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孔子所认为的最高道德准则是什么 ( )
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由鱼我所欲也的立意衍化而来的成语是意思是他和孔子提出的杀身成仁共同成为中华民族最高道德准则激励着历代
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Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Alltheotherfiveplanets
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.19
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelyfollowthefinalsentenceofthepassage
土地革命战争时期的统一战线是以反对封建压迫和国民党新军阀统治为主要目标的统一战线它的名称是
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. WhydoestheauthorsuggestthattheworkofBeethovenwashighlycreative
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. UnderitsCharterthefirststatedaimoftheU.N.was
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethat’representsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted.
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Willhumansalwaysbesuperiortomachines Thisstatementactuallyconsistsofaseriesofthreerelatedclaims:1machinesaretoolsofhumanminds;2humanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines;and3itisbecausemachinesarehuman’toolsthathumanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines.WhileIconcedethefirstclaimwhetherIagreewiththeothertwoclaimsdependspartlyonhowonedefines"superiority"andpartlyonhowwillingoneistohumbleoneselftotheunknownfuturescenarios. 41AfterallwouldanymachineevenexistunlessahumanbeinginventeditOfcoursenot.MoreoverIwouldbehard-pressedtothinkofanymachinethatcannotbedescribedasatool.Evenmachinesdesignedtoentertainoramuseus—forexampletoyrobotscarsandvideogamesandnoveltyitems—areinfacttoolswhichtheirinventorsandpromotersuseforengagingincommerceandthebusinessofentertainmentandamusement. 42AndtheclaimthatamachinecanbeanendinitselfwithoutpurposeorutilitarianfunctionforhumanswhatsoeverisdubiousatbestsinceIcannotconjureupevenasingleexampleofanysuchmachine. 43Asforthestatement’ssecondclaimincertainrespectsmachinesaresuperior.Wehavedevisedmachinesthatperformnumber-crunchingandotherrotecerebraltaskswithgreateraccuracyandspeedthanhumanmindsevercould.Howeverifonedefinessuperioritynotintermsofcompetenceinperformingrotetasksbutratherinotherwayshumanmindsaresuperior.Machineshavenocapacityforindependentthoughtformakingjudgmentsbasedonnormativeconsiderationsorfordevelopingemotionalresponsestointellectualproblems. 44Upuntilnowthenotionofhuman-mademachinesthatdeveloptheabilitytothinkontheirownandtodevelopso-called"emotionalintelligence"hasbeenpurefiction.Besideseveninfictionwehumansultimatelyprevailoversuchmachines—asinthecasesofFrankenstein’smonsterandHatthecomputerin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.Yetitseemspresumptuoustoassertwithconfidencethathumanswillalwaysmaintaintheirsuperiorstatusovertheirmachines.Inotherwordsmachineswillsoonexhibitthetraitstowhichwehumansattributeourownsuperiority. 45Andinsofarashumanshavetheuniquecapacityforindependentthoughtsubjectivejudgmentandemotionalresponseitalsoseemsfairtoclaimsuperiorityoverourmachines.Besidesshouldweeverbecomesocleveraspeciesastodevisemachinesthatcantrulythinkforthemselvesandlookoutfortheirownwell-beingthenquerywhetherthesemachinesofthefuturewouldbe"machines"anymore. [A]Recentadvancesinbiotechnologyparticularlyintheareaofhumangenomeresearchsuggestthatwithinthetwenty-firstcenturywe’llwitnessmachinesthatcanlearntothinkontheirowntorepairandnurturethemselvestoexperienceVisceralsensationsandsoforth. [B]Thestatementisclearlyaccurateinsofarasmachinesaretoolsofhumanminds. [C]Insumbecausewedevisemachinesinorderthattheymayserveusitisfairtocharacterizemachinesas"toolsofhumanminds." [D]It’shardlysurprisingthathuman-mademachinecandothemostworksthatbelongtohumanbefore. [E]Infactitisbecausewecandevisemachinesthataresuperiorintheserespectsthatwedevisethem--asourtools—tobeginwith. [F]Whenwedevelopanysortofmachinewealwayshavesomesortofendinmind—apurposeforthatmachine. 43
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhendidtheU.N.comeintoexistence
Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravellers.Theofficialcasefor"academicmobility"isnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamentalnecessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldanddebatedinthecorridorsofEuropebutitiscertainlynothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthemoststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurestphilosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideasltheirtransferenceacrossfrontierstheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsofpeople.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwithcolleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcreditedwithastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeenreassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereabouttomakethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewasnotquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. Inthetwentiethcenturyandparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewanderingscholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehasofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemostdistantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapidtransmissionofknowledge. Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemainfactorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Someofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefarmorecentresoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsandstudents. Inadditiononemustrecognisetheveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthescienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedanenormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined.Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouchwithsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries. Frequentlythesespecialisationslieinareaswhereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearchneededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itispreciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingofexpertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialistperiodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningindifferentcentresofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesandsymposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthebottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwiththeirmostsatisfactorystimulus. Butasthespecialisationshaveincreasedinnumberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowardsinterdisciplinarystudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperlyinvestigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldandbyrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasinglediscipline.Thistrendhasledtoagreatdealofacademiccontactbetweendisciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledgereflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternationalconferences. Developmentsininternationalcooperationareoftenitissuggestedtheresultof
Willhumansalwaysbesuperiortomachines Thisstatementactuallyconsistsofaseriesofthreerelatedclaims:1machinesaretoolsofhumanminds;2humanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines;and3itisbecausemachinesarehuman’toolsthathumanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines.WhileIconcedethefirstclaimwhetherIagreewiththeothertwoclaimsdependspartlyonhowonedefines"superiority"andpartlyonhowwillingoneistohumbleoneselftotheunknownfuturescenarios. 41AfterallwouldanymachineevenexistunlessahumanbeinginventeditOfcoursenot.MoreoverIwouldbehard-pressedtothinkofanymachinethatcannotbedescribedasatool.Evenmachinesdesignedtoentertainoramuseus—forexampletoyrobotscarsandvideogamesandnoveltyitems—areinfacttoolswhichtheirinventorsandpromotersuseforengagingincommerceandthebusinessofentertainmentandamusement. 42AndtheclaimthatamachinecanbeanendinitselfwithoutpurposeorutilitarianfunctionforhumanswhatsoeverisdubiousatbestsinceIcannotconjureupevenasingleexampleofanysuchmachine. 43Asforthestatement’ssecondclaimincertainrespectsmachinesaresuperior.Wehavedevisedmachinesthatperformnumber-crunchingandotherrotecerebraltaskswithgreateraccuracyandspeedthanhumanmindsevercould.Howeverifonedefinessuperioritynotintermsofcompetenceinperformingrotetasksbutratherinotherwayshumanmindsaresuperior.Machineshavenocapacityforindependentthoughtformakingjudgmentsbasedonnormativeconsiderationsorfordevelopingemotionalresponsestointellectualproblems. 44Upuntilnowthenotionofhuman-mademachinesthatdeveloptheabilitytothinkontheirownandtodevelopso-called"emotionalintelligence"hasbeenpurefiction.Besideseveninfictionwehumansultimatelyprevailoversuchmachines—asinthecasesofFrankenstein’smonsterandHatthecomputerin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.Yetitseemspresumptuoustoassertwithconfidencethathumanswillalwaysmaintaintheirsuperiorstatusovertheirmachines.Inotherwordsmachineswillsoonexhibitthetraitstowhichwehumansattributeourownsuperiority. 45Andinsofarashumanshavetheuniquecapacityforindependentthoughtsubjectivejudgmentandemotionalresponseitalsoseemsfairtoclaimsuperiorityoverourmachines.Besidesshouldweeverbecomesocleveraspeciesastodevisemachinesthatcantrulythinkforthemselvesandlookoutfortheirownwell-beingthenquerywhetherthesemachinesofthefuturewouldbe"machines"anymore. [A]Recentadvancesinbiotechnologyparticularlyintheareaofhumangenomeresearchsuggestthatwithinthetwenty-firstcenturywe’llwitnessmachinesthatcanlearntothinkontheirowntorepairandnurturethemselvestoexperienceVisceralsensationsandsoforth. [B]Thestatementisclearlyaccurateinsofarasmachinesaretoolsofhumanminds. [C]Insumbecausewedevisemachinesinorderthattheymayserveusitisfairtocharacterizemachinesas"toolsofhumanminds." [D]It’shardlysurprisingthathuman-mademachinecandothemostworksthatbelongtohumanbefore. [E]Infactitisbecausewecandevisemachinesthataresuperiorintheserespectsthatwedevisethem--asourtools—tobeginwith. [F]Whenwedevelopanysortofmachinewealwayshavesomesortofendinmind—apurposeforthatmachine. 45
__同志南方谈话突出解决了我们思想认识中的
实现无产阶级领导权的根本保证是
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. LargemembercountrieslikeChinaandtheU.S.
Willhumansalwaysbesuperiortomachines Thisstatementactuallyconsistsofaseriesofthreerelatedclaims:1machinesaretoolsofhumanminds;2humanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines;and3itisbecausemachinesarehuman’toolsthathumanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines.WhileIconcedethefirstclaimwhetherIagreewiththeothertwoclaimsdependspartlyonhowonedefines"superiority"andpartlyonhowwillingoneistohumbleoneselftotheunknownfuturescenarios. 41AfterallwouldanymachineevenexistunlessahumanbeinginventeditOfcoursenot.MoreoverIwouldbehard-pressedtothinkofanymachinethatcannotbedescribedasatool.Evenmachinesdesignedtoentertainoramuseus—forexampletoyrobotscarsandvideogamesandnoveltyitems—areinfacttoolswhichtheirinventorsandpromotersuseforengagingincommerceandthebusinessofentertainmentandamusement. 42AndtheclaimthatamachinecanbeanendinitselfwithoutpurposeorutilitarianfunctionforhumanswhatsoeverisdubiousatbestsinceIcannotconjureupevenasingleexampleofanysuchmachine. 43Asforthestatement’ssecondclaimincertainrespectsmachinesaresuperior.Wehavedevisedmachinesthatperformnumber-crunchingandotherrotecerebraltaskswithgreateraccuracyandspeedthanhumanmindsevercould.Howeverifonedefinessuperioritynotintermsofcompetenceinperformingrotetasksbutratherinotherwayshumanmindsaresuperior.Machineshavenocapacityforindependentthoughtformakingjudgmentsbasedonnormativeconsiderationsorfordevelopingemotionalresponsestointellectualproblems. 44Upuntilnowthenotionofhuman-mademachinesthatdeveloptheabilitytothinkontheirownandtodevelopso-called"emotionalintelligence"hasbeenpurefiction.Besideseveninfictionwehumansultimatelyprevailoversuchmachines—asinthecasesofFrankenstein’smonsterandHatthecomputerin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.Yetitseemspresumptuoustoassertwithconfidencethathumanswillalwaysmaintaintheirsuperiorstatusovertheirmachines.Inotherwordsmachineswillsoonexhibitthetraitstowhichwehumansattributeourownsuperiority. 45Andinsofarashumanshavetheuniquecapacityforindependentthoughtsubjectivejudgmentandemotionalresponseitalsoseemsfairtoclaimsuperiorityoverourmachines.Besidesshouldweeverbecomesocleveraspeciesastodevisemachinesthatcantrulythinkforthemselvesandlookoutfortheirownwell-beingthenquerywhetherthesemachinesofthefuturewouldbe"machines"anymore. [A]Recentadvancesinbiotechnologyparticularlyintheareaofhumangenomeresearchsuggestthatwithinthetwenty-firstcenturywe’llwitnessmachinesthatcanlearntothinkontheirowntorepairandnurturethemselvestoexperienceVisceralsensationsandsoforth. [B]Thestatementisclearlyaccurateinsofarasmachinesaretoolsofhumanminds. [C]Insumbecausewedevisemachinesinorderthattheymayserveusitisfairtocharacterizemachinesas"toolsofhumanminds." [D]It’shardlysurprisingthathuman-mademachinecandothemostworksthatbelongtohumanbefore. [E]Infactitisbecausewecandevisemachinesthataresuperiorintheserespectsthatwedevisethem--asourtools—tobeginwith. [F]Whenwedevelopanysortofmachinewealwayshavesomesortofendinmind—apurposeforthatmachine. 41
Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravellers.Theofficialcasefor"academicmobility"isnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamentalnecessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldanddebatedinthecorridorsofEuropebutitiscertainlynothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthemoststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurestphilosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideasltheirtransferenceacrossfrontierstheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsofpeople.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwithcolleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcreditedwithastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeenreassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereabouttomakethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewasnotquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. Inthetwentiethcenturyandparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewanderingscholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehasofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemostdistantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapidtransmissionofknowledge. Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemainfactorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Someofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefarmorecentresoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsandstudents. Inadditiononemustrecognisetheveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthescienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedanenormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined.Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouchwithsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries. Frequentlythesespecialisationslieinareaswhereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearchneededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itispreciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingofexpertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialistperiodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningindifferentcentresofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesandsymposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthebottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwiththeirmostsatisfactorystimulus. Butasthespecialisationshaveincreasedinnumberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowardsinterdisciplinarystudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperlyinvestigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldandbyrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasinglediscipline.Thistrendhasledtoagreatdealofacademiccontactbetweendisciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledgereflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternationalconferences. Thewriterclaimsthatitisimportantforspecialiststobeabletotravelbecause
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethat’representsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Whichofthefollowingistrueaboutthemotionofthemoon
Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravellers.Theofficialcasefor"academicmobility"isnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamentalnecessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldanddebatedinthecorridorsofEuropebutitiscertainlynothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthemoststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurestphilosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideasltheirtransferenceacrossfrontierstheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsofpeople.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwithcolleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcreditedwithastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeenreassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereabouttomakethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewasnotquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. Inthetwentiethcenturyandparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewanderingscholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehasofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemostdistantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapidtransmissionofknowledge. Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemainfactorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Someofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefarmorecentresoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsandstudents. Inadditiononemustrecognisetheveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthescienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedanenormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined.Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouchwithsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries. Frequentlythesespecialisationslieinareaswhereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearchneededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itispreciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingofexpertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialistperiodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningindifferentcentresofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesandsymposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthebottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwiththeirmostsatisfactorystimulus. Butasthespecialisationshaveincreasedinnumberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowardsinterdisciplinarystudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperlyinvestigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldandbyrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasinglediscipline.Thistrendhasledtoagreatdealofacademiccontactbetweendisciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledgereflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternationalconferences. Accordingtothepassagescholarsandstudentsaregreattravellersbecause
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