontheviewofeachspeciesconstantlytryingtoincreaseinnumberwithnaturalselectionalwaysreadytoadapttheslowlyvaryingdescendantsofeachtoanyunoccupiedorill-occupiedplaceinnaturethesefactsceasetobestrangeormightevenhavebeenanticipated. 45.__________ Wecantoacertainextentunderstandhowitisthatthereissomuchbeautythroughoutnature;forthismaybelargelyattributedtotheagencyofselection.Thatbeautyaccordingtooursenseofitisnotuniversalmustbeadmittedbyeveryonewhowilllookatsomehideousbatswithadistortedresemblancetothehumanface.Sexualselectionhasgiventhemostbrilliantcolorselegantpatternsandotherornamentstothemales.Withbirdsithasoftenrenderedthevoiceofthemalemusicaltothefemaleaswellastoourears.Flowersandfruithavebeenrenderedconspicuousbybrilliantcolorsincontrastwiththegreenfoliageinorderthattheflowersmaybereadilyseenvisitedandfertilizedbyinsects. Asnaturalselectionactsbycompetitionitadaptsandimprovestheinhabitantsofeachcountryonlyinrelationtotheirco-inhabitants;sothatweneedfeelnosurpriseatthespeciesofanyonecountrybeingbeatenandsupplantedbythenaturalizedproductionsfromanotherland.Thewonderindeedisonthetheoryofnaturalselectionthatmorecasesofthewantofabsoluteperfectionhavenotbeendetected. 43
[A]ThenextlogicalstepistoautomatethephysicalprocessofcuttingthediamondandDrHoldenseemstohavefoundtheidealpartner.HeistalkingtoCalibratedDiamonds.acompanybasedinJohannesburgSouthAfrica.aboutcombininghisoptimisationtechniqueswithanadvancedlaser-cuttingsystem.Traditionallydiamondsarecutandpolishedusingotherdiamonds.Butmrecentyearslasershavebeenintroducedtomakeroughcutsandmcarryout"bruting"thebevellingprocessusedtogivediamondstheircharacteristicsharp-edgedshapes.JohnBond.thefounderofCalibratedDiamondssayshislaser-cuttingmethodcanmakemuchmoreprecisecutsandcanevenpolishdiamondsthoughheisreluctanttoexplainhowitworks.Hebelievesthatcombininghislaser-cuttingwithDrHolden’ssoftwareandautomatingthewholeprocesscouldbothreducewastedramaticallyandcuttheturnaroundtimefrommonthstodays."Currentlypeoplearelosingupto70%ofthediamond."hesays. [B]Forover600yearslapidaristsorstone-cuttershavebeenusingessentiallythesametechniquestocutdiamondsanddeterminetheirvaluesaysDrHolden.Thereisagreatneedforautomationhesays—asentimentechoedwithintheindustry.TheGemologicalInstituteofAmericaforexampleisdevisingsoftwaretoenableretailersandconsumerstocomparediamondsofdifferentcutsbygradingthecutautomatically. [C]Inactualusethesystemisfedmodelsofgemstoneswhichareproducedbyscanningthe.stonesusingadesktopX-raytomographymachine.Whenastoneisidentifiedasaborderlinecasebetweentwogradesthesystemusesanoptimisationtechniquecalledageneticalgorithmtoexplorethedifferentwaysinwhichthestonecouldbecuttomaximiseitsvalue.Sometimesbiggerisnotnecessarilybetter:removingImperfectionsknownasinclusionsmayreducethesizeandcaratageofastonebutcouldalsoelevateittoamorevaluablegrade.TestsofiGemshowedthatitcouldincreasethevalueofaroughstonebyasmuchas23%. [D]EvenasmallimprovementcanyieldasignificantincreaseinvaluesaysDrHolden.whospecialisesinapplyingtechnologytoimprovedecision-makinginbusiness.TogetherWithhiscolleagueMateeSerearuno.hehasdevelopedanoptimisationsystemcallediGem.Besidesautomaticallyworkingoutthegradeofaroughdiamonditalsosuggestshowbesttocatitinordertomaximisethevalueoftheresultingstones. [E]MrBondhopesthatthiscombinationoftechnologieswillhelphishomecontinenttobenefitmorefromitsnaturalwealth.Morethan60%oftheworld’sroughdiamondscomefromAfricahesaysbutalackofexpertiseandrelativelyhighlabourcostsmeansthatthestonesareusuallyshippedoverseastocountriessuchasIndiaforassessmentandcutting.Hehopestohavehisfirstfactoryupandrunninglaterthisyear. [F]Thesystemusesasetofrolesdistilledfromthejudgmentsoffourdiamondexpertsmdeterminetheclarityandhencethegradeofeachstone.Eachexpertwasaskedtoclassify503different"virtualstones"--computermodelsofstonescontainingdifferentWivesofflaws.Theexperts’verdictswerethenboileddownintoasetofrulessothatwhenanewgemstoneispresentedtothesystemitcandeterminehowtheexpertswouldprobablyhavegradedit.DatafrommoreexpertscouldhavebeenusedbutfourprovedtobeenoughtoproducearobustandaccuratesystemsaysDrHolden. [G]Whileadiamondmaybeforeveritsvalueisfarfromsetinstone.ItdependsonthefourCs:caratcutcolourandclarity.Butwhilethefirstthreecanbemeasuredobjectivelyassessingadiamond’sclarityinvolvesacertainamountofsubjectivityandcanleaveexpertsdisagreeingaboutthegrade—andhencethevalue—ofastone.NowresearchersatCambridgeUniversity’sInstituteforManufacturingclaimmhavedevisedawaytomakethegradingofdiamondsandotherpreciousstonesmoreconsistent.TonyHoldentheproject’sleadersaysautomatingthisprocesscoulddomorethanjustloadmmoreaccuratevaluations.Itcouldalsomakeroughstonesmorevaluablebyreducingtheamountofwasteduringcutting. Order: 41
Itmayturnoutthatthedigitaldivide—oneofthemostfashionablepoliticalslogansofrecentyears—islargelyfiction.Asyouwillrecalltheargumentwentwellbeyondtheunsurprisingnotionthattherichwouldownmorecomputersthanthepoor.Thedisturbingpartofthetheorywasthatsocietywasdividingitselfintogroupsoftechnologyhavesandhave-notsandthatthissegregationwouldinturnworsenalreadylargeeconomicinequalities.Itisthisargumentthatiseitheruntrueorwildlyexaggerated.Weshouldalwayshavebeensuspicious.Afterallcomputershavespreadquicklybecausetheyhavebecomecheapertobuyandeasiertouse.Fallingpricesandskillrequirementssuggestthatthedigitaldividewouldspontaneouslyshrink—andsoithas.Nowanewstudyfurtherdiscreditsthedigitaldivide.ThestudybyeconomistDavidCardoftheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleychallengesthenotionthatcomputershavesignificantlyworsenedwageinequality.Thelogicofhowthissupposedlyhappensisstraightforward:computersraisethedemandforhigh-skilledworkersincreasingtheirwages.Meanwhilecomputerization—byautomatingmanyroutinetasks—reducesthedemandforlow-skilledworkersandtherebytheirwages.Thegapbetweenthetwowidens.Superficiallywagestatisticssupportthetheory.Considertheratiobetweenworkersnearthetopofthewagedistributionandthosenearthebottom.Computerizationincreased;sodidthewagegap.ButwaitpointoutCardandDiNardo.Thetroublewithblamingcomputersisthattheworseningofinequalityoccurredprimarilyintheearly1980s.Withcomputerusegrowingthewagegapshouldhavecontinuedtoexpandifitwasbeingdrivenbyashiftingdemandforskills.IndeedCardandDiNardofindmuchdetailedevidencethatcontradictsthetheory.TheyconcludethatcomputerizationdoesnotexplaintheriseinU.S.wageinequalityinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury.Thepopularperceptionofcomputers’impactonwagesishugelyoverblown.Lotsofotherinfluencescountforasmuchormore.Theworseningofwageinequalityintheearly1980sforexamplealmostcertainlyreflectedthedeep1981—1982recessionandthefallofinflation.Companiesfoundithardertoraiseprices.Tosurvivetheyconcludedthattheyhadtoholddownthewagesoftheirleastskilledleastmobileandyoungestworkers.Thedigitaldividesuggestedasimplesolutioncomputersforacomplexproblempoverty.Withmorecomputeraccessthepoorcouldescapetheirlot.Butcomputersneverwerethesourceofanyone’spovertyandasforescapingwhatpeopledoforthemselvesmattersmorethanwhattechnologycandoforthem.Thepurposeoftheauthorinwritingthetextis
TheTuscantownofVincibirthplaceofLeonardoandhometoamuseumofhismachinesshouldfittinglyputonashowofthetelevision-robotsculpturesofNamJunPaik.ThisKorean-bornAmericanartistandtheRenaissancemasterarekindredspirits:LeonardosawhumanisticpotentialinhisscientificexperimentsMrPaikendeavorstoharnessmediatechnologyforartisticpurposes.Apioneerofvideoartinthelate1960shetreatstelevisionasaspaceforartimagesandasmaterialforrobotsandinteractivesculptures.MrPaikwasnotalone.Heandfellowartistspickedonthevideocamerasbecausetheyofferedaneasywaytorecordtheirperformanceart.Nowtomarkvideoart’scomingofageNewYork’sMuseumofModernArtislookingbackattheireffortsinafilmseriescalledTheFirstDecade.ItcelebratestheearlydaysofvideobyscreeningthearchivesofElectronicArtsIntermixEAIoneoftheworld’sleadingdistributorsofvideoandnewmediaartfounded30yearsago.OneofEAI’smostfamousalumniisBillViola.Partofthesecondgenerationofvideoartistswhoemergedinthe1970sMrViolaexperimentedwithvideo’sexpressivepotential.Hiscameraexploresreligiousritualanduniversalideas.TheViolashowattheDeutscheGuggenheiminBerlinshowsusmoving-imagefrescoesthatcoverthegallerywallsandenveloptheviewerinallembracingcyclesoflifeanddeath.OnenewstarisaCalifornianDougAitkenwhotookoverLondon’sSerpentineGallerylastOctoberwithaninstallationcalledNewOcean.SomesayMrAitkenistovideowhatJacksonPollockwastopainting.Hedripshisimagesfromfloortoceilingcreatingsequencesofroomsinwhichthespacesurroundstheviewerinhallucinatoryimagesofsoundandlight.AttheSerpentineMrAitkencreatedacollageofmovingimagesonthethemeofwater’sflowaroundtheplanetasaforceoflife.Iwantedtocreateanewtopographyinthisworkaliquidimagetoshowaworldthatneverstandsstillhesays.Theboundarybetweenthephysicalworldandtheworldofimagesandinformationhethinksisblurring.Theinterplayofillusionandrealitysoundandimagereferencestoarthistorypoliticsfilmandtelevisioninthisartformthatisbarely30yearsoldcanmakevideoartdifficulttodefine.Manycallitfilm-basedormoving-imagearttoincludeartistswhoworkwithothercinematicmedia.Atitsbesttheappealofvideoartliesinitsversatilityitspowertocapturethepassingoftimeandonitsabilitytocommunicatebothinsideandoutsidegallerywalls.ThevideoscreatedbyDoughAitkenisusedtoshowacombinationof
[A]ThenextlogicalstepistoautomatethephysicalprocessofcuttingthediamondandDrHoldenseemstohavefoundtheidealpartner.HeistalkingtoCalibratedDiamonds.acompanybasedinJohannesburgSouthAfrica.aboutcombininghisoptimisationtechniqueswithanadvancedlaser-cuttingsystem.Traditionallydiamondsarecutandpolishedusingotherdiamonds.Butmrecentyearslasershavebeenintroducedtomakeroughcutsandmcarryout"bruting"thebevellingprocessusedtogivediamondstheircharacteristicsharp-edgedshapes.JohnBond.thefounderofCalibratedDiamondssayshislaser-cuttingmethodcanmakemuchmoreprecisecutsandcanevenpolishdiamondsthoughheisreluctanttoexplainhowitworks.Hebelievesthatcombininghislaser-cuttingwithDrHolden’ssoftwareandautomatingthewholeprocesscouldbothreducewastedramaticallyandcuttheturnaroundtimefrommonthstodays."Currentlypeoplearelosingupto70%ofthediamond."hesays. [B]Forover600yearslapidaristsorstone-cuttershavebeenusingessentiallythesametechniquestocutdiamondsanddeterminetheirvaluesaysDrHolden.Thereisagreatneedforautomationhesays—asentimentechoedwithintheindustry.TheGemologicalInstituteofAmericaforexampleisdevisingsoftwaretoenableretailersandconsumerstocomparediamondsofdifferentcutsbygradingthecutautomatically. [C]Inactualusethesystemisfedmodelsofgemstoneswhichareproducedbyscanningthe.stonesusingadesktopX-raytomographymachine.Whenastoneisidentifiedasaborderlinecasebetweentwogradesthesystemusesanoptimisationtechniquecalledageneticalgorithmtoexplorethedifferentwaysinwhichthestonecouldbecuttomaximiseitsvalue.Sometimesbiggerisnotnecessarilybetter:removingImperfectionsknownasinclusionsmayreducethesizeandcaratageofastonebutcouldalsoelevateittoamorevaluablegrade.TestsofiGemshowedthatitcouldincreasethevalueofaroughstonebyasmuchas23%. [D]EvenasmallimprovementcanyieldasignificantincreaseinvaluesaysDrHolden.whospecialisesinapplyingtechnologytoimprovedecision-makinginbusiness.TogetherWithhiscolleagueMateeSerearuno.hehasdevelopedanoptimisationsystemcallediGem.Besidesautomaticallyworkingoutthegradeofaroughdiamonditalsosuggestshowbesttocatitinordertomaximisethevalueoftheresultingstones. [E]MrBondhopesthatthiscombinationoftechnologieswillhelphishomecontinenttobenefitmorefromitsnaturalwealth.Morethan60%oftheworld’sroughdiamondscomefromAfricahesaysbutalackofexpertiseandrelativelyhighlabourcostsmeansthatthestonesareusuallyshippedoverseastocountriessuchasIndiaforassessmentandcutting.Hehopestohavehisfirstfactoryupandrunninglaterthisyear. [F]Thesystemusesasetofrolesdistilledfromthejudgmentsoffourdiamondexpertsmdeterminetheclarityandhencethegradeofeachstone.Eachexpertwasaskedtoclassify503different"virtualstones"--computermodelsofstonescontainingdifferentWivesofflaws.Theexperts’verdictswerethenboileddownintoasetofrulessothatwhenanewgemstoneispresentedtothesystemitcandeterminehowtheexpertswouldprobablyhavegradedit.DatafrommoreexpertscouldhavebeenusedbutfourprovedtobeenoughtoproducearobustandaccuratesystemsaysDrHolden. [G]Whileadiamondmaybeforeveritsvalueisfarfromsetinstone.ItdependsonthefourCs:caratcutcolourandclarity.Butwhilethefirstthreecanbemeasuredobjectivelyassessingadiamond’sclarityinvolvesacertainamountofsubjectivityandcanleaveexpertsdisagreeingaboutthegrade—andhencethevalue—ofastone.NowresearchersatCambridgeUniversity’sInstituteforManufacturingclaimmhavedevisedawaytomakethegradingofdiamondsandotherpreciousstonesmoreconsistent.TonyHoldentheproject’sleadersaysautomatingthisprocesscoulddomorethanjustloadmmoreaccuratevaluations.Itcouldalsomakeroughstonesmorevaluablebyreducingtheamountofwasteduringcutting. Order: 45
Itmayturnoutthatthedigitaldivide—oneofthemostfashionablepoliticalslogansofrecentyears—islargelyfiction.Asyouwillrecalltheargumentwentwellbeyondtheunsurprisingnotionthattherichwouldownmorecomputersthanthepoor.Thedisturbingpartofthetheorywasthatsocietywasdividingitselfintogroupsoftechnologyhavesandhave-notsandthatthissegregationwouldinturnworsenalreadylargeeconomicinequalities.Itisthisargumentthatiseitheruntrueorwildlyexaggerated.Weshouldalwayshavebeensuspicious.Afterallcomputershavespreadquicklybecausetheyhavebecomecheapertobuyandeasiertouse.Fallingpricesandskillrequirementssuggestthatthedigitaldividewouldspontaneouslyshrink—andsoithas.Nowanewstudyfurtherdiscreditsthedigitaldivide.ThestudybyeconomistDavidCardoftheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleychallengesthenotionthatcomputershavesignificantlyworsenedwageinequality.Thelogicofhowthissupposedlyhappensisstraightforward:computersraisethedemandforhigh-skilledworkersincreasingtheirwages.Meanwhilecomputerization—byautomatingmanyroutinetasks—reducesthedemandforlow-skilledworkersandtherebytheirwages.Thegapbetweenthetwowidens.Superficiallywagestatisticssupportthetheory.Considertheratiobetweenworkersnearthetopofthewagedistributionandthosenearthebottom.Computerizationincreased;sodidthewagegap.ButwaitpointoutCardandDiNardo.Thetroublewithblamingcomputersisthattheworseningofinequalityoccurredprimarilyintheearly1980s.Withcomputerusegrowingthewagegapshouldhavecontinuedtoexpandifitwasbeingdrivenbyashiftingdemandforskills.IndeedCardandDiNardofindmuchdetailedevidencethatcontradictsthetheory.TheyconcludethatcomputerizationdoesnotexplaintheriseinU.S.wageinequalityinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury.Thepopularperceptionofcomputers’impactonwagesishugelyoverblown.Lotsofotherinfluencescountforasmuchormore.Theworseningofwageinequalityintheearly1980sforexamplealmostcertainlyreflectedthedeep1981—1982recessionandthefallofinflation.Companiesfoundithardertoraiseprices.Tosurvivetheyconcludedthattheyhadtoholddownthewagesoftheirleastskilledleastmobileandyoungestworkers.Thedigitaldividesuggestedasimplesolutioncomputersforacomplexproblempoverty.Withmorecomputeraccessthepoorcouldescapetheirlot.Butcomputersneverwerethesourceofanyone’spovertyandasforescapingwhatpeopledoforthemselvesmattersmorethanwhattechnologycandoforthem.Itisgenerallybelievedthatthedigitaldivideissomething
[A]Theimpotenceofcreationism. [B]Naturalselectionactsbycompetition. [C]Theroleofnaturalselectioninthiscolorfulworld [D]Thedelicatehierarchyofthenaturalsystem. [E]Theagencyofselectioncanaccountformorecases. [F]Noleapsinnaturalevolution. Aseachspeciestendsbyitsgeometricalrateofreproductiontoincreaseexcessivelyinnumber;andasthemodifieddescendantsofeachspecieswillbeenabledtoincreasebyasmuchastheybecomemorediversifiedinhabitsandstructuresoastobeabletoseizeonmanyandwidelydifferentplacesinnaturalselectiontopreservethemostdivergentoffspringofanyonespecies.Henceduringalong-continuedcourseofmodificationtheslightdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiesofthesamespeciestendtobeaugmentedintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofthespeciesofthesamegenus. 41.__________ Newandimprovedvarietieswillinevitablydisplaceanddestroytheolderlessimprovedandintermediatevarieties;andthusspeciesarerenderedtoalargeextentdefinedanddistinctobjects.Dominantspeciesbelongingtothelargergroupswithineachclasstendtogivebirthtonewanddominantforms;sothateachlargegrouptendstobecomestilllargerandatthesametimemoredivergentincharacter.Butasallgroupscannotthusgoonincreasinginsizefortheworldwouldnotholdthemthemoredominantgroupsbeatthelessdominant. 42.__________ Thistendencyinthelargegroupstogoonincreasinginsizeanddivergingincharactertogetherwiththeinevitabilityofmuchextinctionexplainsthearrangementofalltheformsoflifeingroupssubordinatetogroupsallwithinafewgreatclasseswhichhasprevailedthroughoutalltime.ThisgrandfactofthegroupingofallorganicbeingsunderwhatiscalledtheNaturalSystemisutterlyunexplainableonthetheoryofcreation. 43.__________ Asnaturalselectionactssolelybyaccumulatingslightsuccessivefavorablevariationsitcanproducenogreatorsuddenmodifications;itcanactonlybyshortandslowsteps.Wecanseewhythroughoutnaturethesamegeneralendisgainedbyanalmostinfinitediversityofmeansforeverypeculiaritywhenonceacquiredinlonginheritedandstructuresalreadymodifiedinmanydifferentwayshavetobeadaptedforthesamegeneralpurpose.Wecaninshortseewhynatureisextravagantinvarietythoughnotgenerousininnovation.Butwhythisshouldbealawofnatureifeachspecieshasbeenindependentlycreatednomancanexplain. 44.__________ Manyotherfactsareasitseemstomeexplicableonthistheory.Howstrangeitisthatabirdundertheformofawoodpeckershouldpreyoninsectsonthegroundandthatuplandgeesewhichrarelyorneverswimshouldpossesswebbedfeetandsoinendlessothercases.Butontheviewofeachspeciesconstantlytryingtoincreaseinnumberwithnaturalselectionalwaysreadytoadapttheslowlyvaryingdescendantsofeachtoanyunoccupiedorill-occupiedplaceinnaturethesefactsceasetobestrangeormightevenhavebeenanticipated. 45.__________ Wecantoacertainextentunderstandhowitisthatthereissomuchbeautythroughoutnature;forthismaybelargelyattributedtotheagencyofselection.Thatbeautyaccordingtooursenseofitisnotuniversalmustbeadmittedbyeveryonewhowilllookatsomehideousbatswithadistortedresemblancetothehumanface.Sexualselectionhasgiventhemostbrilliantcolorselegantpatternsandotherornamentstothemales.Withbirdsithasoftenrenderedthevoiceofthemalemusicaltothefemaleaswellastoourears.Flowersandfruithavebeenrenderedconspicuousbybrilliantcolorsincontrastwiththegreenfoliageinorderthattheflowersmaybereadilyseenvisitedandfertilizedbyinsects. Asnaturalselectionactsbycompetitionitadaptsandimprovestheinhabitantsofeachcountryonlyinrelationtotheirco-inhabitants;sothatweneedfeelnosurpriseatthespeciesofanyonecountrybeingbeatenandsupplantedbythenaturalizedproductionsfromanotherland.Thewonderindeedisonthetheoryofnaturalselectionthatmorecasesofthewantofabsoluteperfectionhavenotbeendetected. 41
Whatanelegantparty!ThePressComplaintsCommission’sglitteringbashthisweekmcelebrateitstenthanniversarywasthenearestLondongetstohighsociety.InagatheringtooclosemimitateforcomfortthePCCsucceededinbringingtogetherPrinceWilliamtheheirtothethronehisfatherPrinceCharlestheroyalmistress.CamillaParker-Bowles.aswellaspopstarssuper-modelscabinetministersseniorcivilservantsandotheradmirers. TheonethingthisdifferentgrouphadincommonwasthatmostofthemhadsoughttheprotectionofthePCCoverthepastdecade.Theirprincipaltormentorstheeditorsofthenation’stabloidnewspaperswerethereinforcetogreettheirvictimssoitwasnotsurprisingthatacertaintrembleswirledaroundtheparty. ThatsomanyprominentuppercirclesturneduptodevourthePCC’scanape5andrubshoulderswiththeroyalsis.nodoubtatriumphforitschairman.LordWakeham.Hecanfairlyclaimtohaverestoredconfidenceinself-regulationandsavedthepressfromprivacylegislation.AskilledpoliticalfixerhehasusedhischairmanshipmpressurethepressbaronssuchasRupertMurdochintoenclosingtheireditors. ThePCC’scodeofconductdrawnupbyapanelofeditorsisgenerallyobserved.Pressstandardshaveimprovedandcomplaintshavefallenbynearlyathirdoverthepastfiveyears.Theindustrywhichnotsolongagowassaidtobe"drinkinginthelast-chancesaloon"withself-regulationinterminaldisreputeisgrateful. Thepartywasmeantmcelebratethissuccess.Thesoapstarsandthemodelsjudgingbytheamountofdrinkgoingdowntheirthroatscertainly9njoyedthemselvesasdidtheeditors.ButwhetherPrinceCharlesandPrinceWilliamwerewisetoassociatethemselveswiththislotisdoubtful."Neversupwiththeenemy"isagoodmotto.Atleasttheroyalscouldtellwhotoavoidbecausealltheguestshadnametabs. LordWakehamwhohelpedgetridofLadyThatcherwithoutherevenknowingisaskilledoperator.Butthisluxurypartyhasgivenanopeningtothosecriticswhoclaimheistooclosetotheindustryandtooprotectiveofthepowerful."We’reheretoprotectthevulnerable"wasthesloganofabigbannerthatgreetedtheguests.ThatwasnotthemainimpressiontheeveningmadeonthemindsofthosewhostaggeredoutofthegrandeurofSomersetHousehighonchampagneandcelebrity.Thetrulyvulnerablewerenowheretobeseen. Drinkinginthelast-chancesalonLine3ParA．4denotes
Thedot-comcollapsemayhavebeenadisasterforWallStreetbuthereinSiliconValleyitwasablessing.Itwasthewelcomeendtoanabnormalconditionthatverynearlydestroyedtheareainanoverabundanceofsuccess.YouseethesecrettotheValley’sastoundingmultiple-decadeboomisfailure.Failureiswhatfuelsandrenewsthisplace.Failureisthefoundationforinnovation.Thevalley’sbusinessecologydependsonfailurethesamewaythetree-coveredhillsaroundusdependonfire—itwipesouttheoldgrowthandcreatesspacefornewlife.Thevalleyhasalwaysbeenindangerofdrowningintheunwelcomewasteproductsofsuccess—toomanypeopletooexpensivehousestoomuchtraffictoolittleofficespaceandtoomuchmoneychasingtoofewstartups.Failureisthesafetyvalvethedestructiverenewingforcethatfreesuppeopleideasandcapitalandrecombinesthemcreatingnewrevolutions.ConsiderhowtheInternetrevolutioncametobe.Afterhalfadecadeofstart-upstrugglesforexamplehundredsofmillionsofHollywooddollarsweregoingupinsmoke.Itallseemedlikeaterriblewastebutnoonenoticedthatthecollapseleftoneveryimportantbyproductacommunityoflaid-offC++programmerswhowerenowexpertinmultimediadesignandoutonthestreetlookingforthenextbigthing.Thesemediageekswerethepioneerofthedot-comrevolution.TheyweretheWeb’sbusinesspioneersapplyingtheirnewfoundmediasensibilitiestocreateonelittlecompanyafteranother.Mostofthesestart-upsfailedbuteveninfailuretheyadvancedthenewmediumofcyberspace.AfewgeekslikeSiliconGraphicsfounderJimClarksucceededandutterlychangedourlives.In1994Clarkwasunemployedafterleavingthecompanybefoundeddoggedlytryingtodevelopanewinteractive-TVconcept.HeapproachedMarcAndreessentheco-developerofMosaicthefirstwidelyusedInternetbrowserinhopeofpersuadingAndreessentohelphimde-signhisnewsystem.InsteadAndreessenopenedClark’seyestotheWeb’spotential.ClarkpromptlytossedhisTVplansinthetrashandthetwoco-foundedNetscapethecornerstoneoftheconsumer-Webrevolution.Liketheinteractive-TVrefugeesandgenerationsofinnovatorsbeforethemthedot-comersarealreadyhatchingnewcompanies.Manyarerevisitinggoodideasexecutedbadlyinthe’90swhileothersarestrikingoutintoentirelynewspaces.Thishappychaosiscertaintomatureintoaneworderlikelytoupsetanestablishmentasitdeliverslifechangingwonderstotherestofus.Butthisisjustthestartforrevolutionsgivebirthtorevolutions.Solet’shopeformoreofSiliconValley’ssuccessfulfailures.ThemostfavorablebusinessecologyinSiliconValleyischaracterizedby
Itmayturnoutthatthedigitaldivide—oneofthemostfashionablepoliticalslogansofrecentyears—islargelyfiction.Asyouwillrecalltheargumentwentwellbeyondtheunsurprisingnotionthattherichwouldownmorecomputersthanthepoor.Thedisturbingpartofthetheorywasthatsocietywasdividingitselfintogroupsoftechnologyhavesandhave-notsandthatthissegregationwouldinturnworsenalreadylargeeconomicinequalities.Itisthisargumentthatiseitheruntrueorwildlyexaggerated.Weshouldalwayshavebeensuspicious.Afterallcomputershavespreadquicklybecausetheyhavebecomecheapertobuyandeasiertouse.Fallingpricesandskillrequirementssuggestthatthedigitaldividewouldspontaneouslyshrink—andsoithas.Nowanewstudyfurtherdiscreditsthedigitaldivide.ThestudybyeconomistDavidCardoftheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleychallengesthenotionthatcomputershavesignificantlyworsenedwageinequality.Thelogicofhowthissupposedlyhappensisstraightforward:computersraisethedemandforhigh-skilledworkersincreasingtheirwages.Meanwhilecomputerization—byautomatingmanyroutinetasks—reducesthedemandforlow-skilledworkersandtherebytheirwages.Thegapbetweenthetwowidens.Superficiallywagestatisticssupportthetheory.Considertheratiobetweenworkersnearthetopofthewagedistributionandthosenearthebottom.Computerizationincreased;sodidthewagegap.ButwaitpointoutCardandDiNardo.Thetroublewithblamingcomputersisthattheworseningofinequalityoccurredprimarilyintheearly1980s.Withcomputerusegrowingthewagegapshouldhavecontinuedtoexpandifitwasbeingdrivenbyashiftingdemandforskills.IndeedCardandDiNardofindmuchdetailedevidencethatcontradictsthetheory.TheyconcludethatcomputerizationdoesnotexplaintheriseinU.S.wageinequalityinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury.Thepopularperceptionofcomputers’impactonwagesishugelyoverblown.Lotsofotherinfluencescountforasmuchormore.Theworseningofwageinequalityintheearly1980sforexamplealmostcertainlyreflectedthedeep1981—1982recessionandthefallofinflation.Companiesfoundithardertoraiseprices.Tosurvivetheyconcludedthattheyhadtoholddownthewagesoftheirleastskilledleastmobileandyoungestworkers.Thedigitaldividesuggestedasimplesolutioncomputersforacomplexproblempoverty.Withmorecomputeraccessthepoorcouldescapetheirlot.Butcomputersneverwerethesourceofanyone’spovertyandasforescapingwhatpeopledoforthemselvesmattersmorethanwhattechnologycandoforthem.Theauthor’sattitudetowardtheopinionheldbyCardandDiNardoisoneof
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 11
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 5
Directions: YouheardthatoneofyourfriendsfailedintheentranceexaminationofpostgraduateWritealettertohimwhichshouldincludethefollowinginformation:1expressyourregrets;2encouragehimtotryagain;3hopetoseehiminhighspirits.Youshouldwriteabout100words.Donotsignyourwonnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.Keneally’sbiographyisintendedmainlyto
[A]ThenextlogicalstepistoautomatethephysicalprocessofcuttingthediamondandDrHoldenseemstohavefoundtheidealpartner.HeistalkingtoCalibratedDiamonds.acompanybasedinJohannesburgSouthAfrica.aboutcombininghisoptimisationtechniqueswithanadvancedlaser-cuttingsystem.Traditionallydiamondsarecutandpolishedusingotherdiamonds.Butmrecentyearslasershavebeenintroducedtomakeroughcutsandmcarryout"bruting"thebevellingprocessusedtogivediamondstheircharacteristicsharp-edgedshapes.JohnBond.thefounderofCalibratedDiamondssayshislaser-cuttingmethodcanmakemuchmoreprecisecutsandcanevenpolishdiamondsthoughheisreluctanttoexplainhowitworks.Hebelievesthatcombininghislaser-cuttingwithDrHolden’ssoftwareandautomatingthewholeprocesscouldbothreducewastedramaticallyandcuttheturnaroundtimefrommonthstodays."Currentlypeoplearelosingupto70%ofthediamond."hesays. [B]Forover600yearslapidaristsorstone-cuttershavebeenusingessentiallythesametechniquestocutdiamondsanddeterminetheirvaluesaysDrHolden.Thereisagreatneedforautomationhesays—asentimentechoedwithintheindustry.TheGemologicalInstituteofAmericaforexampleisdevisingsoftwaretoenableretailersandconsumerstocomparediamondsofdifferentcutsbygradingthecutautomatically. [C]Inactualusethesystemisfedmodelsofgemstoneswhichareproducedbyscanningthe.stonesusingadesktopX-raytomographymachine.Whenastoneisidentifiedasaborderlinecasebetweentwogradesthesystemusesanoptimisationtechniquecalledageneticalgorithmtoexplorethedifferentwaysinwhichthestonecouldbecuttomaximiseitsvalue.Sometimesbiggerisnotnecessarilybetter:removingImperfectionsknownasinclusionsmayreducethesizeandcaratageofastonebutcouldalsoelevateittoamorevaluablegrade.TestsofiGemshowedthatitcouldincreasethevalueofaroughstonebyasmuchas23%. [D]EvenasmallimprovementcanyieldasignificantincreaseinvaluesaysDrHolden.whospecialisesinapplyingtechnologytoimprovedecision-makinginbusiness.TogetherWithhiscolleagueMateeSerearuno.hehasdevelopedanoptimisationsystemcallediGem.Besidesautomaticallyworkingoutthegradeofaroughdiamonditalsosuggestshowbesttocatitinordertomaximisethevalueoftheresultingstones. [E]MrBondhopesthatthiscombinationoftechnologieswillhelphishomecontinenttobenefitmorefromitsnaturalwealth.Morethan60%oftheworld’sroughdiamondscomefromAfricahesaysbutalackofexpertiseandrelativelyhighlabourcostsmeansthatthestonesareusuallyshippedoverseastocountriessuchasIndiaforassessmentandcutting.Hehopestohavehisfirstfactoryupandrunninglaterthisyear. [F]Thesystemusesasetofrolesdistilledfromthejudgmentsoffourdiamondexpertsmdeterminetheclarityandhencethegradeofeachstone.Eachexpertwasaskedtoclassify503different"virtualstones"--computermodelsofstonescontainingdifferentWivesofflaws.Theexperts’verdictswerethenboileddownintoasetofrulessothatwhenanewgemstoneispresentedtothesystemitcandeterminehowtheexpertswouldprobablyhavegradedit.DatafrommoreexpertscouldhavebeenusedbutfourprovedtobeenoughtoproducearobustandaccuratesystemsaysDrHolden. [G]Whileadiamondmaybeforeveritsvalueisfarfromsetinstone.ItdependsonthefourCs:caratcutcolourandclarity.Butwhilethefirstthreecanbemeasuredobjectivelyassessingadiamond’sclarityinvolvesacertainamountofsubjectivityandcanleaveexpertsdisagreeingaboutthegrade—andhencethevalue—ofastone.NowresearchersatCambridgeUniversity’sInstituteforManufacturingclaimmhavedevisedawaytomakethegradingofdiamondsandotherpreciousstonesmoreconsistent.TonyHoldentheproject’sleadersaysautomatingthisprocesscoulddomorethanjustloadmmoreaccuratevaluations.Itcouldalsomakeroughstonesmorevaluablebyreducingtheamountofwasteduringcutting. Order: 43
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 19
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 13
WhilemuchoftheattentiononfightingAIDSandotherdiseasesinpoorcountrieshasfocusedonaccesstoaffordabledrugsconcernisnowshiftingtothequestionofwhoexactlywilldeliverthem.Unfortunatelythereisasevereshortageofdoctorsnursesandotherhealth-careworkersinthesecountries.Accordingtoareportpublishedinthisweek’sLancetbytheJointLearningInitiativeJLIaninternationalconsortiumofacademiccentresanddevelopmentagenciessub-SaharanAfricahasonlyone-tenththenumberOfnursesanddoctorsperheadofpopulationthatEuropedoesthoughitshealth-careproblemsarefarmompressing.47Thereasonsforthisaretw07foldandwellknown—notenoughhealth-careworkersaretrainedinthefastplaceandtoomanyofthosewhoaretrainedthenleaveforbetter-paidjobsintherichworld.Whatthereportdoesistoputsomenumbersontheseproblems. Amere5000doctorsitfindsgraduateinAfricaeachyearathirdofthenumberthatgraduateinAmerica.Only50of600doctorsminedinZambiainrecentyearsarestillinthecountry.TherearemoreMalawiandoctorsinManchesterthanMalawi.48Andmanyrichcountriesexacerbatetheproblembyrecruitingfrompooronestohelpdealwiththeirownshortages. Toovercomeallthis.theJLIreckonsthattheworldneeds4mmorehealth-careworkersofwhomlmarerequiredinsub-SaharanAfricaalone.Thequestionis.whowillpayforthemThereportfloatssomeideas.49Itrecommendsthatroughly$400mor4%oftheoverseasaidcurrentlyspentonhealth-beearmarkedtohelpbuildupthehealth-careworkforceinpoorcountries.50Butitalsosuggeststhatbetterusebemadeofexistingresourcesforexamplebyemployinglocalvolunteersratherthanhighlytraineddoctorsformany.routinematters.AsLincolnChenofHarvardUniversityoneofthereport’sauthorspointsoutafewcountriessuchasBrazil.ThailandandIran.havetakenstepsintherightdirection.Othersneedtofollowtheirlead. 47
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 15
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.ThecaseofMrsSickles’unfortunatestoryismentionedtoillustrate
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 1
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 17
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 7
Thedot-comcollapsemayhavebeenadisasterforWallStreetbuthereinSiliconValleyitwasablessing.Itwasthewelcomeendtoanabnormalconditionthatverynearlydestroyedtheareainanoverabundanceofsuccess.YouseethesecrettotheValley’sastoundingmultiple-decadeboomisfailure.Failureiswhatfuelsandrenewsthisplace.Failureisthefoundationforinnovation.Thevalley’sbusinessecologydependsonfailurethesamewaythetree-coveredhillsaroundusdependonfire—itwipesouttheoldgrowthandcreatesspacefornewlife.Thevalleyhasalwaysbeenindangerofdrowningintheunwelcomewasteproductsofsuccess—toomanypeopletooexpensivehousestoomuchtraffictoolittleofficespaceandtoomuchmoneychasingtoofewstartups.Failureisthesafetyvalvethedestructiverenewingforcethatfreesuppeopleideasandcapitalandrecombinesthemcreatingnewrevolutions.ConsiderhowtheInternetrevolutioncametobe.Afterhalfadecadeofstart-upstrugglesforexamplehundredsofmillionsofHollywooddollarsweregoingupinsmoke.Itallseemedlikeaterriblewastebutnoonenoticedthatthecollapseleftoneveryimportantbyproductacommunityoflaid-offC++programmerswhowerenowexpertinmultimediadesignandoutonthestreetlookingforthenextbigthing.Thesemediageekswerethepioneerofthedot-comrevolution.TheyweretheWeb’sbusinesspioneersapplyingtheirnewfoundmediasensibilitiestocreateonelittlecompanyafteranother.Mostofthesestart-upsfailedbuteveninfailuretheyadvancedthenewmediumofcyberspace.AfewgeekslikeSiliconGraphicsfounderJimClarksucceededandutterlychangedourlives.In1994Clarkwasunemployedafterleavingthecompanybefoundeddoggedlytryingtodevelopanewinteractive-TVconcept.HeapproachedMarcAndreessentheco-developerofMosaicthefirstwidelyusedInternetbrowserinhopeofpersuadingAndreessentohelphimde-signhisnewsystem.InsteadAndreessenopenedClark’seyestotheWeb’spotential.ClarkpromptlytossedhisTVplansinthetrashandthetwoco-foundedNetscapethecornerstoneoftheconsumer-Webrevolution.Liketheinteractive-TVrefugeesandgenerationsofinnovatorsbeforethemthedot-comersarealreadyhatchingnewcompanies.Manyarerevisitinggoodideasexecutedbadlyinthe’90swhileothersarestrikingoutintoentirelynewspaces.Thishappychaosiscertaintomatureintoaneworderlikelytoupsetanestablishmentasitdeliverslifechangingwonderstotherestofus.Butthisisjustthestartforrevolutionsgivebirthtorevolutions.Solet’shopeformoreofSiliconValley’ssuccessfulfailures.TheauthorwritesoftheexperiencesofJimClarktodemonstrate
WhilemuchoftheattentiononfightingAIDSandotherdiseasesinpoorcountrieshasfocusedonaccesstoaffordabledrugsconcernisnowshiftingtothequestionofwhoexactlywilldeliverthem.Unfortunatelythereisasevereshortageofdoctorsnursesandotherhealth-careworkersinthesecountries.Accordingtoareportpublishedinthisweek’sLancetbytheJointLearningInitiativeJLIaninternationalconsortiumofacademiccentresanddevelopmentagenciessub-SaharanAfricahasonlyone-tenththenumberOfnursesanddoctorsperheadofpopulationthatEuropedoesthoughitshealth-careproblemsarefarmompressing.47Thereasonsforthisaretw07foldandwellknown—notenoughhealth-careworkersaretrainedinthefastplaceandtoomanyofthosewhoaretrainedthenleaveforbetter-paidjobsintherichworld.Whatthereportdoesistoputsomenumbersontheseproblems. Amere5000doctorsitfindsgraduateinAfricaeachyearathirdofthenumberthatgraduateinAmerica.Only50of600doctorsminedinZambiainrecentyearsarestillinthecountry.TherearemoreMalawiandoctorsinManchesterthanMalawi.48Andmanyrichcountriesexacerbatetheproblembyrecruitingfrompooronestohelpdealwiththeirownshortages. Toovercomeallthis.theJLIreckonsthattheworldneeds4mmorehealth-careworkersofwhomlmarerequiredinsub-SaharanAfricaalone.Thequestionis.whowillpayforthemThereportfloatssomeideas.49Itrecommendsthatroughly$400mor4%oftheoverseasaidcurrentlyspentonhealth-beearmarkedtohelpbuildupthehealth-careworkforceinpoorcountries.50Butitalsosuggeststhatbetterusebemadeofexistingresourcesforexamplebyemployinglocalvolunteersratherthanhighlytraineddoctorsformany.routinematters.AsLincolnChenofHarvardUniversityoneofthereport’sauthorspointsoutafewcountriessuchasBrazil.ThailandandIran.havetakenstepsintherightdirection.Othersneedtofollowtheirlead. 49
TheTuscantownofVincibirthplaceofLeonardoandhometoamuseumofhismachinesshouldfittinglyputonashowofthetelevision-robotsculpturesofNamJunPaik.ThisKorean-bornAmericanartistandtheRenaissancemasterarekindredspirits:LeonardosawhumanisticpotentialinhisscientificexperimentsMrPaikendeavorstoharnessmediatechnologyforartisticpurposes.Apioneerofvideoartinthelate1960shetreatstelevisionasaspaceforartimagesandasmaterialforrobotsandinteractivesculptures.MrPaikwasnotalone.Heandfellowartistspickedonthevideocamerasbecausetheyofferedaneasywaytorecordtheirperformanceart.Nowtomarkvideoart’scomingofageNewYork’sMuseumofModernArtislookingbackattheireffortsinafilmseriescalledTheFirstDecade.ItcelebratestheearlydaysofvideobyscreeningthearchivesofElectronicArtsIntermixEAIoneoftheworld’sleadingdistributorsofvideoandnewmediaartfounded30yearsago.OneofEAI’smostfamousalumniisBillViola.Partofthesecondgenerationofvideoartistswhoemergedinthe1970sMrViolaexperimentedwithvideo’sexpressivepotential.Hiscameraexploresreligiousritualanduniversalideas.TheViolashowattheDeutscheGuggenheiminBerlinshowsusmoving-imagefrescoesthatcoverthegallerywallsandenveloptheviewerinallembracingcyclesoflifeanddeath.OnenewstarisaCalifornianDougAitkenwhotookoverLondon’sSerpentineGallerylastOctoberwithaninstallationcalledNewOcean.SomesayMrAitkenistovideowhatJacksonPollockwastopainting.Hedripshisimagesfromfloortoceilingcreatingsequencesofroomsinwhichthespacesurroundstheviewerinhallucinatoryimagesofsoundandlight.AttheSerpentineMrAitkencreatedacollageofmovingimagesonthethemeofwater’sflowaroundtheplanetasaforceoflife.Iwantedtocreateanewtopographyinthisworkaliquidimagetoshowaworldthatneverstandsstillhesays.Theboundarybetweenthephysicalworldandtheworldofimagesandinformationhethinksisblurring.Theinterplayofillusionandrealitysoundandimagereferencestoarthistorypoliticsfilmandtelevisioninthisartformthatisbarely30yearsoldcanmakevideoartdifficulttodefine.Manycallitfilm-basedormoving-imagearttoincludeartistswhoworkwithothercinematicmedia.Atitsbesttheappealofvideoartliesinitsversatilityitspowertocapturethepassingoftimeandonitsabilitytocommunicatebothinsideandoutsidegallerywalls.Towardthenovelliteraryideatheauthor’sattitudeseemstobethatof
Whatanelegantparty!ThePressComplaintsCommission’sglitteringbashthisweekmcelebrateitstenthanniversarywasthenearestLondongetstohighsociety.InagatheringtooclosemimitateforcomfortthePCCsucceededinbringingtogetherPrinceWilliamtheheirtothethronehisfatherPrinceCharlestheroyalmistress.CamillaParker-Bowles.aswellaspopstarssuper-modelscabinetministersseniorcivilservantsandotheradmirers.TheonethingthisdifferentgrouphadincommonwasthatmostofthemhadsoughttheprotectionofthePCCoverthepastdecade.Theirprincipaltormentorstheeditorsofthenation’stabloidnewspaperswerethereinforcetogreettheirvictimssoitwasnotsurprisingthatacertaintrembleswirledaroundtheparty.ThatsomanyprominentuppercirclesturneduptodevourthePCC’scanape5andrubshoulderswiththeroyalsis.nodoubtatriumphforitschairman.LordWakeham.Hecanfairlyclaimtohaverestoredconfidenceinself-regulationandsavedthepressfromprivacylegislation.AskilledpoliticalfixerhehasusedhischairmanshipmpressurethepressbaronssuchasRupertMurdochintoenclosingtheireditors.ThePCC’scodeofconductdrawnupbyapanelofeditorsisgenerallyobserved.Pressstandardshaveimprovedandcomplaintshavefallenbynearlyathirdoverthepastfiveyears.Theindustrywhichnotsolongagowassaidtobedrinkinginthelast-chancesaloonwithself-regulationinterminaldisreputeisgrateful.Thepartywasmeantmcelebratethissuccess.Thesoapstarsandthemodelsjudgingbytheamountofdrinkgoingdowntheirthroatscertainly9njoyedthemselvesasdidtheeditors.ButwhetherPrinceCharlesandPrinceWilliamwerewisetoassociatethemselveswiththislotisdoubtful.Neversupwiththeenemyisagoodmotto.Atleasttheroyalscouldtellwhotoavoidbecausealltheguestshadnametabs.LordWakehamwhohelpedgetridofLadyThatcherwithoutherevenknowingisaskilledoperator.Butthisluxurypartyhasgivenanopeningtothosecriticswhoclaimheistooclosetotheindustryandtooprotectiveofthepowerful.We’reheretoprotectthevulnerablewasthesloganofabigbannerthatgreetedtheguests.ThatwasnotthemainimpressiontheeveningmadeonthemindsofthosewhostaggeredoutofthegrandeurofSomersetHousehighonchampagneandcelebrity.Thetrulyvulnerablewerenowheretobeseen.Fromthetext.wecanseeLordWakehamisNOT______.
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.Thistextappearstobeadigestof
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 9
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 3
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