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炎症时，引起血管通透性增加的因素有
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炎症时引起血管通透性增加的因素有
血管内皮损伤
新生毛细血管增多
血管扩张
内皮细胞间隙加宽(149/2001)
炎症时引起血管通透性增加的因素有
血管扩张
新生毛细血管增多
血管内皮细胞损伤
内皮细胞间隙加宽
内皮细胞的胞饮作用增强
炎症时引起血管通透性增加的因素有
血管内皮细胞损伤
新生毛细血管增多
血管扩张
内皮细胞间隙加宽
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Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerial"things"--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyof"thing"initofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra. Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole. Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike. Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartofthe"information-revolution"atwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe. Themainideaofthefirstparagraphis
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2. Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure.." IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.
历史研究法的运用特别强调研究者应具有
Directions: Enormouschangestookplaceinthelasttwodecadesofthe20thcenturywhichisrevealedinthechangesondinertables.Herearetwopairsofpictures.Youarerequiredto 1describethepictures 2interpretthepicturesand 3makeacommentuponit. Youshouldwriteabout200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2. Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure.." Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismandgetanicesteadyjobsomewhere.
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2. Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure.." Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount
TheextensionofdemocraticrightsintilefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachthemnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthejourneymanapprenticeforupwardmobility. Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnonAnglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectswastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation. Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.FortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardworkTherequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprenticeAndwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising. Thedifferencebetweengentleman-in-waitingandjourneymanisthat
用归纳法得出研究结论的方法可追溯到
VintonCerfknownasthefatheroftheInternetsaidonWednesdaythattheWebwasoutgrowingtheplanetEarthandthetimehadcometotaketheinformationsuperhighwaytoouterspace. "TheInternetisgrowingquicklyandwestillhavealotofworktodotocovertheplanet"CerftoldthefirstdayoftheannualconferenceoftheInternetSocietyinGenevawheremorethan1500cyberspacefanshavegatheredtoseekanswerstoquestionsaboutthetangledweboftheInternet Cedbelievedthatitwouldsoonbepossibletosendreal-timesciencedataontheInternetfromaspacemissionorbitinganotherplanetsuchasMars."ThereisnowaneffortunderwaytodesignandbuildaninterplanetaryInternet.Thespaceresearchcommunityiscomingcloserandcloserandmerging.WethinkthatwewillseeinterplanetaryInternetnetworksthatlookverymuchliketheonesweusetoday.Wewillneedinterplanetarygatewaysandtherewillbeprotocolstotransmitdatabetweenthesegateways"Cerfsaid. FrancoisFluekigerascientistattendingtheconferencefromtheEuropeanParticlePhysicsLaboratorynearGenevawasnotentirelyconvincedsaying.."Weneeddreamslikethis.ButIdon’tknowanyMartianwhomI’dliketocommunicatewiththroughtheInternet.’ CerfhasbeenworkingwithNASA’sPasadenaJetPropulsionLaboratory--thepeoplebehindtherecentMarsexpedition--todesignwhathecallsan"interplanetaryInternetprotocol"HebelievesthatastronautswillwanttousetheInternetalthoughspecialproblemsremainwithinterferenceanddelay. "ThisisquiterealTheeffortisbecomingextraordinarilyconcreteoverthenextfewmonthsbecausethenextMarsmissionisinplanningstagesnow"Cerftoldtheconference. "IfweusedomainnameslikeEarthorMarsjetpropulsionlaboratorypeoplewouldbecomingtogetherwithpeoplefromtheInternetcommunity.’Headded. "TheideaistotaketheinterplanetaryInternetdesignandmakeitapartoftheinfrastructureoftheMarsmission." Helatertoldanewsconferencethatdesigningthissystemnowwouldpreparemankindoffuturetechnologicaladvances. "Thewholeidesistocreateanarchitecturesothedesignworksanywhere.Idon’tknowwherewe’regoingtohavetoputitbutmyguessisthatwe’llbegoingouttheresometime"Cerfsaid. "Ifyouthink100yearsfromnowitisentirelypossiblethatwhatwillbepurelyresearch50yearsfromnowwillbecomecommercialized." FromthetextwelearnthatVintonCerfis
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41--46choosethemostsuitableparagraphfromthelistA--Ftofitintoeachofthenumberedblank.Thereisoneextrachoicethatdoesnotfitinanyofthegaps.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.A smoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________ [A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages. [E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods. [F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 42
Directions: Inthefollowingarticlesomesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41--46choosethemostsuitableparagraphfromthelistA--Ftofitintoeachofthenumberedblank.Thereisoneextrachoicethatdoesnotfitinanyofthegaps.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.A smoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________ [A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages. [E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods. [F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 44
OnemeaningoftheGreekword"dran"istoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful. Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement. Inthetexttheauthormainlydealswith
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
站在唯理论立场上把世界统一在思维基础上企图使经验论与唯理论结合的哲学家是
VintonCerfknownasthefatheroftheInternetsaidonWednesdaythattheWebwasoutgrowingtheplanetEarthandthetimehadcometotaketheinformationsuperhighwaytoouterspace. "TheInternetisgrowingquicklyandwestillhavealotofworktodotocovertheplanet"CerftoldthefirstdayoftheannualconferenceoftheInternetSocietyinGenevawheremorethan1500cyberspacefanshavegatheredtoseekanswerstoquestionsaboutthetangledweboftheInternet Cedbelievedthatitwouldsoonbepossibletosendreal-timesciencedataontheInternetfromaspacemissionorbitinganotherplanetsuchasMars."ThereisnowaneffortunderwaytodesignandbuildaninterplanetaryInternet.Thespaceresearchcommunityiscomingcloserandcloserandmerging.WethinkthatwewillseeinterplanetaryInternetnetworksthatlookverymuchliketheonesweusetoday.Wewillneedinterplanetarygatewaysandtherewillbeprotocolstotransmitdatabetweenthesegateways"Cerfsaid. FrancoisFluekigerascientistattendingtheconferencefromtheEuropeanParticlePhysicsLaboratorynearGenevawasnotentirelyconvincedsaying.."Weneeddreamslikethis.ButIdon’tknowanyMartianwhomI’dliketocommunicatewiththroughtheInternet.’ CerfhasbeenworkingwithNASA’sPasadenaJetPropulsionLaboratory--thepeoplebehindtherecentMarsexpedition--todesignwhathecallsan"interplanetaryInternetprotocol"HebelievesthatastronautswillwanttousetheInternetalthoughspecialproblemsremainwithinterferenceanddelay. "ThisisquiterealTheeffortisbecomingextraordinarilyconcreteoverthenextfewmonthsbecausethenextMarsmissionisinplanningstagesnow"Cerftoldtheconference. "IfweusedomainnameslikeEarthorMarsjetpropulsionlaboratorypeoplewouldbecomingtogetherwithpeoplefromtheInternetcommunity.’Headded. "TheideaistotaketheinterplanetaryInternetdesignandmakeitapartoftheinfrastructureoftheMarsmission." Helatertoldanewsconferencethatdesigningthissystemnowwouldpreparemankindoffuturetechnologicaladvances. "Thewholeidesistocreateanarchitecturesothedesignworksanywhere.Idon’tknowwherewe’regoingtohavetoputitbutmyguessisthatwe’llbegoingouttheresometime"Cerfsaid. "Ifyouthink100yearsfromnowitisentirelypossiblethatwhatwillbepurelyresearch50yearsfromnowwillbecomecommercialized." WeknowfromthetextthatMarsmissionis
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
OnemeaningoftheGreekword"dran"istoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful. Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement. Adramatistusually
20世纪初教育研究方法成为一门独立的学科之后出现了一些有代表性的专著其中古德的代表作是
OnemeaningoftheGreekword"dran"istoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful. Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement. Accordingtothefirstparagraphofthetextadramatist
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
教育科学研究中不宜过多强调
我国将模糊论的方法运用于教育研究开始于
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerial"things"--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyof"thing"initofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra. Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole. Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike. Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartofthe"information-revolution"atwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe. Fromthethirdparagraphwemayinferthat
一般情况下教育科研活动的最后一环是
ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
TheextensionofdemocraticrightsintilefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachthemnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthejourneymanapprenticeforupwardmobility. Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnonAnglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectswastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation. Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.FortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardworkTherequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprenticeAndwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising. Whichofthefollowingwasthemostimportantforagentleman-in-waiting
如果以问题性质作为划分标准教育科学研究一般可分为理论方法实证方法实验研究方法及
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerial"things"--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyof"thing"initofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra. Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole. Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike. Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartofthe"information-revolution"atwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe. Whichofthefollowingdoesnotbelongtomaterialculture
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