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简述法律概念的分类。
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Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Theimportanceandfocusoftheinterviewintheworkoftheprintandbroadcastjournalistisreflectedinseveralbooksthathavebeenwrittenonthetopic.Mostofthesebooksaswellasseveralchaptersmainlyinbutnotlimitedtojournalismandbroadcastinghandbooksandreportingtextsstressthehowtoaspectsofjournalisticinterviewingratherthantheconceptualaspectsoftheinterviewitscontextandimplications.Muchofthehowtomaterialisbasedonpersonalexperiencesandgeneralimpression.Asweknowinjournalismasinotherfieldsmuchcanbelearnedfromthesystematicstudyofprofessionalpractice.Suchstudybringstogetherevidencefromwhichbroadgeneralizedprinciplescanbedeveloped.Thereisashasbeensuggestedagrowingbodyofresearchliteratureinjournalismandbroadcastingbutverylittlesignificantattentionhasbeendevotedtothestudyoftheinterviewitself.Ontheotherhandmanygeneraltextsaswellasnumerousresearcharticlesoninterviewinginfieldsotherthanjournalismhavebeenwritten.Manyofthesebooksandarticlespresentthetheoreticalandempirical经验的aspectsoftheinterviewaswellasthetrainingoftheinterviewers.Unhappilythisplentifulgeneralliteratureaboutinterviewingpayslittleattentiontothejournalisticinterview.Thefactthatthegeneralliteratureoninterviewingdoesnotdealwiththejournalisticinterviewseemstobesurprisingfortworeasons.FirstitseemslikelythatmostpeopleinmodernWesternsocietiesaremorefamiliaratleastinapositivemannerwithjournalisticinterviewingthanwithanyotherformofinterviewing.Mostofusareprobablysomewhatfamiliarwiththeclinicalinterviewsuchasthatconductedbyphysiciansandpsychologists.Inthesesituationstheprofessionalpersonorinterviewerisinterestedingettinginformationnecessaryforthediagnosisandtreatmentofthepersonseekinghelp.Anotherfamiliarsituationisthejobinterview.Howeververyfewofushaveactuallybeeninterviewedpersonallybythemassmediaparticularlybytelevision.Andyetwehaveavividacquaintancewiththejournalisticinterviewbyvirtueofourrolesasreaderslistenersandviewers.Evensotrueunderstandingofthejournalisticinterviewespeciallytelevisioninterviewsrequiresthoughtfulanalysisandevenstudyasthisbookindicates.Whoistheintervieweeinaclinicalinterview
Todaynoonehaseverdoubtedabouttelevision’scharm.Since1920sBritaininventedthefirsttelevisionpeoplehavebeguntoliveinaworldcrowdedwithsoapoperasnewsmagazinesandTVadvertisements.41．______HoweverhaveweevertriedtofindoutthemagichereWhydidthetelevisionwinthecompetitionwithpapermediaandradioinsuchashortperiodBywhatkindofcontentiondidTVfinallycontrolmostoftheaudiencesAndwhydoesTVbecomethemeanstheindustrialcirclesscramblefor ItisarguedthattelevisionmaynotbeaformofartbutfifteenthousandyearsbeforetheprimitivepeoplehadlefturusdrawingsonAltamiraCaveinSpainwhichprovedthatpicturesarehumanever-lastingpursuitmuchearlierthanletters.42．______Thecomingofthe19thcenturyforetoldamassmediatimesandalsothebreak-throughinartsbecauseoftherapiddevelopmentintechnology.Firstbytheinventionofphotographyphotosshowedupbeforepeopleinawaymoresubstantiatedandfrequentthaneverbefore;thenradioenabledcommonpeopletoenjoyartsbyears;andfinallytelevisionintegratedadvantagesofbothphotosandsoundsintoanewcreationincontinuouslymovingstreams.43．______ Buttelevisionadvertisementswinpeople’sfavornotonlybecauseitisanartbutalsobecauseitknowspeople’sheart.Fromtheusualmentalactivitypeopleacceptathing-perceptionunderstandingrecollectionattitudeandactionwecanfindouthowaTVadmovespeople.44．______Thereisonlyaslowlyturningfistonthescreenwithavoice-over:whathasitgraspedAndthefistopenednothinginside.Whatitgraspsisjustyourattention.Whenthetargetedaudienceiswillingtowatchtheadthefirststepisfinishedandthentheyshouldloveit.HowtogaintheiridentificationTheadcircleshavesummedupmanyeffectiveexperiences.Theyoftenmaketheiradsentertainingandhumorousorexhibittheirgoodsinasmartandartfulwayorfindoutacraftyandclearpropositionwhichsometimesmaybe:DawnDetergent-wrapsthegreasewhichwillnotstainyourhandsGod!Alldetergentcoulddothisalthoughtheaudiencemaynotrealize..AsforthelinksofmemorizingattitudeandactionsinceTVisthemostcompulsivepenetratingandinfluentialmediumTVadsarestillthemostefficient.45．______Fromcpptocpmandfromthewell-knownTVratingstoaudienceshareTVadsareastagewhereeveryinterestgroupsandindividualsracktheirbrainstokeepmovinganditisalsooneofthebusinessareaswithfiercestcompetition. TVadsstillthemainformoftoday’sadvertisingwillneverbeacircleshortofcreationandadvance. [A]FirstTVadalwayssparesnoefforttograspaudience’sattentionasshowninanadmadebythead-departmentofaTVstudiotopromoteitself. [B]Particularlywithitsunparalleledpowerofproductpromotiontelevisionhasservedastheadvertiser’sbelovedsonforalltheseyears. [C]Inthelatercenturiesalthoughgreatprogresseswerealsomadeinsculpturesarchitecturesandmusicdrawingwasalwaysthesynonymforart. [D]TVadsstillthemainformoftoday’sadvertisingwillneverbeacircleshortofcreationandadvance. [E]Televisionoriginatedfromartultimatelysurpassedit. [F]TodayTVadshavebecomeoneoftherepresentativesofmodernbusinessoperation. [G]Televisionofthesamebloodwithmoviehasalsoborrowedmuchfromthiscomparativelymatureartformincreatingadvertisements. 44
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 18
ForthispartyouareallowedthirtyminutestowriteacompositiononthetopicThePopularizationofMobilePhones.Youshouldwriteyourcompositiononthechartandtheoutlinegivenbelow 1Describethechart; 2Analyzethereasons; 3Predictthetrendsinthefutureandtheimpactsonindividualsandsociety
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 20
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Recentlythenewshasbeenfilledwithreportsofthe"birdflu".46．Asiaisonaregion-widehealthalertwithgovernmentsslaughteringmillionsofchickenstocontainoutbreaksofthebirdfluinThailandVietnamCambodiaSouthKoreaJapanandChina. Influenza-commonlycalled"flu"-isoneoftheoldestandmostcommondiseasesknowntoman.Itcanalsobeoneofthedeadliest.47．Thegreat"Spanishflu"pandemicof1918-1919wasconsideredtheworstplagueinhistorykillingupto40millionpeoplewithhalfoftheworld’spopulationinfectedinonlyafewmonths. 48．Influenzacanalsoinfectmanydifferentwarm-bloodedanimalssuchasbirds.Howeverthe"flu"virususuallydevelopsdifferentvariantsthatarespecializedforeachspeciesofanimalsthattheyinfect.Crossspeciesinfectionsarerare. AflustraincalledinfluenzaAH5N1appearstohavemadeasuccessfuljumpfrombirdstohumans.TheviralstrainwasfirstisolatedfromSouthAfricanbirdsin1961．49．ThefirstknownhumaninfectionoccurredinaHongKongtoddlerinMayof1997．Bytheendof1997therewere13confirmedcasesandfourdeathsallinHongKong.InanattempttostopthespreadofthediseasethegovernmentofHongKongorderedtheslaughterofallchickensducksgeesequailanddomesticpigeons. HumansinfectedwithH5N1sofararethoughttohavecaughtthediseasefromfowlandnoperson-to-persontransmissionshavebeenreported.50．TheWHOhoweverfearsthatthebirdfluishighlyadaptableandmightleapthespeciesbarrier.Itsaysanyoneexposedtothediseaseshouldbequarantinedtoavoidcontactwithsufferersofregularhumaninfluenza. Asiaisonaregion-widehealthalertwithgovernmentsslaughteringmillionsofchickenstocontainoutbreaksofthebirdfluinThailandVietnamCambodiaSouthKoreaJapanandChina.
Severalyearsagoattheheightofthedotcomboomitwaswidelyassumedthatapublishingrevolutioninwhichtheprintedwordwouldbesupplantedbythecomputerscreenwasjustaroundthecorner.Itwasn’t:formanythereisstilllittletomatchthejoyofreadingaprintedbookandsettlingdownforonehour.ButrecentlysomebigtechnologycompaniesincludingGoogleAmazonMicrosoftandYahoocontendthatthedreamofbringingbooksonlineisstillverymuchalive.Thedigitizingofthousandsofvolumesofprintisnotwithoutcontroversy.OnThursdayGoogletheworld’smostpopularsearchenginepostedafirstinstallmentofbooksonGooglePrint.ThiscollaborativeeffortbetweenGoogleandseveralworld’sleadingresearchlibrariesaimstomakebooksavailabletobesearchedandreadonlinefreeofcharge.Althoughthebooksincludedsofararenotcoveredbycopyrighttheplanhasattractedtherageofpublishers.FivelargebookfirmsaresuingGoogleforviolatingcopyrightonmaterialthatithasscannedandalthoughoutofprintisstillprotectedbylaw.Googlehassaidthatitwillonlypublishshortextractsfrommaterialundercopyrightunlessgivenexpresspermissiontopublishmorebutpublishersareunconvinced.IronicallymanypublishersarecollaboratingwithGooglePrintPublisherwhichaimstogivereadersanonlinetasteofbooksthatarecommerciallyavailable.Thesearchablecollectionofextractsandbookinformationisintendedtotemptreaderstobuythecompletebooksonlineorinprintform.Amazontheworld’slargestonlineretailerhasmadeplanstoenterthemasse-bookmarketbysellingavastarrayofgoods.GiventhatGoogleshouldimpingeuponitscentralterritoryAmazonrevealedthatitwouldintroducetwonewservices.AmazonPageswillallowcustomerstosearchforkeytermsinselectedbooksandthenbuyandreadonlinewhateverparttheywish.AmazonUpgradewillgivecustomersonlineaccesstobookstheyhavealreadypurchasedashardcopies.Customersarelikelytohavetopayfivecentsapagewiththebulkgoingtothepublisher.Microsofthasalsojoinedtheonline-booktrend.InOctoberthesoftwaregiantsaiditwouldspendaround$200milliontodigitizetextsstartingwithI50000thatareinthepublicdomaintoavoidlegalproblems.ItwilldosoincollaborationwiththeOpenContentAlliance.AndonThursdaycoincidentallythesamedayasGoogleandAmazonannouncedtheirinitiativesMicrosoftreleaseddetailsofadealwiththeBritishLibrarythecountry’smainreferencelibrarytodigitizesome25millionpages;thesewillbemadeavailablethroughMSNBookSearchwhichwillbelaunchednextyear.WhichoftheplandoesNOTbelongtoMicrosoft
Recentlythenewshasbeenfilledwithreportsofthe"birdflu".46．Asiaisonaregion-widehealthalertwithgovernmentsslaughteringmillionsofchickenstocontainoutbreaksofthebirdfluinThailandVietnamCambodiaSouthKoreaJapanandChina. Influenza-commonlycalled"flu"-isoneoftheoldestandmostcommondiseasesknowntoman.Itcanalsobeoneofthedeadliest.47．Thegreat"Spanishflu"pandemicof1918-1919wasconsideredtheworstplagueinhistorykillingupto40millionpeoplewithhalfoftheworld’spopulationinfectedinonlyafewmonths. 48．Influenzacanalsoinfectmanydifferentwarm-bloodedanimalssuchasbirds.Howeverthe"flu"virususuallydevelopsdifferentvariantsthatarespecializedforeachspeciesofanimalsthattheyinfect.Crossspeciesinfectionsarerare. AflustraincalledinfluenzaAH5N1appearstohavemadeasuccessfuljumpfrombirdstohumans.TheviralstrainwasfirstisolatedfromSouthAfricanbirdsin1961．49．ThefirstknownhumaninfectionoccurredinaHongKongtoddlerinMayof1997．Bytheendof1997therewere13confirmedcasesandfourdeathsallinHongKong.InanattempttostopthespreadofthediseasethegovernmentofHongKongorderedtheslaughterofallchickensducksgeesequailanddomesticpigeons. HumansinfectedwithH5N1sofararethoughttohavecaughtthediseasefromfowlandnoperson-to-persontransmissionshavebeenreported.50．TheWHOhoweverfearsthatthebirdfluishighlyadaptableandmightleapthespeciesbarrier.Itsaysanyoneexposedtothediseaseshouldbequarantinedtoavoidcontactwithsufferersofregularhumaninfluenza. TheWHOhoweverfearsthatthebirdfluishighlyadaptableandmightleapthespeciesbarrier.Itsaysanyoneexposedtothediseaseshouldbequarantinedtoavoidcontactwithsufferersofregularhumaninfluenza.
Todaynoonehaseverdoubtedabouttelevision’scharm.Since1920sBritaininventedthefirsttelevisionpeoplehavebeguntoliveinaworldcrowdedwithsoapoperasnewsmagazinesandTVadvertisements.41．______HoweverhaveweevertriedtofindoutthemagichereWhydidthetelevisionwinthecompetitionwithpapermediaandradioinsuchashortperiodBywhatkindofcontentiondidTVfinallycontrolmostoftheaudiencesAndwhydoesTVbecomethemeanstheindustrialcirclesscramblefor ItisarguedthattelevisionmaynotbeaformofartbutfifteenthousandyearsbeforetheprimitivepeoplehadlefturusdrawingsonAltamiraCaveinSpainwhichprovedthatpicturesarehumanever-lastingpursuitmuchearlierthanletters.42．______Thecomingofthe19thcenturyforetoldamassmediatimesandalsothebreak-throughinartsbecauseoftherapiddevelopmentintechnology.Firstbytheinventionofphotographyphotosshowedupbeforepeopleinawaymoresubstantiatedandfrequentthaneverbefore;thenradioenabledcommonpeopletoenjoyartsbyears;andfinallytelevisionintegratedadvantagesofbothphotosandsoundsintoanewcreationincontinuouslymovingstreams.43．______ Buttelevisionadvertisementswinpeople’sfavornotonlybecauseitisanartbutalsobecauseitknowspeople’sheart.Fromtheusualmentalactivitypeopleacceptathing-perceptionunderstandingrecollectionattitudeandactionwecanfindouthowaTVadmovespeople.44．______Thereisonlyaslowlyturningfistonthescreenwithavoice-over:whathasitgraspedAndthefistopenednothinginside.Whatitgraspsisjustyourattention.Whenthetargetedaudienceiswillingtowatchtheadthefirststepisfinishedandthentheyshouldloveit.HowtogaintheiridentificationTheadcircleshavesummedupmanyeffectiveexperiences.Theyoftenmaketheiradsentertainingandhumorousorexhibittheirgoodsinasmartandartfulwayorfindoutacraftyandclearpropositionwhichsometimesmaybe:DawnDetergent-wrapsthegreasewhichwillnotstainyourhandsGod!Alldetergentcoulddothisalthoughtheaudiencemaynotrealize..AsforthelinksofmemorizingattitudeandactionsinceTVisthemostcompulsivepenetratingandinfluentialmediumTVadsarestillthemostefficient.45．______Fromcpptocpmandfromthewell-knownTVratingstoaudienceshareTVadsareastagewhereeveryinterestgroupsandindividualsracktheirbrainstokeepmovinganditisalsooneofthebusinessareaswithfiercestcompetition. TVadsstillthemainformoftoday’sadvertisingwillneverbeacircleshortofcreationandadvance. [A]FirstTVadalwayssparesnoefforttograspaudience’sattentionasshowninanadmadebythead-departmentofaTVstudiotopromoteitself. [B]Particularlywithitsunparalleledpowerofproductpromotiontelevisionhasservedastheadvertiser’sbelovedsonforalltheseyears. [C]Inthelatercenturiesalthoughgreatprogresseswerealsomadeinsculpturesarchitecturesandmusicdrawingwasalwaysthesynonymforart. [D]TVadsstillthemainformoftoday’sadvertisingwillneverbeacircleshortofcreationandadvance. [E]Televisionoriginatedfromartultimatelysurpassedit. [F]TodayTVadshavebecomeoneoftherepresentativesofmodernbusinessoperation. [G]Televisionofthesamebloodwithmoviehasalsoborrowedmuchfromthiscomparativelymatureartformincreatingadvertisements. 42
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.12
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFictioninattemptingtoapplyliteraryratherthansociopoliticalcriteriatoitssubjectsuccessfullyalterstheapproachtakenbymostpreviousstudies.AsRosenblattnotescriticismofBlackwritinghasoftenservedasapretextforexpoundingonBlackhistory.AddisonGayle’srecentworkforexamplejudgesthevalueofBlackFictionbyovertlypoliticalstandardsratingeachworkaccordingtothenotionsofBlackidentitywhichitpropounds.Althoughfictionassuredlyspringsfrompoliticalcircumstancesitsauthorsreacttothosecircumstancesinwaysotherthanideologicalandtalkingaboutnovelsandstoriesprimarilyasinstrumentsofideologycircumventsmuchofthefictionalenterprise.Rosenblatt’sliteraryanalysisdisclosesaffinitiesandconnectionsamongworksofBlackFictionwhichsolelypoliticalstudieshaveoverlookedorignored.WritingacceptablecriticismofBlackFictionhoweverpresupposesgivingsatisfactoryanswerstoanumberofquestions.FirstofallisthereasufficientreasonotherthantheracialidentityoftheauthorstogrouptogetherworksbyBlackauthorsSecondhowdoesBlackFictionmakeitselfdistinctfromothermodemfictionwithwhichitislargelycontemporaneousRosenblattshowsthatBlackFictionconstitutesadistinctbodyofwritingthathasanidentifiablecoherentliterarytradition.LookingatnovelswrittenbyBlackoverthelasteightyyearshediscoversrecurringconcernsanddesignsindependentofchronology.ThesestructuresarethematicandtheyspringnotsurprisinglyfromthecentralfactthattheBlackcharactersinthesenovelsexistinapredominantlywhiteculturewhethertheytrytoconformtothatcultureorrebelagainstit.BlackFictiondoesleavesomeaestheticquestionsopen.Rosenblatt’sthematicanalysispermitsconsiderableobjectivity;heevenexplicitlystatesthatitisnothisintentiontojudgethemeritofthevariousworks--yethisreluctanceseemsmisplacedespeciallysinceanattempttoappraisemighthaveledtointerestingresults.Forinstancesomeofthenovelsappeartobestructurallydiffuse.IsthisadefectoraretheauthorsworkingoutofortryingtoforgeadifferentkindofaestheticInadditionthestyleofsomeBlacknovelslikeJeanToomer’sCanevergesonexpressionismorsurrealism;doesthistechniqueprovideacounterpointtotheprevalentthemethatportraysthefateagainstwhichBlackheroesarepittedathemeusuallyconveyedbymorenaturalisticmodesofexpressionInspiteofsuchomissionswhatRosenblattdoesincludeinhisdiscussionmakesforanastuteandworthwhilestudy.BlackFictionsurveysawidevarietyofnovelsbringingtoourattentionintheprocesssomefascinatingandlittle-knownworkslikeJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredMan.Itsargumentistightlyconstructedanditsforthrightlucidstyleexemplifieslevelheadedandpenetratingcriticism.TheauthorofthetextreferstoJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredManmostprobablyinorderto______.
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.2
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFictioninattemptingtoapplyliteraryratherthansociopoliticalcriteriatoitssubjectsuccessfullyalterstheapproachtakenbymostpreviousstudies.AsRosenblattnotescriticismofBlackwritinghasoftenservedasapretextforexpoundingonBlackhistory.AddisonGayle’srecentworkforexamplejudgesthevalueofBlackFictionbyovertlypoliticalstandardsratingeachworkaccordingtothenotionsofBlackidentitywhichitpropounds.Althoughfictionassuredlyspringsfrompoliticalcircumstancesitsauthorsreacttothosecircumstancesinwaysotherthanideologicalandtalkingaboutnovelsandstoriesprimarilyasinstrumentsofideologycircumventsmuchofthefictionalenterprise.Rosenblatt’sliteraryanalysisdisclosesaffinitiesandconnectionsamongworksofBlackFictionwhichsolelypoliticalstudieshaveoverlookedorignored.WritingacceptablecriticismofBlackFictionhoweverpresupposesgivingsatisfactoryanswerstoanumberofquestions.FirstofallisthereasufficientreasonotherthantheracialidentityoftheauthorstogrouptogetherworksbyBlackauthorsSecondhowdoesBlackFictionmakeitselfdistinctfromothermodemfictionwithwhichitislargelycontemporaneousRosenblattshowsthatBlackFictionconstitutesadistinctbodyofwritingthathasanidentifiablecoherentliterarytradition.LookingatnovelswrittenbyBlackoverthelasteightyyearshediscoversrecurringconcernsanddesignsindependentofchronology.ThesestructuresarethematicandtheyspringnotsurprisinglyfromthecentralfactthattheBlackcharactersinthesenovelsexistinapredominantlywhiteculturewhethertheytrytoconformtothatcultureorrebelagainstit.BlackFictiondoesleavesomeaestheticquestionsopen.Rosenblatt’sthematicanalysispermitsconsiderableobjectivity;heevenexplicitlystatesthatitisnothisintentiontojudgethemeritofthevariousworks--yethisreluctanceseemsmisplacedespeciallysinceanattempttoappraisemighthaveledtointerestingresults.Forinstancesomeofthenovelsappeartobestructurallydiffuse.IsthisadefectoraretheauthorsworkingoutofortryingtoforgeadifferentkindofaestheticInadditionthestyleofsomeBlacknovelslikeJeanToomer’sCanevergesonexpressionismorsurrealism;doesthistechniqueprovideacounterpointtotheprevalentthemethatportraysthefateagainstwhichBlackheroesarepittedathemeusuallyconveyedbymorenaturalisticmodesofexpressionInspiteofsuchomissionswhatRosenblattdoesincludeinhisdiscussionmakesforanastuteandworthwhilestudy.BlackFictionsurveysawidevarietyofnovelsbringingtoourattentionintheprocesssomefascinatingandlittle-knownworkslikeJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredMan.Itsargumentistightlyconstructedanditsforthrightlucidstyleexemplifieslevelheadedandpenetratingcriticism.Theauthorofthetextisprimarilyconcernedwith
Ineverycultivatedlanguagetherearetwogreatclassesofwordswhichtakentogethercomprisesthewholevocabulary.Firsttherearethosewords1whichwebecomeacquaintedindailyconversationwhichwe2thatistosayfromthe3ofourownfamilyandfromourfamiliarassociatesand4weshouldknowanduse5wecouldnotreadorwrite.They6thecommonthingsoflifeandarethestockintradeofallwho7thelanguage.Suchwordsmaybecalled"popular"sincetheybelongtothepeople8andarenottheexclusive9ofalimitedclass. Ontheotherhandourlanguage10amultitudeofwordswhicharecomparatively11usedinordinaryconversation.Theirmeaningsareknowntoeveryeducatedpersonbutthereislittle12tousethemathomeorinthemarket-place.Our13acquaintancewiththemcomesnotfromourmother’s14orfromthetalkofourschool-mates15frombooksthatwereadlecturesthatwe16orthemore17conversationofhighlyeducatedspeakerswhoarediscussingsomeparticular18inastyleappropriatelyelevatedabovethehabitual19ofeverydaylife.Suchwordsarecalled"learned"andthe20betweenthemandthe"popular"wordsisofgreatimportancetoarightunderstandingoflinguisticprocess. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Despitethefactthatcometsareprobablythemostnumerousastronomicalbodiesinthesolarsystemasidefromsmallmeteorfragmentsandtheasteroidstheyarelargelyamystery.Scientistsdonotknowexactlywhatcometsareorwheretheycomefrom.Educatedguessesarethebestwehaveinhand.Consideringtheroleofcometsinlegendandthememoryofmanitisremarkablethatwestillknowsolittlerelativelyaboutthem.ThemostfamouscometofallHalley’sCometnamedforthemanwhopredicteditsreturnwasfirstsightedbytheChinesein240B．C．andithasreturnedtoterrifythepeopleoftheworldonaregularbasiseverysincethen.Theancientconsidereditanobjectofillomen.BymysteriouscoincidencethearrivalofHalley’sCometcoincidedwithsucheventsasthebattleofHastingsin1066theJewishrevoltof66A．D．andthelastbattleofAttilatheHunagainsttheRomans.Norisittheonlycomettofillmanwithawebutmerelythemostfamousinaricharistocracyofblood-freezers.Cometsareevenmorefascinatingtoamateurastronomersthantoprofessionalsbecausethisisoneareawhereamateurscanmakemajordiscoveries.CometIkeyaSekioneofthebrightestcometstoappearinthiscenturywasdiscoveredin1965byapairofJapaneseamateursIkeyaandSeki.Thepersonwhodiscoversanewcometgetshisorhernameputonit.Andamateurshaveaheadstartintheracetodiscovernewcomets;theshorterfocallengthsontheirsmallertelescopesgivethemapositiveadvantageoverthehugetelescopessuchasMountWilsonwhichisbuilttoscanforgalaxiesnotcomparativelyshortdistances.MostscientiststendtoagreewithastronomerFredT.Whipplethatacometisreallyalargemushysnowballoffrozenicesandgasesammoniamethanepossiblycarbondioxidewithafewbitsofsolidparticlesstuckinside.Butnooneissurehowcometsarecreatedinthefirstplace.Scientistbelievethatcometsdon’texhibittheircharacteristictailwhiletheylurkfatoutinspaceawayfromthewarmthofthesunbutratherwanderintheformoffrozenlumpslikeicebergs.Thisisthecoreofthecomets.Onlywhenthecometapproachestheheatofthesundoestheicebegintomeltandstreamawayintheformofvisiblegases.Thetailsofthecometsstreamoutbehindforliterallyastronomicaldistances.HalleyComethadatailof94millionmileslongwhenitvisitedherein1910．TheGreatCometof1843hadatailof186millionmileslong.Welearnfromthetextthatamateurastronomers______.
Despitethefactthatcometsareprobablythemostnumerousastronomicalbodiesinthesolarsystemasidefromsmallmeteorfragmentsandtheasteroidstheyarelargelyamystery.Scientistsdonotknowexactlywhatcometsareorwheretheycomefrom.Educatedguessesarethebestwehaveinhand.Consideringtheroleofcometsinlegendandthememoryofmanitisremarkablethatwestillknowsolittlerelativelyaboutthem.ThemostfamouscometofallHalley’sCometnamedforthemanwhopredicteditsreturnwasfirstsightedbytheChinesein240B．C．andithasreturnedtoterrifythepeopleoftheworldonaregularbasiseverysincethen.Theancientconsidereditanobjectofillomen.BymysteriouscoincidencethearrivalofHalley’sCometcoincidedwithsucheventsasthebattleofHastingsin1066theJewishrevoltof66A．D．andthelastbattleofAttilatheHunagainsttheRomans.Norisittheonlycomettofillmanwithawebutmerelythemostfamousinaricharistocracyofblood-freezers.Cometsareevenmorefascinatingtoamateurastronomersthantoprofessionalsbecausethisisoneareawhereamateurscanmakemajordiscoveries.CometIkeyaSekioneofthebrightestcometstoappearinthiscenturywasdiscoveredin1965byapairofJapaneseamateursIkeyaandSeki.Thepersonwhodiscoversanewcometgetshisorhernameputonit.Andamateurshaveaheadstartintheracetodiscovernewcomets;theshorterfocallengthsontheirsmallertelescopesgivethemapositiveadvantageoverthehugetelescopessuchasMountWilsonwhichisbuilttoscanforgalaxiesnotcomparativelyshortdistances.MostscientiststendtoagreewithastronomerFredT.Whipplethatacometisreallyalargemushysnowballoffrozenicesandgasesammoniamethanepossiblycarbondioxidewithafewbitsofsolidparticlesstuckinside.Butnooneissurehowcometsarecreatedinthefirstplace.Scientistbelievethatcometsdon’texhibittheircharacteristictailwhiletheylurkfatoutinspaceawayfromthewarmthofthesunbutratherwanderintheformoffrozenlumpslikeicebergs.Thisisthecoreofthecomets.Onlywhenthecometapproachestheheatofthesundoestheicebegintomeltandstreamawayintheformofvisiblegases.Thetailsofthecometsstreamoutbehindforliterallyastronomicaldistances.HalleyComethadatailof94millionmileslongwhenitvisitedherein1910．TheGreatCometof1843hadatailof186millionmileslong.WhichofthefollowingaboutcometsisINCORRECT
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 8
Severalyearsagoattheheightofthedotcomboomitwaswidelyassumedthatapublishingrevolutioninwhichtheprintedwordwouldbesupplantedbythecomputerscreenwasjustaroundthecorner.Itwasn’t:formanythereisstilllittletomatchthejoyofreadingaprintedbookandsettlingdownforonehour.ButrecentlysomebigtechnologycompaniesincludingGoogleAmazonMicrosoftandYahoocontendthatthedreamofbringingbooksonlineisstillverymuchalive.Thedigitizingofthousandsofvolumesofprintisnotwithoutcontroversy.OnThursdayGoogletheworld’smostpopularsearchenginepostedafirstinstallmentofbooksonGooglePrint.ThiscollaborativeeffortbetweenGoogleandseveralworld’sleadingresearchlibrariesaimstomakebooksavailabletobesearchedandreadonlinefreeofcharge.Althoughthebooksincludedsofararenotcoveredbycopyrighttheplanhasattractedtherageofpublishers.FivelargebookfirmsaresuingGoogleforviolatingcopyrightonmaterialthatithasscannedandalthoughoutofprintisstillprotectedbylaw.Googlehassaidthatitwillonlypublishshortextractsfrommaterialundercopyrightunlessgivenexpresspermissiontopublishmorebutpublishersareunconvinced.IronicallymanypublishersarecollaboratingwithGooglePrintPublisherwhichaimstogivereadersanonlinetasteofbooksthatarecommerciallyavailable.Thesearchablecollectionofextractsandbookinformationisintendedtotemptreaderstobuythecompletebooksonlineorinprintform.Amazontheworld’slargestonlineretailerhasmadeplanstoenterthemasse-bookmarketbysellingavastarrayofgoods.GiventhatGoogleshouldimpingeuponitscentralterritoryAmazonrevealedthatitwouldintroducetwonewservices.AmazonPageswillallowcustomerstosearchforkeytermsinselectedbooksandthenbuyandreadonlinewhateverparttheywish.AmazonUpgradewillgivecustomersonlineaccesstobookstheyhavealreadypurchasedashardcopies.Customersarelikelytohavetopayfivecentsapagewiththebulkgoingtothepublisher.Microsofthasalsojoinedtheonline-booktrend.InOctoberthesoftwaregiantsaiditwouldspendaround$200milliontodigitizetextsstartingwithI50000thatareinthepublicdomaintoavoidlegalproblems.ItwilldosoincollaborationwiththeOpenContentAlliance.AndonThursdaycoincidentallythesamedayasGoogleandAmazonannouncedtheirinitiativesMicrosoftreleaseddetailsofadealwiththeBritishLibrarythecountry’smainreferencelibrarytodigitizesome25millionpages;thesewillbemadeavailablethroughMSNBookSearchwhichwillbelaunchednextyear.WhichofthefollowingistrueofGoogleaccordingtothetext
Recentlythenewshasbeenfilledwithreportsofthe"birdflu".46．Asiaisonaregion-widehealthalertwithgovernmentsslaughteringmillionsofchickenstocontainoutbreaksofthebirdfluinThailandVietnamCambodiaSouthKoreaJapanandChina. Influenza-commonlycalled"flu"-isoneoftheoldestandmostcommondiseasesknowntoman.Itcanalsobeoneofthedeadliest.47．Thegreat"Spanishflu"pandemicof1918-1919wasconsideredtheworstplagueinhistorykillingupto40millionpeoplewithhalfoftheworld’spopulationinfectedinonlyafewmonths. 48．Influenzacanalsoinfectmanydifferentwarm-bloodedanimalssuchasbirds.Howeverthe"flu"virususuallydevelopsdifferentvariantsthatarespecializedforeachspeciesofanimalsthattheyinfect.Crossspeciesinfectionsarerare. AflustraincalledinfluenzaAH5N1appearstohavemadeasuccessfuljumpfrombirdstohumans.TheviralstrainwasfirstisolatedfromSouthAfricanbirdsin1961．49．ThefirstknownhumaninfectionoccurredinaHongKongtoddlerinMayof1997．Bytheendof1997therewere13confirmedcasesandfourdeathsallinHongKong.InanattempttostopthespreadofthediseasethegovernmentofHongKongorderedtheslaughterofallchickensducksgeesequailanddomesticpigeons. HumansinfectedwithH5N1sofararethoughttohavecaughtthediseasefromfowlandnoperson-to-persontransmissionshavebeenreported.50．TheWHOhoweverfearsthatthebirdfluishighlyadaptableandmightleapthespeciesbarrier.Itsaysanyoneexposedtothediseaseshouldbequarantinedtoavoidcontactwithsufferersofregularhumaninfluenza. Influenzacanalsoinfectmanydifferentwarm-bloodedanimalssuchasbirds.Howeverthefluvirususuallydevelopsdifferentvariantsthatarespecializedforeachspeciesofanimalsthattheyinfect.Crossspeciesinfectionsarerare.
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 12
Despitethefactthatcometsareprobablythemostnumerousastronomicalbodiesinthesolarsystemasidefromsmallmeteorfragmentsandtheasteroidstheyarelargelyamystery.Scientistsdonotknowexactlywhatcometsareorwheretheycomefrom.Educatedguessesarethebestwehaveinhand.Consideringtheroleofcometsinlegendandthememoryofmanitisremarkablethatwestillknowsolittlerelativelyaboutthem.ThemostfamouscometofallHalley’sCometnamedforthemanwhopredicteditsreturnwasfirstsightedbytheChinesein240B．C．andithasreturnedtoterrifythepeopleoftheworldonaregularbasiseverysincethen.Theancientconsidereditanobjectofillomen.BymysteriouscoincidencethearrivalofHalley’sCometcoincidedwithsucheventsasthebattleofHastingsin1066theJewishrevoltof66A．D．andthelastbattleofAttilatheHunagainsttheRomans.Norisittheonlycomettofillmanwithawebutmerelythemostfamousinaricharistocracyofblood-freezers.Cometsareevenmorefascinatingtoamateurastronomersthantoprofessionalsbecausethisisoneareawhereamateurscanmakemajordiscoveries.CometIkeyaSekioneofthebrightestcometstoappearinthiscenturywasdiscoveredin1965byapairofJapaneseamateursIkeyaandSeki.Thepersonwhodiscoversanewcometgetshisorhernameputonit.Andamateurshaveaheadstartintheracetodiscovernewcomets;theshorterfocallengthsontheirsmallertelescopesgivethemapositiveadvantageoverthehugetelescopessuchasMountWilsonwhichisbuilttoscanforgalaxiesnotcomparativelyshortdistances.MostscientiststendtoagreewithastronomerFredT.Whipplethatacometisreallyalargemushysnowballoffrozenicesandgasesammoniamethanepossiblycarbondioxidewithafewbitsofsolidparticlesstuckinside.Butnooneissurehowcometsarecreatedinthefirstplace.Scientistbelievethatcometsdon’texhibittheircharacteristictailwhiletheylurkfatoutinspaceawayfromthewarmthofthesunbutratherwanderintheformoffrozenlumpslikeicebergs.Thisisthecoreofthecomets.Onlywhenthecometapproachestheheatofthesundoestheicebegintomeltandstreamawayintheformofvisiblegases.Thetailsofthecometsstreamoutbehindforliterallyastronomicaldistances.HalleyComethadatailof94millionmileslongwhenitvisitedherein1910．TheGreatCometof1843hadatailof186millionmileslong.Atthebeginningofthetexttheauthorindicatesthat______.
Theimportanceandfocusoftheinterviewintheworkoftheprintandbroadcastjournalistisreflectedinseveralbooksthathavebeenwrittenonthetopic.Mostofthesebooksaswellasseveralchaptersmainlyinbutnotlimitedtojournalismandbroadcastinghandbooksandreportingtextsstressthehowtoaspectsofjournalisticinterviewingratherthantheconceptualaspectsoftheinterviewitscontextandimplications.Muchofthehowtomaterialisbasedonpersonalexperiencesandgeneralimpression.Asweknowinjournalismasinotherfieldsmuchcanbelearnedfromthesystematicstudyofprofessionalpractice.Suchstudybringstogetherevidencefromwhichbroadgeneralizedprinciplescanbedeveloped.Thereisashasbeensuggestedagrowingbodyofresearchliteratureinjournalismandbroadcastingbutverylittlesignificantattentionhasbeendevotedtothestudyoftheinterviewitself.Ontheotherhandmanygeneraltextsaswellasnumerousresearcharticlesoninterviewinginfieldsotherthanjournalismhavebeenwritten.Manyofthesebooksandarticlespresentthetheoreticalandempirical经验的aspectsoftheinterviewaswellasthetrainingoftheinterviewers.Unhappilythisplentifulgeneralliteratureaboutinterviewingpayslittleattentiontothejournalisticinterview.Thefactthatthegeneralliteratureoninterviewingdoesnotdealwiththejournalisticinterviewseemstobesurprisingfortworeasons.FirstitseemslikelythatmostpeopleinmodernWesternsocietiesaremorefamiliaratleastinapositivemannerwithjournalisticinterviewingthanwithanyotherformofinterviewing.Mostofusareprobablysomewhatfamiliarwiththeclinicalinterviewsuchasthatconductedbyphysiciansandpsychologists.Inthesesituationstheprofessionalpersonorinterviewerisinterestedingettinginformationnecessaryforthediagnosisandtreatmentofthepersonseekinghelp.Anotherfamiliarsituationisthejobinterview.Howeververyfewofushaveactuallybeeninterviewedpersonallybythemassmediaparticularlybytelevision.Andyetwehaveavividacquaintancewiththejournalisticinterviewbyvirtueofourrolesasreaderslistenersandviewers.Evensotrueunderstandingofthejournalisticinterviewespeciallytelevisioninterviewsrequiresthoughtfulanalysisandevenstudyasthisbookindicates.Muchresearchhasbeendoneoninterviewsingeneral______.
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 14
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFictioninattemptingtoapplyliteraryratherthansociopoliticalcriteriatoitssubjectsuccessfullyalterstheapproachtakenbymostpreviousstudies.AsRosenblattnotescriticismofBlackwritinghasoftenservedasapretextforexpoundingonBlackhistory.AddisonGayle’srecentworkforexamplejudgesthevalueofBlackFictionbyovertlypoliticalstandardsratingeachworkaccordingtothenotionsofBlackidentitywhichitpropounds.Althoughfictionassuredlyspringsfrompoliticalcircumstancesitsauthorsreacttothosecircumstancesinwaysotherthanideologicalandtalkingaboutnovelsandstoriesprimarilyasinstrumentsofideologycircumventsmuchofthefictionalenterprise.Rosenblatt’sliteraryanalysisdisclosesaffinitiesandconnectionsamongworksofBlackFictionwhichsolelypoliticalstudieshaveoverlookedorignored.WritingacceptablecriticismofBlackFictionhoweverpresupposesgivingsatisfactoryanswerstoanumberofquestions.FirstofallisthereasufficientreasonotherthantheracialidentityoftheauthorstogrouptogetherworksbyBlackauthorsSecondhowdoesBlackFictionmakeitselfdistinctfromothermodemfictionwithwhichitislargelycontemporaneousRosenblattshowsthatBlackFictionconstitutesadistinctbodyofwritingthathasanidentifiablecoherentliterarytradition.LookingatnovelswrittenbyBlackoverthelasteightyyearshediscoversrecurringconcernsanddesignsindependentofchronology.ThesestructuresarethematicandtheyspringnotsurprisinglyfromthecentralfactthattheBlackcharactersinthesenovelsexistinapredominantlywhiteculturewhethertheytrytoconformtothatcultureorrebelagainstit.BlackFictiondoesleavesomeaestheticquestionsopen.Rosenblatt’sthematicanalysispermitsconsiderableobjectivity;heevenexplicitlystatesthatitisnothisintentiontojudgethemeritofthevariousworks--yethisreluctanceseemsmisplacedespeciallysinceanattempttoappraisemighthaveledtointerestingresults.Forinstancesomeofthenovelsappeartobestructurallydiffuse.IsthisadefectoraretheauthorsworkingoutofortryingtoforgeadifferentkindofaestheticInadditionthestyleofsomeBlacknovelslikeJeanToomer’sCanevergesonexpressionismorsurrealism;doesthistechniqueprovideacounterpointtotheprevalentthemethatportraysthefateagainstwhichBlackheroesarepittedathemeusuallyconveyedbymorenaturalisticmodesofexpressionInspiteofsuchomissionswhatRosenblattdoesincludeinhisdiscussionmakesforanastuteandworthwhilestudy.BlackFictionsurveysawidevarietyofnovelsbringingtoourattentionintheprocesssomefascinatingandlittle-knownworkslikeJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredMan.Itsargumentistightlyconstructedanditsforthrightlucidstyleexemplifieslevelheadedandpenetratingcriticism.Theauthor’sdiscussionofBlackFictioncanbebestdescribedas______.
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 16
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 10
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