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TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.TheprimarygoalofTFAis
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.16
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.8
Everycultureattemptstocreateauniverseofdiscourseforitsmembersawayinwhichpeoplecaninterprettheirexperienceandconveyittooneanother.Withoutacommonsystemofcodifyingsensationslifewouldbeabsurdandalleffortstosharemeaningsdoomedtofailure.Thisuniverseofdiscourse—oneofthemostpreciousofallculturallegacies—istransmittedtoeachgenerationinpartconsciouslyandinpartunconsciously.Parentsandteachersgiveexplicitinstructioninitbypraisingorcriticizingcertainwaysofdressingofthinkingofgesturingofrespondingtotheactsofothers.Butthemostsignificantaspectsofanyculturalcodemaybeconveyedimplicitlynotbyruleorlessonbutthroughmodelingbehavior.Achildissurroundedbyotherswhothroughthemereconsistencyoftheiractionsasmalesandfemalesmothersandfatherssalesclerksandpolicemendisplaywhatisappropriatebehavior.Thusthegrammarofanycultureissentandreceivedlargelyunconsciouslymakingone’sownculturalassumptionsandbiasesdifficulttorecognize.Theyseemsoobviouslyrightthattheyrequirenoexplanation.InTheOpenandClosedMindMiltonRokeachposestheproblemofculturalunderstandinginitssimplestformbutonethatcanreadilydemonstratethecomplicationofcommunicationbetweencultures.ItiscalledtheDennyDoodlebugProblem.Readersaregivenalltherulesthatgovernthisculture:DennyisananimalthatalwaysfacesNorthandcanmoveonlybyjumping;hecanjumplargedistancesorsmalldistancesbutcanchangedirectiononlyafterjumpingfourtimesinanydirection;hecanjumpNorthSouthEastorWestbutnotdiagonally.Uponconcludingajumphismasterplacessomefoodthreefeetdirectlywestofhim.SurveyingthesituationDennyconcludeshemustjumpfourtimestoreachthefood.Nomoreorless.Andheisright.Allthereaderhastodoistoexplainthecircumstancesthatmakehisconclusioncorrect.Thelargemajorityofpeoplewhoattemptthisproblemfailtosolveitdespitethefactthattheyaregivenalltherulesthatcontrolbehaviorinthisculture.IfthereisdifficultyingettinginsidethesimplisticworldofDennyDoodlebug—wheretheculturalcodehasalreadybeenbrokenandhandedtous—imaginethecomplexityofcomprehendingbehaviorinsocietieswhosecodeshavenotyetbeendecipheredandwhereeventhosewhoobeythesecodesareonlyvaguelyawareandcanrarelydescribetheunderlyingsourcesoftheirownactions.ByreadingTheOpenandClosedMindwemay
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.2
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.14
In1957adoctorinSingaporenoticedthathospitalsweretreatinganunusualnumberofinfluenza-likecases.Influenzaissometimescalledfluorabadcold.Hetooksamplesfromthethroatsofpatientsinhishospitalandwasabletofindthevirusofthisinfluenza.Therearethreemaintypesoftheinfluenzavirus.ThemostimportantofthesearetypesAandBeachofthemhavingseveralsub-groups.WiththeinstrumentsatthehospitalthedoctorrecognizedthattheoutbreakwasduetoavirusgroupAbuthedidnotknowthesub-group.HereportedtheoutbreaktotheWorldHealthOrganizationinGeneva.W.H.O.publishedtheimportantnewsalongsidereportsofasimilaroutbreakinHongKongwhereabout15%—20%ofthepopulationhadbecomeill.AssoonastheLondondoctorsreceivedthepackageofthroatsamplestheybeganthestandardtests.Theyfoundthatbyreproducingitselfatveryhighspeedthevirushadmultipliedmorethanamilliontimeswithintwodays.Continuingtheircarefulteststhedoctorscheckedtheeffectofdrugsusedagainstalltheknownsub-groupsofvirustypeA.Noneofthemgaveanyprotection.Thisthenwassomethingnew:anewinfluenzavirusagainstwhichthepeopleoftheworldhadnoreadyhelpwhatsoever.Havingisolatedthevirustheywereworkingwiththetwodoctorsnowdroppeditintothenosesofsomespeciallyselectedanimalswhichcontactinfluenzainthesamewayashumanbeingsdo.Inashorttimetheusualsignsofthediseaseappeared.Theseexperimentsrevealedthatthenewvirusspreadeasilybutthatitwasnotakiller.ScientistslikethegeneralpubliccalleditsimplyAsianflu.ThefirstdiscoveryofthevirushoweverwasmadeinChinabeforethediseasehadappearedinothercountries.VariousreportsshowedthattheinfluenzaoutbreakstartedinChinaprobablyinFebruaryof1957.BythemiddleofMarchithadspreadalloverChina.TheviruswasfoundbyChinesedoctorsearlyinMarch.ButChinawasnotamemberoftheWorldHealthOrganizationandthereforedidnotreportoutbreaksofdiseasetoit.NotuntiltwomonthslaterwhentravelerscarriedthevirusintoHongKongfromwhereitspreadtoSingaporedidthenewsoftheoutbreakreachtherestoftheworld.Bythistimeitwasstartedonitswayaroundtheworld.ThereafterWHO’sWeeklyReportsdescribedthesteadyspreadofthisvirusoutbreakwhichwithinfourmonthssweptthrougheverycontinent.TheAsianfluvirus
OurvisittotheexcavationofaRomanfortonahillnearCoventrywasofmorethanarchaeologicalinterest.Theyear’sdighadbeenafruitfuloneandhadassembledevidenceofapermanentmilitarycampmuchlargerthanhadatfirstbeenconjectured.Weweregreetedonthesitebyagroupofexcavatorssomeofthemfillinginatrenchthathadyieldedanalmostcompletepotthedaybeforeothersenjoyingthelast-dayluxuryofacigaretteinthesunbutallhappytoexplainandtalkabouttheirwork.Ifwehadnotalreadyknownitnothingwouldhavesuggestedthatthiswasapartyofprisonersfromthenearbyprison.Thisisnotthefirsttimethatprisonlaborhasbeenusedinworkofthiskindbutheretheexperimentnowtwoyearsoldhasprovedoutstandinglysatisfactory.Fromthearchaeologists’pointofviewprisonersprovideasteadyforceofdisciplinedlaborthroughouttheentireseasonmentowhomitisaseriousday’sworkandnottherathercarefreeholidayjobthatittendstobefortheamateurarchaeologist.Newcomersarecomparativelyfewandcansoonbeinitiatedbythosealreadytrainedinthework.Prisonersmayalsobemoreaccustomedtoheavyworklikeshovelingandcartingsoilthanthemajorityofstudents.WhenCoventry’sKeeperofArchaeologywenttotheprisontoappealforhelphewasreceivedcautiouslybythemenbutwhentheimportanceoftheworkwasfullyunderstoodfarmorevolunteerswereforthcomingthancouldactuallybeemployed.Whentheygottoworkonthesiteandtheireffortsproducedpotteryandbuildingfoundationsinwhatuntillastyearhadbeenanordinaryfieldtheirenthusiasmgrewtilltheywouldsometimesworkthroughtheirlunchhourandteabreakandevencarryonintherainratherthansititoutinthehut.Thiswasundoubtedlybecausetheworkwasnotonlystrenuousbutabsorbingandcalledforconsiderableintelligence.Themenworkedalwaysunderprofessionalsupervisionbutastheseasonwentontheyneededlessguidanceandknewwhenanexpertshouldbesummoned.Disciplinaryproblemswerenegligible:themenwerecarefullyselectedfortheirgoodconductandworkingonapartylikethiswastoovaluableaprivilegetobethrownaway.TheKeeperofArchaeologysaidthatthiswasbyfarthemostsatisfactoryformoflaborthathehadeverhadandthatithadproducedresultsinquantityandqualitythatcouldnothavebeenachievedbyanyothermeans.Whenprisonerswereselectedforthework
Foryearspediatriciansdidn’tworrymuchabouttreatinghypertensionintheirpatients.Afterallkidsgrowsofastit’shardkeepingupwiththeirshoessizeletalonetheirbloodpressure.Surehypertensioninadultsplacesthematgreaterriskofheartattackandstroke.Butnobodylikestheideaofstartingyoungstersonblood-pressuremedicinetheycouldwinduptakingtherestoftheirlives.Whoknowswhatpreviouslyunheard-ofsideeffectscouldcropupafterfiveorsixdecadesofdailyuse Therationalehasbeen:kidsgrowoutofsomanythings;maybethey’llgrowoutofthistoo. 41．Nowthoughcomeswordthathighbloodpressurecanbedestructiveeveninchildhood. 42．Whoismostatrisk Boysaremorethangirlsespeciallyboyswhoareoverweight.Theirheartworkssohardtoforcebloodthroughextralayersoffatthatitswallsgrowdenser.Thenafterdecadesofstrainingitgrowstoobigtopumpbloodverywell. 43．Howcanyoutellifyoursarelikethe670000Americanchildrenages10to18withhighbloodpressure It’snotthesortofthingyoucancatchbyputtingyourchild’sarminacuffatthefreemonitoringstationinyourlocalgrocery.Youshouldhaveatestdonebyadoctorwhowillconsultspecialtablesthatindicatethenormalrangeofbloodpressureforaparticularchild’sageheightandsex. 44．Abouthalfthecasesofhypertensionstemdirectlyfromkidsbeingoverweight. 45．Howcanyoudo Youcankeepyourchildrenfromjoiningtheirranksbyclearingthejunkfoodfromyourpantryandhookingyoukids—theearlierthebetter—onhealthyattractivesnakeslikefruitstryfreezingsomegrapes/orcarrotstickswithsalsa.Notonlywilltheyloweryourchildren’sbloodpressure:Thesefoodswillalsoboosttheirimmunesystemandunclogtheirplumbing. [A]Andtheproblemislikelytogrow.Overthepast30yearstheproportionofchildrenintheU.S.whoareoverweighthasdoubledfrom5%to11%or4.7millionkids. [B]AccordingtoarecentreportinthejournalCirculation19of30childrenwithhighbloodpressuredevelopedadangerousthickeningoftheheartmusclethatinadultsatleasthasbeenlinkedtoheartfailure.“Nooneknowsifthispatternholdstrueforyoungerpatientsaswell”saysDr.StephenDanielsapediatriccardiologistwholedthestudyatChildren’sHospitalMedicalCenterinCincinnatiOhio.“Butit’sworrisome.” [C]Feedyourchildrennutritiousfoodsthreetimesadaytokeephisimmunesystemhealthy.Makesurethemealsincludeallthefoodgroupstoensuretheyaregettingplentyofvitamins. [D]Fortunatelytheabnormalthickeningcanbespottedbyultrasound.Andinmostcasegettingthatbloodpressureundercontrol—throughweightlossandexerciseorasalastresortdrugtreatment—allowstheoverworkedmuscletoshrinktonormalsize. [E]Ifthedoctorfindsanabnormalresulthewillrepeatthetestoveraperiodofmonthstomakesurethereadingisn’tafake.He’llalsocheckwhetherotherconditionslikekidneydiseasecouldbethesourceofthetroublebecausehypertensionishardtobedetected.TheNationalHeartLungandBloodInstituterecommendsannualblood-pressurechecksforeverychildoverage3. [F]Highbloodpressureisn’tjustanissueforadults;keepingkidsbloodpressurelevelsinahealthyrangeisalsoimportant.InanewstudyreportedinHypertensionresearchersfoundthatincreasedexercisedurationamongkidsleadstolowerbloodpressurelevelshoweverthesamecannotbesaidforincreasedintensity. [G]MeanwhilemakesureyourkidsspendmoretimeontheplaygroundthanwiththeirPlayStation.Eveniftheydon’tshedapoundvigorousexercisewillhelpkeeptheirbloodvesselsniceandwideloweringtheirbloodpressure.Andofcoursethey’llbemorelikelytoeatlightandexerciseifyousetagoodexample. 44
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 48
Americansuffersfromanoverdoseofwork.1whotheyareorwhattheydotheyspend2timeatworkthanatanytimesinceWorldWarⅡ.In1950theUShadfewerworkinghoursthananyother3country.Todayit4everycountrybutJapanwhereindustrialemployeeslog2155hoursayearcompared51951intheUSand16036Westemployees.Between1969and1989employedAmerican7anaverageof138hourstotheiryearlyworkschedules.Thework-week8atabout40hoursbutpeopleareworkingmoreweekseachyear.9paidtimeoff—holidaysvacationssickleave—1015percentinthe1990s. AsCorporationshave11stiffercompetitionandslowergrowthinproductivitytheywould12employeestoworklonger.Cost-cuttinglayoffsinthe1980s13theprofessionalandmanagerialranksleavingfewerpeopletogetthejobdone.Inlower-paidoccupations14wageshavebeenreducedworkershaveaddedhours15overtimeorextrajobsto16theirlivingstandard.TheGovernmentestimatesthatmorethansevenmillionpeopleholdasecondjob. Forthefirsttimelarge17ofpeoplesaytheywanttocut18onworkinghoursevenifitmeansearninglessmoney.Butmostemployersare19toletthemdoso.Thegovernmentwhichhassteppedbackfromitstraditional20asaregulatorofworktimeshouldtakestepstomakeshorterhourspossible. 18
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.4
In1957adoctorinSingaporenoticedthathospitalsweretreatinganunusualnumberofinfluenza-likecases.Influenzaissometimescalledfluorabadcold.Hetooksamplesfromthethroatsofpatientsinhishospitalandwasabletofindthevirusofthisinfluenza.Therearethreemaintypesoftheinfluenzavirus.ThemostimportantofthesearetypesAandBeachofthemhavingseveralsub-groups.WiththeinstrumentsatthehospitalthedoctorrecognizedthattheoutbreakwasduetoavirusgroupAbuthedidnotknowthesub-group.HereportedtheoutbreaktotheWorldHealthOrganizationinGeneva.W.H.O.publishedtheimportantnewsalongsidereportsofasimilaroutbreakinHongKongwhereabout15%—20%ofthepopulationhadbecomeill.AssoonastheLondondoctorsreceivedthepackageofthroatsamplestheybeganthestandardtests.Theyfoundthatbyreproducingitselfatveryhighspeedthevirushadmultipliedmorethanamilliontimeswithintwodays.Continuingtheircarefulteststhedoctorscheckedtheeffectofdrugsusedagainstalltheknownsub-groupsofvirustypeA.Noneofthemgaveanyprotection.Thisthenwassomethingnew:anewinfluenzavirusagainstwhichthepeopleoftheworldhadnoreadyhelpwhatsoever.Havingisolatedthevirustheywereworkingwiththetwodoctorsnowdroppeditintothenosesofsomespeciallyselectedanimalswhichcontactinfluenzainthesamewayashumanbeingsdo.Inashorttimetheusualsignsofthediseaseappeared.Theseexperimentsrevealedthatthenewvirusspreadeasilybutthatitwasnotakiller.ScientistslikethegeneralpubliccalleditsimplyAsianflu.ThefirstdiscoveryofthevirushoweverwasmadeinChinabeforethediseasehadappearedinothercountries.VariousreportsshowedthattheinfluenzaoutbreakstartedinChinaprobablyinFebruaryof1957.BythemiddleofMarchithadspreadalloverChina.TheviruswasfoundbyChinesedoctorsearlyinMarch.ButChinawasnotamemberoftheWorldHealthOrganizationandthereforedidnotreportoutbreaksofdiseasetoit.NotuntiltwomonthslaterwhentravelerscarriedthevirusintoHongKongfromwhereitspreadtoSingaporedidthenewsoftheoutbreakreachtherestoftheworld.Bythistimeitwasstartedonitswayaroundtheworld.ThereafterWHO’sWeeklyReportsdescribedthesteadyspreadofthisvirusoutbreakwhichwithinfourmonthssweptthrougheverycontinent.W.H.Oreportedtheinfluenzabecause
Americansuffersfromanoverdoseofwork.1whotheyareorwhattheydotheyspend2timeatworkthanatanytimesinceWorldWarⅡ.In1950theUShadfewerworkinghoursthananyother3country.Todayit4everycountrybutJapanwhereindustrialemployeeslog2155hoursayearcompared51951intheUSand16036Westemployees.Between1969and1989employedAmerican7anaverageof138hourstotheiryearlyworkschedules.Thework-week8atabout40hoursbutpeopleareworkingmoreweekseachyear.9paidtimeoff—holidaysvacationssickleave—1015percentinthe1990s. AsCorporationshave11stiffercompetitionandslowergrowthinproductivitytheywould12employeestoworklonger.Cost-cuttinglayoffsinthe1980s13theprofessionalandmanagerialranksleavingfewerpeopletogetthejobdone.Inlower-paidoccupations14wageshavebeenreducedworkershaveaddedhours15overtimeorextrajobsto16theirlivingstandard.TheGovernmentestimatesthatmorethansevenmillionpeopleholdasecondjob. Forthefirsttimelarge17ofpeoplesaytheywanttocut18onworkinghoursevenifitmeansearninglessmoney.Butmostemployersare19toletthemdoso.Thegovernmentwhichhassteppedbackfromitstraditional20asaregulatorofworktimeshouldtakestepstomakeshorterhourspossible. 20
Everycultureattemptstocreateauniverseofdiscourseforitsmembersawayinwhichpeoplecaninterprettheirexperienceandconveyittooneanother.Withoutacommonsystemofcodifyingsensationslifewouldbeabsurdandalleffortstosharemeaningsdoomedtofailure.Thisuniverseofdiscourse—oneofthemostpreciousofallculturallegacies—istransmittedtoeachgenerationinpartconsciouslyandinpartunconsciously.Parentsandteachersgiveexplicitinstructioninitbypraisingorcriticizingcertainwaysofdressingofthinkingofgesturingofrespondingtotheactsofothers.Butthemostsignificantaspectsofanyculturalcodemaybeconveyedimplicitlynotbyruleorlessonbutthroughmodelingbehavior.Achildissurroundedbyotherswhothroughthemereconsistencyoftheiractionsasmalesandfemalesmothersandfatherssalesclerksandpolicemendisplaywhatisappropriatebehavior.Thusthegrammarofanycultureissentandreceivedlargelyunconsciouslymakingone’sownculturalassumptionsandbiasesdifficulttorecognize.Theyseemsoobviouslyrightthattheyrequirenoexplanation.InTheOpenandClosedMindMiltonRokeachposestheproblemofculturalunderstandinginitssimplestformbutonethatcanreadilydemonstratethecomplicationofcommunicationbetweencultures.ItiscalledtheDennyDoodlebugProblem.Readersaregivenalltherulesthatgovernthisculture:DennyisananimalthatalwaysfacesNorthandcanmoveonlybyjumping;hecanjumplargedistancesorsmalldistancesbutcanchangedirectiononlyafterjumpingfourtimesinanydirection;hecanjumpNorthSouthEastorWestbutnotdiagonally.Uponconcludingajumphismasterplacessomefoodthreefeetdirectlywestofhim.SurveyingthesituationDennyconcludeshemustjumpfourtimestoreachthefood.Nomoreorless.Andheisright.Allthereaderhastodoistoexplainthecircumstancesthatmakehisconclusioncorrect.Thelargemajorityofpeoplewhoattemptthisproblemfailtosolveitdespitethefactthattheyaregivenalltherulesthatcontrolbehaviorinthisculture.IfthereisdifficultyingettinginsidethesimplisticworldofDennyDoodlebug—wheretheculturalcodehasalreadybeenbrokenandhandedtous—imaginethecomplexityofcomprehendingbehaviorinsocietieswhosecodeshavenotyetbeendecipheredandwhereeventhosewhoobeythesecodesareonlyvaguelyawareandcanrarelydescribetheunderlyingsourcesoftheirownactions.Weacquirethegreaterpartofourculturalcodesby
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.Theauthorismostlikely
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 46
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.12
Foryearspediatriciansdidn’tworrymuchabouttreatinghypertensionintheirpatients.Afterallkidsgrowsofastit’shardkeepingupwiththeirshoessizeletalonetheirbloodpressure.Surehypertensioninadultsplacesthematgreaterriskofheartattackandstroke.Butnobodylikestheideaofstartingyoungstersonblood-pressuremedicinetheycouldwinduptakingtherestoftheirlives.Whoknowswhatpreviouslyunheard-ofsideeffectscouldcropupafterfiveorsixdecadesofdailyuse Therationalehasbeen:kidsgrowoutofsomanythings;maybethey’llgrowoutofthistoo. 41．Nowthoughcomeswordthathighbloodpressurecanbedestructiveeveninchildhood. 42．Whoismostatrisk Boysaremorethangirlsespeciallyboyswhoareoverweight.Theirheartworkssohardtoforcebloodthroughextralayersoffatthatitswallsgrowdenser.Thenafterdecadesofstrainingitgrowstoobigtopumpbloodverywell. 43．Howcanyoutellifyoursarelikethe670000Americanchildrenages10to18withhighbloodpressure It’snotthesortofthingyoucancatchbyputtingyourchild’sarminacuffatthefreemonitoringstationinyourlocalgrocery.Youshouldhaveatestdonebyadoctorwhowillconsultspecialtablesthatindicatethenormalrangeofbloodpressureforaparticularchild’sageheightandsex. 44．Abouthalfthecasesofhypertensionstemdirectlyfromkidsbeingoverweight. 45．Howcanyoudo Youcankeepyourchildrenfromjoiningtheirranksbyclearingthejunkfoodfromyourpantryandhookingyoukids—theearlierthebetter—onhealthyattractivesnakeslikefruitstryfreezingsomegrapes/orcarrotstickswithsalsa.Notonlywilltheyloweryourchildren’sbloodpressure:Thesefoodswillalsoboosttheirimmunesystemandunclogtheirplumbing. [A]Andtheproblemislikelytogrow.Overthepast30yearstheproportionofchildrenintheU.S.whoareoverweighthasdoubledfrom5%to11%or4.7millionkids. [B]AccordingtoarecentreportinthejournalCirculation19of30childrenwithhighbloodpressuredevelopedadangerousthickeningoftheheartmusclethatinadultsatleasthasbeenlinkedtoheartfailure.“Nooneknowsifthispatternholdstrueforyoungerpatientsaswell”saysDr.StephenDanielsapediatriccardiologistwholedthestudyatChildren’sHospitalMedicalCenterinCincinnatiOhio.“Butit’sworrisome.” [C]Feedyourchildrennutritiousfoodsthreetimesadaytokeephisimmunesystemhealthy.Makesurethemealsincludeallthefoodgroupstoensuretheyaregettingplentyofvitamins. [D]Fortunatelytheabnormalthickeningcanbespottedbyultrasound.Andinmostcasegettingthatbloodpressureundercontrol—throughweightlossandexerciseorasalastresortdrugtreatment—allowstheoverworkedmuscletoshrinktonormalsize. [E]Ifthedoctorfindsanabnormalresulthewillrepeatthetestoveraperiodofmonthstomakesurethereadingisn’tafake.He’llalsocheckwhetherotherconditionslikekidneydiseasecouldbethesourceofthetroublebecausehypertensionishardtobedetected.TheNationalHeartLungandBloodInstituterecommendsannualblood-pressurechecksforeverychildoverage3. [F]Highbloodpressureisn’tjustanissueforadults;keepingkidsbloodpressurelevelsinahealthyrangeisalsoimportant.InanewstudyreportedinHypertensionresearchersfoundthatincreasedexercisedurationamongkidsleadstolowerbloodpressurelevelshoweverthesamecannotbesaidforincreasedintensity. [G]MeanwhilemakesureyourkidsspendmoretimeontheplaygroundthanwiththeirPlayStation.Eveniftheydon’tshedapoundvigorousexercisewillhelpkeeptheirbloodvesselsniceandwideloweringtheirbloodpressure.Andofcoursethey’llbemorelikelytoeatlightandexerciseifyousetagoodexample. 42
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.20
OurvisittotheexcavationofaRomanfortonahillnearCoventrywasofmorethanarchaeologicalinterest.Theyear’sdighadbeenafruitfuloneandhadassembledevidenceofapermanentmilitarycampmuchlargerthanhadatfirstbeenconjectured.Weweregreetedonthesitebyagroupofexcavatorssomeofthemfillinginatrenchthathadyieldedanalmostcompletepotthedaybeforeothersenjoyingthelast-dayluxuryofacigaretteinthesunbutallhappytoexplainandtalkabouttheirwork.Ifwehadnotalreadyknownitnothingwouldhavesuggestedthatthiswasapartyofprisonersfromthenearbyprison.Thisisnotthefirsttimethatprisonlaborhasbeenusedinworkofthiskindbutheretheexperimentnowtwoyearsoldhasprovedoutstandinglysatisfactory.Fromthearchaeologists’pointofviewprisonersprovideasteadyforceofdisciplinedlaborthroughouttheentireseasonmentowhomitisaseriousday’sworkandnottherathercarefreeholidayjobthatittendstobefortheamateurarchaeologist.Newcomersarecomparativelyfewandcansoonbeinitiatedbythosealreadytrainedinthework.Prisonersmayalsobemoreaccustomedtoheavyworklikeshovelingandcartingsoilthanthemajorityofstudents.WhenCoventry’sKeeperofArchaeologywenttotheprisontoappealforhelphewasreceivedcautiouslybythemenbutwhentheimportanceoftheworkwasfullyunderstoodfarmorevolunteerswereforthcomingthancouldactuallybeemployed.Whentheygottoworkonthesiteandtheireffortsproducedpotteryandbuildingfoundationsinwhatuntillastyearhadbeenanordinaryfieldtheirenthusiasmgrewtilltheywouldsometimesworkthroughtheirlunchhourandteabreakandevencarryonintherainratherthansititoutinthehut.Thiswasundoubtedlybecausetheworkwasnotonlystrenuousbutabsorbingandcalledforconsiderableintelligence.Themenworkedalwaysunderprofessionalsupervisionbutastheseasonwentontheyneededlessguidanceandknewwhenanexpertshouldbesummoned.Disciplinaryproblemswerenegligible:themenwerecarefullyselectedfortheirgoodconductandworkingonapartylikethiswastoovaluableaprivilegetobethrownaway.TheKeeperofArchaeologysaidthatthiswasbyfarthemostsatisfactoryformoflaborthathehadeverhadandthatithadproducedresultsinquantityandqualitythatcouldnothavebeenachievedbyanyothermeans.Itcanbeassumedthatarchaeologists
Everycultureattemptstocreateauniverseofdiscourseforitsmembersawayinwhichpeoplecaninterprettheirexperienceandconveyittooneanother.Withoutacommonsystemofcodifyingsensationslifewouldbeabsurdandalleffortstosharemeaningsdoomedtofailure.Thisuniverseofdiscourse—oneofthemostpreciousofallculturallegacies—istransmittedtoeachgenerationinpartconsciouslyandinpartunconsciously.Parentsandteachersgiveexplicitinstructioninitbypraisingorcriticizingcertainwaysofdressingofthinkingofgesturingofrespondingtotheactsofothers.Butthemostsignificantaspectsofanyculturalcodemaybeconveyedimplicitlynotbyruleorlessonbutthroughmodelingbehavior.Achildissurroundedbyotherswhothroughthemereconsistencyoftheiractionsasmalesandfemalesmothersandfatherssalesclerksandpolicemendisplaywhatisappropriatebehavior.Thusthegrammarofanycultureissentandreceivedlargelyunconsciouslymakingone’sownculturalassumptionsandbiasesdifficulttorecognize.Theyseemsoobviouslyrightthattheyrequirenoexplanation.InTheOpenandClosedMindMiltonRokeachposestheproblemofculturalunderstandinginitssimplestformbutonethatcanreadilydemonstratethecomplicationofcommunicationbetweencultures.ItiscalledtheDennyDoodlebugProblem.Readersaregivenalltherulesthatgovernthisculture:DennyisananimalthatalwaysfacesNorthandcanmoveonlybyjumping;hecanjumplargedistancesorsmalldistancesbutcanchangedirectiononlyafterjumpingfourtimesinanydirection;hecanjumpNorthSouthEastorWestbutnotdiagonally.Uponconcludingajumphismasterplacessomefoodthreefeetdirectlywestofhim.SurveyingthesituationDennyconcludeshemustjumpfourtimestoreachthefood.Nomoreorless.Andheisright.Allthereaderhastodoistoexplainthecircumstancesthatmakehisconclusioncorrect.Thelargemajorityofpeoplewhoattemptthisproblemfailtosolveitdespitethefactthattheyaregivenalltherulesthatcontrolbehaviorinthisculture.IfthereisdifficultyingettinginsidethesimplisticworldofDennyDoodlebug—wheretheculturalcodehasalreadybeenbrokenandhandedtous—imaginethecomplexityofcomprehendingbehaviorinsocietieswhosecodeshavenotyetbeendecipheredandwhereeventhosewhoobeythesecodesareonlyvaguelyawareandcanrarelydescribetheunderlyingsourcesoftheirownactions.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethat
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.WhatdoestheauthorthinkoftheTeachFirstprogrammeinEngland
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.6
Americansuffersfromanoverdoseofwork.1whotheyareorwhattheydotheyspend2timeatworkthanatanytimesinceWorldWarⅡ.In1950theUShadfewerworkinghoursthananyother3country.Todayit4everycountrybutJapanwhereindustrialemployeeslog2155hoursayearcompared51951intheUSand16036Westemployees.Between1969and1989employedAmerican7anaverageof138hourstotheiryearlyworkschedules.Thework-week8atabout40hoursbutpeopleareworkingmoreweekseachyear.9paidtimeoff—holidaysvacationssickleave—1015percentinthe1990s. AsCorporationshave11stiffercompetitionandslowergrowthinproductivitytheywould12employeestoworklonger.Cost-cuttinglayoffsinthe1980s13theprofessionalandmanagerialranksleavingfewerpeopletogetthejobdone.Inlower-paidoccupations14wageshavebeenreducedworkershaveaddedhours15overtimeorextrajobsto16theirlivingstandard.TheGovernmentestimatesthatmorethansevenmillionpeopleholdasecondjob. Forthefirsttimelarge17ofpeoplesaytheywanttocut18onworkinghoursevenifitmeansearninglessmoney.Butmostemployersare19toletthemdoso.Thegovernmentwhichhassteppedbackfromitstraditional20asaregulatorofworktimeshouldtakestepstomakeshorterhourspossible. 14
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.18
Americansuffersfromanoverdoseofwork.1whotheyareorwhattheydotheyspend2timeatworkthanatanytimesinceWorldWarⅡ.In1950theUShadfewerworkinghoursthananyother3country.Todayit4everycountrybutJapanwhereindustrialemployeeslog2155hoursayearcompared51951intheUSand16036Westemployees.Between1969and1989employedAmerican7anaverageof138hourstotheiryearlyworkschedules.Thework-week8atabout40hoursbutpeopleareworkingmoreweekseachyear.9paidtimeoff—holidaysvacationssickleave—1015percentinthe1990s. AsCorporationshave11stiffercompetitionandslowergrowthinproductivitytheywould12employeestoworklonger.Cost-cuttinglayoffsinthe1980s13theprofessionalandmanagerialranksleavingfewerpeopletogetthejobdone.Inlower-paidoccupations14wageshavebeenreducedworkershaveaddedhours15overtimeorextrajobsto16theirlivingstandard.TheGovernmentestimatesthatmorethansevenmillionpeopleholdasecondjob. Forthefirsttimelarge17ofpeoplesaytheywanttocut18onworkinghoursevenifitmeansearninglessmoney.Butmostemployersare19toletthemdoso.Thegovernmentwhichhassteppedbackfromitstraditional20asaregulatorofworktimeshouldtakestepstomakeshorterhourspossible. 16
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 50
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.10
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