首页
试卷库
试题库
当前位置：
X题卡
>
所有题目
>
题目详情
Directions: You are a freshman and planning to apply for a bank loan. Write a letter to the bank to...
查看本题答案
包含此试题的试卷
国家统考科目《问答》真题及答案
点击查看
你可能感兴趣的试题
PartB Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayont
Asastudentyoucandowellonatestifyouhaveagoodknowled
PartA Directions:Youareplanningtoaskyourfriendtoj
I’msorrytotellyouthatwewillnottellyoutheresultsoft
directions
instructions
data
standards
―Whatareyouupto?―I’mconsidering________thebox.―Hav
opening; explanations
how to open; introductions
to open; instructions
how to open; directions
Youmustfollowthedirectionsexactlyandifyoubecomecon
exactly
confusing
the time
them
Asastudentyoucandowellonatestifyouhaveagoodknowled
Trytoavoidsuchthings_____willdoyouharmunlessyoudon
that
as
which
as that
Directions:Forthispartyouarerequiredtowriteacompos
—ExcusemeIwonderifyoucanshowmethenearestwaytoRio’s
You are not alone
You are the boss
You’ve got me
You made my day
Directions:Whatdoyouthinkoftheappreciationineducat
Youmustfollowthedirectionsexactlyandifyoushouldbec
confused
to be confused
to confuse
confusing
热门试题
更多
Akeyreasonthenewsmediaexistswithspecialprivilegesistobeourwatchdogs.Reporters’chargeistoalertuswhensomethingiswrongwhenhumanornaturaldisastersareabouttothreatenourwelfare.Whenitcomestonaturaldisastersthenewsmediadoapraisablejobofreportingtheobviousbutnotaverygoodoneofpreparingthepublicforwhatmighthappenforalertingustopotentialdifficulties.Whenitcomestohumandisastersespeciallyproblemsingovernmentandeconomicmattersthepresshasfailedmiserably.ForexampleTimemagazinefinallytoldthepublicinarecentcoverstorywhatonlythemostquickobserversalreadyknew:"TheGreatRetirementRipoff偷窃:MillionsofAmericanswhothinktheywillretirewithbenefitsaregoingbeshocked.Howcorporationsarepickingpeople’spockets—withthehelpofCongress...Howcanthislegal" Wherewasthemediawheneachpieceofcorporate-biasedlegislationwasbeingpassedWhywasn’tCongressafraidtopasssuchlegislationBecausethemediahasdecidedthatnewsconcerningCongressisoflittleinteresttoitsaudience. TVnewsmanagershavebelievedthateconomicandsocialissuesaretoocomplicatedforthepublictograsp.Newspapereditorsoccasionallyprintsuchstoriesbutmostlytheyconcentrateonhuman-interestfeaturesconsumerhealthsectionsandentertainment.Hardnewsholesareshrinkingandinvestigativejournalismiscarriedoutonlyonoccasion.Itistoodifficultandcostly.Besidesitantagonizesadvertiserswhileseldomincreasingcirculation.Magazinesthatwouldlookintosuchsubjectsseemtobedyingout. Theresultisthatnooneiswatchingtherichandpowerfulsotheycandoalmostanythingwithimpunity不受惩罚.MillionsofAmericanshavebeenrobbedinbroaddaylightwhilethenewsmediahasbusieditselfwithcelebritytrialsandsensationalcrimestories.Corporationsstealthepublicblindunderlegislationauthorizedbygovernmentofficials.Companiesfileforbankruptcyprotectioncuttingoffmedicalandlife-insurancebenefitsforretirees.Itisn’tanewphenomenon.Forthemostparttoday’spresshasletdowntheAmericanpublictimeandtimeagain. Ifitseemstobegettingworseit’sbecausetherearesomanysegmentsofthemediathatshouldbetellingusinanaccurateandfairmannerwhatourelectedofficialsaredoingbeforeit’stoolatetotakeaction.It’shardertoblamecorporationsbecausetheymakenobonesabouttheirmission:makeasmuchmoneyaspossibleatallcosts.ThoseinCongressaresupposedtoprotectusandlookoutforourinterests.Yetitappearstheyconstantlyhelptheirpowerfulsupporterswhooftenbuytheirofficesforthem.Nooneisdoingtherightthing.Thejokeapparentlyisonallofus—theoldandthesickwhowillhavenohelpinthefutureandtheyoungburdenedwiththedebtofcaringfortheirimpoverishedeldersfortherestoftheirlives. ThestatementTheymakenobonesabouttheirmissionisusedtoimplythat
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 9
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 13
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 19
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 7
Directions: Themunicipalgovernmentisgoingtoholdatwo-dayinternationalfinancialsummitatthiscomingweekend.Duringtheweekendtrafficaroundthemeetingsitewillbedirectedandcontrolled.WriteanoticeonbehalfoftheTrafficControlBureauunderthePublicTransportationDepartmentoftileMunicipalGovernmenttopublicizethisinformation. Youareexpectedtoimaginesomespecificmeasuresoftrafficcontrol.Writethenoticeinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.10points
Directions: OnceyouwereillandwerehospitalizedforafewweeksintheChaoyangMedicalCenterCityofTaiYuanShanxiProvince.Duringyourstaytheentirestaffwerekindtoyou.Writealetterto 1tellaboutyourstayinthehospitaland 2extendyourgratitudetothehospitalstaff. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdon’thavetowritetheaddress.
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 1
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 1
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 11
Inademocraticsocietycitizensareencouragedtoformtheirownopinionsoncandidatesforpublicofficetaxesconstitutionalamendmentsenvironmentalconcernsforeignpolicyandotherissues.Theopinionsheldbyanypopulationareshapedandmanipulatedbyseveralfactors:individualcircumstancesthemassmediaspecial-interestgroupsandopinionleaders. Wealthypeopletendtothinkdifferentlyonsocialissuesfrompoorpeople.Factoryworkersprobablydonotsharethesameviewsaswhite-collarnonunionworkers.Womenemployedoutsidetheirhomessometimeshaveperspectivesdifferentfromthoseoffull-timehomemakers.Intheseandotherwaysindividualstatusshapesone’sviewofcurrentevents. Themassmediaespeciallytelevisionarepowerfulinfluencesonthewaypeoplethinkandact.Governmentofficialsnotehowmailfromthepublictendsto"followtheheadlines."Whateverisfeaturedinnewspapersandmagazinesandontelevisionattractsenoughattentionthatpeoplebegintoinformthemselvesandtoexpressopinions. Themassmediahavealsocreatedlargeraudiencesforgovernmentandawiderrangeofpublicissuesthanexistedbefore.Priortotelevisionandthenationaleditionsofnewspapersissuesandcandidatestendedtoremainlocalized.InGreatBritainandWestGermanyforexampleelectionstothenationallegislatureswereusuallyviewedbyvotersaslocalcontests.Today’selectionsareseenasstrugglesbetweenpartyleadersandprograms.IntheUnitedStatesradioandtelevisionhavebeenbeneficialtothepresidency.SincethedaysofFranklinD.Rooseveltandhis"firesidechats"presidentshaveappealeddirectlytoanationalaudienceovertheheadsofCongresstoadvocatetheirprograms. Special-interestgroupsspendvastsumsannuallytryingtoinfluencepublicopinion.Publicutilitiesforinstancetriedtoswaypublicopinioninfavorofnuclearpowerplants.Opposedtothemwerecitizens’organizationsthatlobbiedtohalttheuseofnuclearpower.Duringthe1960stheAmericanMedicalAssociationconductedanunsuccessfuladvertisingcampaigndesignedtopreventthepassageofMedicare. Opinionleadersareusuallysuchprominentpublicfiguresaspoliticiansshow-businesspersonalitiesandcelebrityathletes.Theopinionsoftheseindividualswhetherinformedandintelligentornotcarryweightwithsomesegmentsofthepopulation.SomeindividualssuchasNobelPrizewinnersaresuddenlythrustintopublicviewbythemedia.Byquicklyreachingalargeaudiencetheirviewsgainahearingandareperhapsinfluentialinshapingviewsoncomplexissues. Theexpressionfollowtheheadlinesshows
SincethedaysofAristotleasearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientificenterprise.Insomewaysthisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton’slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework. 46Inphysicsoneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextremeandseeksatheoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itisbecominglessclearhoweverthatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplificationgiventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentailnonethelessunificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal. Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.47HereDarwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselectionperhapstheworld’slanguagesmusicsocialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.48Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms. Thatatleastisthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityin’language. ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomskywhosuggestedthathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguagewhichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly. 49ThesecondbyJoshuaGreenbergtakesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversalityidentifyingtraitsparticularlyinwordordersharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfrom~nitiveconstraints Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2000languages.50Chomsky’sgrammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweennarticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysissuggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals 47HereDarwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.
Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded. ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover. ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondsto"lowaverage"IQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthe"highintelligence"rangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity. Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork."Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluently"saysapsychologist."Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthat"ratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark. Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon. AutisticchildrenalwaysgetlowerscoresinIQteststhanotherchildrenbecause
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 15
Irememberonenightafewyearsagowhenmydaughterwasfranticwithworry.AftermyHarvardExtensionSchoolclassesIusuallyarrivedatthebusstationnearmyhomeby11p.m.butonthatnightIwasnowheretobefound.Mydaughterwasnervous.Itwasn’tsafeforasinglewomantowalkaloneonthestreetsatnightespeciallyoneasdefenselessasIam:IcanslayamuggerwithmysharpwitbutIamjusttooshorttodoanyrealphysicaldamage. Thatnightmydaughtercheckedthebusstationdrovearoundthestreetsandcontactedsomefriends.Butshecouldn’tfindme--untilshecalledmyastronomyprofessorwhotoldherthatIwasontopoftheScienceCenterusingthetelescopetogazeatthestars.UnawareofthetimeIhadgottenlostintheheavensandwasonlythinkingaboutthenewthingsIhadlearnedthatnightinclass. ThisstoryillustratesahabitIhavedevelopedovertheyears:Ilosetrackofthetimewhenitcomestolearning.41.Imayhavestartedlate;butIwillcontinuetolearnaslongasIamablebecausethereisnogreaterfeelinginmyopinionthantravelingtoafarawaycountryasIhaveandbeingabletoidentifybysightthepaintingofafamousartistthestatueofanobscuresculptorthecathedralofanancientarchitect.42.SoIwillcontinuetotakeclassesandtellmystory. Latelyitseemsthateveryoneisaskingme"Marywhatadvicedoyouhaveforotherstudents"SowhileIhaveyouallhereImgoingtoeasemyburdenofansweringyoueachindividually:43.SolistentomewhenItellyouthis:Knowledgeispower. MystudieswereinterruptedwhenIwasinthe7thgradebacksometimearoundWorldWarI.IlovedschoolbutIwasforcedtoleaveittocareformyfamily.Iwascon-signedtoworkinaRhodeIslandcottonmillwhereIlaboredformanyyears.Ieventuallymarriedandraised5children20grandchildrenand18great-grandchildren.ButallthewhileIfeltinferiortothosearoundme.IknewIwasassmartasacollegegraduate.IknewIwascapableofdoingajobwell—Ihadproveditbyrunningasuccessfulfamilybusinessfordecadesthatstillexists.ButIwantedmore.IwantedtofeelconfidentwhenIspokeandIWantedpeopletorespectmyopinions.Doesitsurpriseyoutodiscoverhowmuchyouhaveincommonwithan89yearoldwoman44. 45.Thatbeliefiswhathasmotivatedmeforthelast75yearstogetthisdegree.ItisalsothemissionoftheHarvardExtensionSchool.WithoutthesupportIreceivedfromthisschoolImightnothavegraduateduntilIwas100--aphrasethatmanyofyouhaveprobablyusedinjest. [A]IfthesayingistruethatwisdomcomeswithageyoumaysafelyassumethatIamoneofthewisestpeopleinthishallandpossiblyatthisuniversitytoday. [B]fknowthatmanyofyougraduatestodaywhetheryouwere’bornin1907or1967havefacedsimilarbarrierstocompletingyourstudiesandhavesometimesfeltinferioraroundthoseyouworkorsocializewithjustbecauseyoudidn’thaveadegree. [C]Ifyouhavetreatededucationasyourmaingoalandnotassmeanstoanend.thenyoutoohaveprobablybeenclaimedasamissingpersononceinyouracademiccareerwhetheryouwerelostinthestarsorthestacksofWidenerLibrary. [D]ButIamheretodaylikeyouare--toprovethatitcanbedone;thatthepowergainedbyunderstandingandappreciatingtheworldarounduscanbeobtainedbyanyoneregardlessofsocialstatuspersonalchallenges.orage. [E]Howelsedoyouexplainawomanwhobeganhighschoolatage71andwhoisgraduatingwithabachelorsdegreeat89 [F]Andyoutooknowthatthejourneywasworthitandthatthepowerofknowledgemakesmethemostformidable89-year-oldwomanatthebusstop. [G]Ihavefoundthattheworldisafinalexamthatyoucanneverbepreparedenoughfor. 41
Inademocraticsocietycitizensareencouragedtoformtheirownopinionsoncandidatesforpublicofficetaxesconstitutionalamendmentsenvironmentalconcernsforeignpolicyandotherissues.Theopinionsheldbyanypopulationareshapedandmanipulatedbyseveralfactors:individualcircumstancesthemassmediaspecial-interestgroupsandopinionleaders. Wealthypeopletendtothinkdifferentlyonsocialissuesfrompoorpeople.Factoryworkersprobablydonotsharethesameviewsaswhite-collarnonunionworkers.Womenemployedoutsidetheirhomessometimeshaveperspectivesdifferentfromthoseoffull-timehomemakers.Intheseandotherwaysindividualstatusshapesone’sviewofcurrentevents. Themassmediaespeciallytelevisionarepowerfulinfluencesonthewaypeoplethinkandact.Governmentofficialsnotehowmailfromthepublictendsto"followtheheadlines."Whateverisfeaturedinnewspapersandmagazinesandontelevisionattractsenoughattentionthatpeoplebegintoinformthemselvesandtoexpressopinions. Themassmediahavealsocreatedlargeraudiencesforgovernmentandawiderrangeofpublicissuesthanexistedbefore.Priortotelevisionandthenationaleditionsofnewspapersissuesandcandidatestendedtoremainlocalized.InGreatBritainandWestGermanyforexampleelectionstothenationallegislatureswereusuallyviewedbyvotersaslocalcontests.Today’selectionsareseenasstrugglesbetweenpartyleadersandprograms.IntheUnitedStatesradioandtelevisionhavebeenbeneficialtothepresidency.SincethedaysofFranklinD.Rooseveltandhis"firesidechats"presidentshaveappealeddirectlytoanationalaudienceovertheheadsofCongresstoadvocatetheirprograms. Special-interestgroupsspendvastsumsannuallytryingtoinfluencepublicopinion.Publicutilitiesforinstancetriedtoswaypublicopinioninfavorofnuclearpowerplants.Opposedtothemwerecitizens’organizationsthatlobbiedtohalttheuseofnuclearpower.Duringthe1960stheAmericanMedicalAssociationconductedanunsuccessfuladvertisingcampaigndesignedtopreventthepassageofMedicare. Opinionleadersareusuallysuchprominentpublicfiguresaspoliticiansshow-businesspersonalitiesandcelebrityathletes.Theopinionsoftheseindividualswhetherinformedandintelligentornotcarryweightwithsomesegmentsofthepopulation.SomeindividualssuchasNobelPrizewinnersaresuddenlythrustintopublicviewbythemedia.Byquicklyreachingalargeaudiencetheirviewsgainahearingandareperhapsinfluentialinshapingviewsoncomplexissues. Itisobviousthattheopinionoffamouspeople
Akeyreasonthenewsmediaexistswithspecialprivilegesistobeourwatchdogs.Reporters’chargeistoalertuswhensomethingiswrongwhenhumanornaturaldisastersareabouttothreatenourwelfare.Whenitcomestonaturaldisastersthenewsmediadoapraisablejobofreportingtheobviousbutnotaverygoodoneofpreparingthepublicforwhatmighthappenforalertingustopotentialdifficulties.Whenitcomestohumandisastersespeciallyproblemsingovernmentandeconomicmattersthepresshasfailedmiserably.ForexampleTimemagazinefinallytoldthepublicinarecentcoverstorywhatonlythemostquickobserversalreadyknew:"TheGreatRetirementRipoff偷窃:MillionsofAmericanswhothinktheywillretirewithbenefitsaregoingbeshocked.Howcorporationsarepickingpeople’spockets—withthehelpofCongress...Howcanthislegal" Wherewasthemediawheneachpieceofcorporate-biasedlegislationwasbeingpassedWhywasn’tCongressafraidtopasssuchlegislationBecausethemediahasdecidedthatnewsconcerningCongressisoflittleinteresttoitsaudience. TVnewsmanagershavebelievedthateconomicandsocialissuesaretoocomplicatedforthepublictograsp.Newspapereditorsoccasionallyprintsuchstoriesbutmostlytheyconcentrateonhuman-interestfeaturesconsumerhealthsectionsandentertainment.Hardnewsholesareshrinkingandinvestigativejournalismiscarriedoutonlyonoccasion.Itistoodifficultandcostly.Besidesitantagonizesadvertiserswhileseldomincreasingcirculation.Magazinesthatwouldlookintosuchsubjectsseemtobedyingout. Theresultisthatnooneiswatchingtherichandpowerfulsotheycandoalmostanythingwithimpunity不受惩罚.MillionsofAmericanshavebeenrobbedinbroaddaylightwhilethenewsmediahasbusieditselfwithcelebritytrialsandsensationalcrimestories.Corporationsstealthepublicblindunderlegislationauthorizedbygovernmentofficials.Companiesfileforbankruptcyprotectioncuttingoffmedicalandlife-insurancebenefitsforretirees.Itisn’tanewphenomenon.Forthemostparttoday’spresshasletdowntheAmericanpublictimeandtimeagain. Ifitseemstobegettingworseit’sbecausetherearesomanysegmentsofthemediathatshouldbetellingusinanaccurateandfairmannerwhatourelectedofficialsaredoingbeforeit’stoolatetotakeaction.It’shardertoblamecorporationsbecausetheymakenobonesabouttheirmission:makeasmuchmoneyaspossibleatallcosts.ThoseinCongressaresupposedtoprotectusandlookoutforourinterests.Yetitappearstheyconstantlyhelptheirpowerfulsupporterswhooftenbuytheirofficesforthem.Nooneisdoingtherightthing.Thejokeapparentlyisonallofus—theoldandthesickwhowillhavenohelpinthefutureandtheyoungburdenedwiththedebtofcaringfortheirimpoverishedeldersfortherestoftheirlives. Themediaseldomcoverthecorporation-biasedlegislationspassedbythecongressprobablybecause
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. Whenatravelerisinanunfamiliarplace
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. Intheopeningparagraphtheauthorintroduceshistopicby
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 3
Irememberonenightafewyearsagowhenmydaughterwasfranticwithworry.AftermyHarvardExtensionSchoolclassesIusuallyarrivedatthebusstationnearmyhomeby11p.m.butonthatnightIwasnowheretobefound.Mydaughterwasnervous.Itwasn’tsafeforasinglewomantowalkaloneonthestreetsatnightespeciallyoneasdefenselessasIam:IcanslayamuggerwithmysharpwitbutIamjusttooshorttodoanyrealphysicaldamage. Thatnightmydaughtercheckedthebusstationdrovearoundthestreetsandcontactedsomefriends.Butshecouldn’tfindme--untilshecalledmyastronomyprofessorwhotoldherthatIwasontopoftheScienceCenterusingthetelescopetogazeatthestars.UnawareofthetimeIhadgottenlostintheheavensandwasonlythinkingaboutthenewthingsIhadlearnedthatnightinclass. ThisstoryillustratesahabitIhavedevelopedovertheyears:Ilosetrackofthetimewhenitcomestolearning.41.Imayhavestartedlate;butIwillcontinuetolearnaslongasIamablebecausethereisnogreaterfeelinginmyopinionthantravelingtoafarawaycountryasIhaveandbeingabletoidentifybysightthepaintingofafamousartistthestatueofanobscuresculptorthecathedralofanancientarchitect.42.SoIwillcontinuetotakeclassesandtellmystory. Latelyitseemsthateveryoneisaskingme"Marywhatadvicedoyouhaveforotherstudents"SowhileIhaveyouallhereImgoingtoeasemyburdenofansweringyoueachindividually:43.SolistentomewhenItellyouthis:Knowledgeispower. MystudieswereinterruptedwhenIwasinthe7thgradebacksometimearoundWorldWarI.IlovedschoolbutIwasforcedtoleaveittocareformyfamily.Iwascon-signedtoworkinaRhodeIslandcottonmillwhereIlaboredformanyyears.Ieventuallymarriedandraised5children20grandchildrenand18great-grandchildren.ButallthewhileIfeltinferiortothosearoundme.IknewIwasassmartasacollegegraduate.IknewIwascapableofdoingajobwell—Ihadproveditbyrunningasuccessfulfamilybusinessfordecadesthatstillexists.ButIwantedmore.IwantedtofeelconfidentwhenIspokeandIWantedpeopletorespectmyopinions.Doesitsurpriseyoutodiscoverhowmuchyouhaveincommonwithan89yearoldwoman44. 45.Thatbeliefiswhathasmotivatedmeforthelast75yearstogetthisdegree.ItisalsothemissionoftheHarvardExtensionSchool.WithoutthesupportIreceivedfromthisschoolImightnothavegraduateduntilIwas100--aphrasethatmanyofyouhaveprobablyusedinjest. [A]IfthesayingistruethatwisdomcomeswithageyoumaysafelyassumethatIamoneofthewisestpeopleinthishallandpossiblyatthisuniversitytoday. [B]fknowthatmanyofyougraduatestodaywhetheryouwere’bornin1907or1967havefacedsimilarbarrierstocompletingyourstudiesandhavesometimesfeltinferioraroundthoseyouworkorsocializewithjustbecauseyoudidn’thaveadegree. [C]Ifyouhavetreatededucationasyourmaingoalandnotassmeanstoanend.thenyoutoohaveprobablybeenclaimedasamissingpersononceinyouracademiccareerwhetheryouwerelostinthestarsorthestacksofWidenerLibrary. [D]ButIamheretodaylikeyouare--toprovethatitcanbedone;thatthepowergainedbyunderstandingandappreciatingtheworldarounduscanbeobtainedbyanyoneregardlessofsocialstatuspersonalchallenges.orage. [E]Howelsedoyouexplainawomanwhobeganhighschoolatage71andwhoisgraduatingwithabachelorsdegreeat89 [F]Andyoutooknowthatthejourneywasworthitandthatthepowerofknowledgemakesmethemostformidable89-year-oldwomanatthebusstop. [G]Ihavefoundthattheworldisafinalexamthatyoucanneverbepreparedenoughfor. 43
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. ThewordchapterLine4Paragraph2denotes
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 5
Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded. ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover. ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondsto"lowaverage"IQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthe"highintelligence"rangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity. Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork."Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluently"saysapsychologist."Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthat"ratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark. Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon. Whichofthefollowingconflictswithwhatthetextconveys
Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded. ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover. ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondsto"lowaverage"IQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthe"highintelligence"rangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity. Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork."Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluently"saysapsychologist."Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthat"ratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark. Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon. Whichofthefollowingisnotthereasonwhyparentsareunabletofindthehiddenintelligenceintheirautisticchildren
Law-and-orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueintheU.S.history. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.Indeedtherearemomentstodaywhenitseemsasthoughthescofflawrepresentsthewaveothefuture.47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.AlreadyRiesmansaystheethicofU.S.societyisindangerofbecomingthis."you’reafoolifyouobeytherules." NothingcouldbemoreobviousthantheevidencesupportingRiesman.Scofflawsaboundinamazingvariety.Thegraffiti-proneturnpublicsurfacesintovisualrubbish.Bicyclistsoftenrideasthoughtwo-wheeledvehiclesareexemptfromalltrafficlaws.Litterbugsconverttheircommunitiesintotrashdumps.48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.TobaccoaddictsremainhopelesslyblindtosignsthatsayNOSMOKING.Respectablydressedpotsmokersnolongerbothertoduckoutofpublicsighttopassaroundajoint.Theflagrantuseofcocaineisafesteringscandalinmiddle-and-upper-classlife.AndthentherearehelloEverybody!thejaywalkers. Thedangersofscofflawryvarywidely.49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.Thefarebeateronthesubwaypresentslessthreattolifethanthelandlordwhoignoresfiresafetystatutes.Themostimmediatelyandmeasurablydangerousscofflawryhoweveralsohappenstobethemostvisible.TheculpritistheAmericandriverwhoselawlessactivitiestodayadduptoacolossalpublicnuisance.50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.IllegalspeedingonopenhighwaysNewsurveysshowthatonsomeinterstatehighways83%ofalldriversarecurrentlyignoringthefederal55mphspeedlimit. 49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 17
Law-and-orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueintheU.S.history. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.Indeedtherearemomentstodaywhenitseemsasthoughthescofflawrepresentsthewaveothefuture.47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.AlreadyRiesmansaystheethicofU.S.societyisindangerofbecomingthis."you’reafoolifyouobeytherules." NothingcouldbemoreobviousthantheevidencesupportingRiesman.Scofflawsaboundinamazingvariety.Thegraffiti-proneturnpublicsurfacesintovisualrubbish.Bicyclistsoftenrideasthoughtwo-wheeledvehiclesareexemptfromalltrafficlaws.Litterbugsconverttheircommunitiesintotrashdumps.48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.TobaccoaddictsremainhopelesslyblindtosignsthatsayNOSMOKING.Respectablydressedpotsmokersnolongerbothertoduckoutofpublicsighttopassaroundajoint.Theflagrantuseofcocaineisafesteringscandalinmiddle-and-upper-classlife.AndthentherearehelloEverybody!thejaywalkers. Thedangersofscofflawryvarywidely.49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.Thefarebeateronthesubwaypresentslessthreattolifethanthelandlordwhoignoresfiresafetystatutes.Themostimmediatelyandmeasurablydangerousscofflawryhoweveralsohappenstobethemostvisible.TheculpritistheAmericandriverwhoselawlessactivitiestodayadduptoacolossalpublicnuisance.50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.IllegalspeedingonopenhighwaysNewsurveysshowthatonsomeinterstatehighways83%ofalldriversarecurrentlyignoringthefederal55mphspeedlimit. 47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.
Irememberonenightafewyearsagowhenmydaughterwasfranticwithworry.AftermyHarvardExtensionSchoolclassesIusuallyarrivedatthebusstationnearmyhomeby11p.m.butonthatnightIwasnowheretobefound.Mydaughterwasnervous.Itwasn’tsafeforasinglewomantowalkaloneonthestreetsatnightespeciallyoneasdefenselessasIam:IcanslayamuggerwithmysharpwitbutIamjusttooshorttodoanyrealphysicaldamage. Thatnightmydaughtercheckedthebusstationdrovearoundthestreetsandcontactedsomefriends.Butshecouldn’tfindme--untilshecalledmyastronomyprofessorwhotoldherthatIwasontopoftheScienceCenterusingthetelescopetogazeatthestars.UnawareofthetimeIhadgottenlostintheheavensandwasonlythinkingaboutthenewthingsIhadlearnedthatnightinclass. ThisstoryillustratesahabitIhavedevelopedovertheyears:Ilosetrackofthetimewhenitcomestolearning.41.Imayhavestartedlate;butIwillcontinuetolearnaslongasIamablebecausethereisnogreaterfeelinginmyopinionthantravelingtoafarawaycountryasIhaveandbeingabletoidentifybysightthepaintingofafamousartistthestatueofanobscuresculptorthecathedralofanancientarchitect.42.SoIwillcontinuetotakeclassesandtellmystory. Latelyitseemsthateveryoneisaskingme"Marywhatadvicedoyouhaveforotherstudents"SowhileIhaveyouallhereImgoingtoeasemyburdenofansweringyoueachindividually:43.SolistentomewhenItellyouthis:Knowledgeispower. MystudieswereinterruptedwhenIwasinthe7thgradebacksometimearoundWorldWarI.IlovedschoolbutIwasforcedtoleaveittocareformyfamily.Iwascon-signedtoworkinaRhodeIslandcottonmillwhereIlaboredformanyyears.Ieventuallymarriedandraised5children20grandchildrenand18great-grandchildren.ButallthewhileIfeltinferiortothosearoundme.IknewIwasassmartasacollegegraduate.IknewIwascapableofdoingajobwell—Ihadproveditbyrunningasuccessfulfamilybusinessfordecadesthatstillexists.ButIwantedmore.IwantedtofeelconfidentwhenIspokeandIWantedpeopletorespectmyopinions.Doesitsurpriseyoutodiscoverhowmuchyouhaveincommonwithan89yearoldwoman44. 45.Thatbeliefiswhathasmotivatedmeforthelast75yearstogetthisdegree.ItisalsothemissionoftheHarvardExtensionSchool.WithoutthesupportIreceivedfromthisschoolImightnothavegraduateduntilIwas100--aphrasethatmanyofyouhaveprobablyusedinjest. [A]IfthesayingistruethatwisdomcomeswithageyoumaysafelyassumethatIamoneofthewisestpeopleinthishallandpossiblyatthisuniversitytoday. [B]fknowthatmanyofyougraduatestodaywhetheryouwere’bornin1907or1967havefacedsimilarbarrierstocompletingyourstudiesandhavesometimesfeltinferioraroundthoseyouworkorsocializewithjustbecauseyoudidn’thaveadegree. [C]Ifyouhavetreatededucationasyourmaingoalandnotassmeanstoanend.thenyoutoohaveprobablybeenclaimedasamissingpersononceinyouracademiccareerwhetheryouwerelostinthestarsorthestacksofWidenerLibrary. [D]ButIamheretodaylikeyouare--toprovethatitcanbedone;thatthepowergainedbyunderstandingandappreciatingtheworldarounduscanbeobtainedbyanyoneregardlessofsocialstatuspersonalchallenges.orage. [E]Howelsedoyouexplainawomanwhobeganhighschoolatage71andwhoisgraduatingwithabachelorsdegreeat89 [F]Andyoutooknowthatthejourneywasworthitandthatthepowerofknowledgemakesmethemostformidable89-year-oldwomanatthebusstop. [G]Ihavefoundthattheworldisafinalexamthatyoucanneverbepreparedenoughfor. 45
SincethedaysofAristotleasearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientificenterprise.Insomewaysthisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton’slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework. 46Inphysicsoneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextremeandseeksatheoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itisbecominglessclearhoweverthatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplificationgiventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentailnonethelessunificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal. Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.47HereDarwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselectionperhapstheworld’slanguagesmusicsocialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.48Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms. Thatatleastisthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityin’language. ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomskywhosuggestedthathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguagewhichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly. 49ThesecondbyJoshuaGreenbergtakesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversalityidentifyingtraitsparticularlyinwordordersharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfrom~nitiveconstraints Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2000languages.50Chomsky’sgrammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweennarticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysissuggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals 49ThesecondbyJoshuaGreenbergtakesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversalityidentifyingtraitsparticularlyinwordordersharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfrom~nitiveconstraints
热门题库
更多
高考历史
国家统考科目
香港法概论
反间谍法
__学
合同法
证据学
民事诉讼法学
民法学
刑法学
消费者权益保护法
法理学
竞争法
国际公法
国际经济法
农村政策法规
湘公网安备 43130202000226号