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仅作用于T细胞的丝裂原是
PWM
PHA
SPA
PPD
LPS
PHA可用于
Western Bloting
细胞毒实验
溶血空斑实验
E花环实验
PHA淋巴细胞转化实验
Phaëthonstoodimpatientlyattheheavygoldendoors.Heor
January112006 AlanCosgray BureauSecretary
Big Sky Networks
Virginia Chamber of Commerce
Superior Telecommunications
State Bureau of Businesses
能与哺乳动物IgG结合的成分是
SPA
BSA
PHA
LPS
HLA
与SRBC结合的表面受体是
LPS
Con-A
PHA
CD2
CD3
在什么条件下会生成PHA或糖原
抗HCV检测常采用哪种方法
ELISA
IFA
RIA
PHA
RT-PCR
T细胞表面的______受体有PHA和______的受体
Theearliestmethodofdeliveringtelecommunicationsist
telegraph
telephone
e-mail
letter
预先危险分析PHA过程危险分析包括哪些内容
T细胞增殖试验需要加入植物血凝素PHA共同培养其中PHA的作用是
T细胞增殖的主要营养成分
促使T细胞增殖
掺入到T细胞DNA中
促使T细胞形态改变
促进T细胞的杀伤效应
用于T细胞增殖试验的丝裂原为
PHA
LPS
PWM
Con-A
SPA
在文件保存中能保存通道的文件格式有
Jpg
Tif
Max
Pha
最常用的人类T细胞有丝分裂原是
LPS
PHA
ConA
SPA
PHA方法包括准备审查三个阶段
Theearliestmethodofdeliveringtelecommunicationsist
telegraph
telephone
e-mail
letter
下列物质能活化T细胞
LPS
ConA
SPA
PHA
干扰素
PHA与ConA属于
佐剂
超抗原
抗原
丝裂原
抗体
原核细胞特有的碳源贮藏颗粒是
PHB
DAP
PHA
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Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 9
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 1
Everysecond1hectareoftheworld’srainforestisdestroyed.That’sequivalenttotwofootballfields.AnareathesizeofNewYorkCityislosteveryday.Inayearthataddsupto31millionhectares—morethanthelandareaofPoland.Thisalarmingrateofdestructionhasseriousconsequencesfortheenvironment;scientistsestimateforexamplethat137speciesofplantinsectoranimalbecomeextincteverydayduetologging.InBritishColumbiawheresince1990thirteenrainforestvalleyshavebeenclearcut142speciesofsalmonhavealreadybecomeextinctandthehabitatsofgrizzlybearswolvesandmanyothercreaturesarethreatened.Logginghoweverprovidesjobsprofitstaxesforthegovernmentandcheapproductsofallkindsforconsumerssothegovernmentisreluctanttorestrictorcontrolit. MuchofCanada’sforestryproductiongoestowardsmakingpulpandpaper.AccordingtotheCanadianPulpandPaperAssociationCanadasupplies34%oftheworld’swoodpulpand49%ofitsnewsprintpaper.IfthesepaperproductscouldbeproducedinsomeotherwayCanadianforestscouldbepreserved.Recentlyapossiblealternativewayofproducingpaperhasbeensuggestedbyagriculturalistsandenvironmentalists:aplantcalledhemp. Hemphasbeencultivatedbymanyculturesforthousandsofyears.Itproducesfiberwhichcanbemadeintopaperfueloilstextilesfoodandrope.Formanycenturiesitwasessentialtotheeconomiesofmanycountriesbecauseitwasusedtomaketheropesandcablesusedonsailingships;colonialexpansionandtheestablishmentofaworldwidetradingnetworkwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouthemp.Nowadaysships’cablesareusuallymadefromwireorsyntheticfibresbutscientistsarenowsuggestingthatthecultivationofhempshouldberevivedfortheproductionofpaperandpulp.Accordingtoitsproponentsfourtimesasmuchpapercanbeproducedfromlandusinghempratherthantreesandmanyenvironmentalistsbelievethatthelarge-scalecultivationofhempcouldreducethepressureonCanada’sforests. Howeverthereisaproblem:hempisillegalinmanycountriesoftheworld.Thisplantsousefulforfiberropeoilfuelandtextilesisaspeciesofcannabisrelatedtotheplantfromwhichmarijuanaisproduced.Inthelate1930samovementtobanthedrugmarijuanabegantogatherforceresultingintheeventualbanningofthecultivationnotonlyoftheplantusedtoproducethedrugbutalsoofthecommercialfiber-producinghempplant.AlthoughbothGeorgeWashingtonandThomasJeffersongrewhempinlargequantitiesontheirownlandanyAmericangrowingtheplanttodaywouldsoonfindhimselfinprison—despitethefactthatmarijuanacannotbeproducedfromthehempplantsinceitcontainsalmostnoTHCtheactiveingredientinthedrug. Inrecentyearstwomajormovementsforlegalizationhavebeengatheringstrength.OnegroupofactivistsbelievesthatALLcannabisshouldbelegal—boththehempplantandthemarijuanaplant—andthattheuseofthedrugmarijuanashouldnotbeanoffense.Theyarguethatmarijuanaisnotdangerousoraddictiveandthatitisusedbylargenumbersofpeoplewhoarenotcriminalsbutproductivemembersofsociety.Theyalsopointoutthatmarijuanaislesstoxicthanalcoholortobacco.Theotherlegalizationmovementisconcernedonlywiththehempplantusedtoproducefiber;thisgroupwantstomakeitlegaltocultivatetheplantandsellthefiberforpaperandpulpproduction.Thissecondgrouphashadamajortriumphrecently:in1997Canadalegalizedthefarmingofhempforfiber.Forthefirsttimesince1938hundredsoffarmersareplantingthiscropandsoonwecanexpecttoseepulpandpaperproducedfromthisnewsource. Canadianforestswillnotfacedestructionif
AssummerrollsaroundlawmakersinWashingtonarepreparingtovoteonajobsbillthatwouldinclude$1billionforsummerjobsforteens.Muchoftheurgencyfortheprogramstemsfromtheprivate-sectorplungeinsummerjobsforteenagersoverthepastfewyears.It’snosecretthattherecessionwallopedteens’jobsasmuchasitdidtheirparents.Butsomeeconomistsfindtheclamorforpublicjobsprogramsalittleironicgivenlastyear’smidrecessionminimumwageincreasewhichmayhavereducedteenemploymentevenbeyondtherecessionarydrop. Beforetheminimumwagejumpedto$7.25anhourlastsummerUniversityofCalifornia-IrvineeconomistDavidNeumarkestimatedthatitwouldleadtoanadditional300000joblossesforteensandyoungadults.The2009wageincreasewassetinmotioninabetterlabormarketinMay2007whenCongressvotedtoboosttheminimumfrom$5.15anhourto$7.25anhouroverthecourseofthenexttwoyears. It’shardtoparsethejobslostbecauseoftherecessionandthoselostbecauseoftheminimumwageincrease--there’snodirectevaluationoftheimpactofthewageincreaseyet--butit’slikelythatraisingthewagefloorcontributedtotherecord-highteenunemploymentratesNeumarksays."Almosteveryoneacceptsthatminimumwagesdecreaseemploymentorlikelyincreaseunemploymentoftheleast-skilled"hesays.Neumarkadvocatedfordelayinglastyear’sincrease. Theunemploymentrateforteenagerswas25.4percentinAprilcomparedwith9.9percentoverallaccordingtotheBureauofLaborStatistics.Teensgenerallyhavehigherunemploymentrates.InNovember2007themonthbeforethestartoftherecessiontheunemploymentratefortheoverallpopulationwas4.7percentversus16.2percentforworkersaged16to19.Teenemploymenthasbeendecliningforsometime.Thepercentageofteenswithjobshasfallenfromabout57percentin1989toabout40percentin2007bothdatesreflecthealthyeconomies.Thereasonsarediverse.ForonethingincreasedschoolenrollmentappearstoaccountforaboutathirdofthatdeclineaccordingtotheEconomicPolicyInstitute."Forteenstherehasbeenaremarkablelong-termshiftfromsummeremploymenttosummerenrollment"reportsEPIeconomistHeidiShierholz. Oneofthecriticalissuesforjob-seekingteensisthechangingfaceofthecompetitionwhichisincreasinglyskilled."Notonlyaretheycompetingwitheachotherforavailablepositionsbuttheyarecompetingwithrecentcollegegraduatesandjobseekerswhohavetwoormoreyearsofon-the-jobexperienceandarewillingtotakealmostanypositionthatprovidesasteadypaycheck"saysJohnChallengerofoutplacementfirmChallengerGray&Christmas. WecaninferthatJohnChallenger’sattitudetowardsjob-huntingis
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 11
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 7
ForyearsInternetmerchantshavepouredmillionsofdollarsintonewtechnologiestomaketheirsiteseasiertouse.Sowhyaren’tonlinecustomershappier Customersatisfactionlevelshaveremainedalmostflatthroughthelastseveralyears.TheproblemaccordingtoLarryFreedchiefexecutiveofaconsultingandresearchfirmcalledForeSeeResultsisnotsomuchthatconsumershaveignoredthemanyimprovementsmadeinrecentyears.RatherhesaidtheystillexpectmorefromInternetshoppingthanithasdelivered. "Ifwewalkintoalocalstorewedon’texpectthatexperiencetobebetterthanitwasacoupleyearsago"Mr.Freedsaid."Butweexpectsitestobebetter.Thebargoesupeveryyear."InForeSee’slatestsurveyreleasedlastmonthjustfivee-commercesitesregisteredscoreshigherthan80outof100andnositescoredhigherthan85.Itwasmuchthesamestoryayearagowhenjustfivescoredhigherthan80withnositesurpassing85."Scoreshaveinchedupovertimeforthebeste-commercecompaniesbuttheoverallnumbershaven’tmoveddrastically"Mr.Freedsaid."Atthesametimethoughifyoudon’tdoanythingyouseeyourscoresdropsteadily." ThatdynamichasbeenachallengeforonlinemerchantsandinvestorswhoadecadeagoenvisionedInternetstoresasrelativelyinexpensiveandthereforeextremelyprofitableoperations.NowsomeobserverspredictafuturewhereonlineretailerswillessentiallyadoptsomethingliketheQVCmodelwithsalesstaffpitchingthesite’smerchandisewithpolishedvideopresentationsproducedinahigh-techtelevisionstudio. QVC.comisevolvinginthatdirection.TheWebsitewhichsoldmorethan$1billioninmerchandisein2006hasforthelastfiveyearsletvisitorswatchalivefeedofthenetwork’sbroadcast.ButinrecentmonthsQVC.comhasalsogivenvisitorsthechancetowatcharchivesofentireshowsandinthecomingmonthsvisitorswillbeabletofindmorevideosegmentsfromrecentshowsfeaturingindividualproductsthatremaininstock.BobMyersseniorvicepresidentofQVC.comsaidtheWebsite’svideosalesmanshipisespeciallyeffectivewhencombinedwithdetailedproductinformationcustomerreviewsandmultiplephotographs. Abouteightmonthsagoforinstanceacustomersaidthatshecouldnotdeterminethesizeofahandbagfromthephotographsonthesitebecauseshecouldnottelltheheightofthemodelwhowasholdingit.Withintwoweeksthesitetestedandintroducedanewsystemshowingthebagswithwomenofthreedifferentheights.Theresultswereimmediate:womenwhosawthenewphotographsboughtthebagsatleast10percentmorefrequentlythanthosewhohadnot. StillMr.Myerssaidvideoisacriticallyimportantelementtosales."E-commercestartedwithtelevisioncommerce"hesaid."Thesiteswhoengageandentertaincustomerswillbewinninghereinthenearfuture."Suchaprospectisnotnecessarilydauntingtoothere-commerceexecutives.GordonMageeheadofInternetmarketingforDrs.Foster&SmithbasedinaRhinelanderWis.saidatransitiontovideo"willbeseamlessforus."ThecompanyMr.Mageesaidhasinrecentweeksdiscussedputtingsomeofitsproductonvideo"socustomerscouldseea360-degreeviewtheydon’thavetomanipulatethemselves. LarryFreedattributedlowcustomersatisfactiontothefactthat
AFrenchmanthepsychologistAlfredBinetpublishedthefirststandardizedtestofhumanintelligencein1905.46ButitwasanAmericanLewisTermanapsychologyprofessoratStanfordwhothoughttodividea_testtaker’smentalageasrevealedbythatscorebyhisorherbiologicalagetoderiveanumberthathecalledIQ.Itwouldbehardtothinkofapop-scientificcoinagethathashadagreaterimpactonthewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselvesandothers.47Nocountry:embracedtheIQmorethoroughlythantheU.S.wheremillionsofpeoplehavetheirIQmeasuredannuallymanywithadirectdescendantofBinet’soriginaltestalthoughnotnecessarilyforthepurposeBinetintended.Hedevelopedhistestasawayofidentifyingpublicschoolstudentswhoneededextrahelpinlearningandthatisstilloneofitsleadinguses.ButthebroaderandmorecontroversialuseofIQtestinghasitsrootsinatheoryofintelligence—partsciencepartsociology—thatdevelopedinthelate19thcenturybeforeBinet’sworkandentirelyseparatefromit.48ChampionedfirstbyCharlesDarwin’scousinFrancisGaltonitheldthatintelligencewasthemostvaluablehumanattributeandthatifpeoplewhohadalotofitcouldbeidentifiedandputinleadershippositionsallofsocietywouldbenefit.TermanbelievedIQtestsshouldbeusedtoconductagreatsortingoutofthepopulationsothatyoungpeoplewouldbeassignedonthebasisoftheirscorestoparticularlevelsintheschoolsystemwhichwouldleadtocorrespondingsocioeconomicdestinationsinadultlife.ThebeginningoftheIQ-testingmovementoverlappedwiththeeugenicsmovement—hugelypopularinAmericaandEuropeamongthebettersort.In1958aBritishsociologistnamedMichaelYoungcoinedthewordmeritocracytodenoteasocietythatorganizesitselfaccordingtoIQ-testscores.TermanandmanyotherearlyadvocatesofIQtestinghadinmindthecreationofanAmericanmeritocracythoughtheworddidn’texistthen.49TheybelievedIQtestscouldbethemeanstocreateforthefirsttimeeverasocietyinwhichadvantagewouldgotothepeoplewhodeserveditratherthantothosewhohadbeenbornintoit.InordertobelievethisthoughyouhavetobelievethatmeritandascoreonanIQtestarethesamething.50LongbeforeIQwasinventedAmericaprideditselfonbeingacountrywithoutaclasssysteminwhichpeopleoftalentandindustrywouldriseandberewarded.TheadventofintelligencetestsdidnotdramaticallyaffectthedegreeofsocialmobilityintheU.S.—atleastnotenoughforanychangetoshowupinthesocial-sciencedata.
Animationisakindofmotionpicturescreatedbyrecordingaseriesofstillimages-ofdrawingsobjectsorpeopleinvariouspositionsofincrementalmovement-thatwhenplayedbacknolongerappearindividuallyasstaticimagesbutcombinetoproducetheillusionofunbrokenmotion.Thetermanimationappliestocreationsonfilmvideoorcomputersandeventomotiontoyswhichusuallyconsistofaseriesofdrawingsorphotographsonpaperthatareviewedwithamechanicaldeviceorbyflippingthroughahand-heldsequenceofimages.41TechniquesTherearemanywaystocreateanimationdependingonwhetherthematerialsusedareflatsuchasdrawingspaintingsorcut-outpiecesofpaperordimensionalsuchasclaypuppetshouseholdobjectsorevenpeople.42ProductionProcessAfterchoosinganideaforafilmananimatormustthinkaboutaconceptintermsofindividualactions.43HistoryAnimationhasbeenapartofcinemahistoryfromthetimethefirstmotionpicturesweremadeinthelate1800s.44WaltDisneyThecompany’sfounderWaltDisneywasborninChicagoIllinoisbutgrewupinKansasCityMissouriwherehemetanimatorUb1werksandcomposerCarlStallingwhoweretobeimportanttohisfuturesuccess.45JapaneseAnimationJapaneseanimationknownasanimeblossomedafterWorldWarII1939-1945andtodayisimmenselypopularbothwithinJapanandworldwide.CurrentTrendsTwotrendsintheanimationindustryarelikelytohaveaprofoundinfluenceonitsfutureasignificantincreaseinproductionandexhibitionopportunitiesandthegrowingimportanceofnewtechnologies.[A]Someearlylive-actionfilmsknownastrickfilmsusedtheanimationtechniqueofstopactioninwhichthecameraisstoppedandanobjectisremovedoraddedtoashotbeforefilmingisresumed.[B]Disneywithhisthen-partnerIwerkscreatedacharacterthatwastobecomethemostfamousanimatedfigureinhistoryMickeyMouse.[C]Asidefromtelevisionperhapsthelargestinfluenceonthestyleofrecentanimationworldwidehascomefromcomputertechnologies.Experimentswithelectronicanimationbeganinthe1930sbutitwasnotuntilthelate1970sthatcomputeranimationbecameviablebeyondscientificandgovernmentapplicationsparticularlyforusebytheentertainmentindustry.[D]Ineachcaseananimatormustkeepinmindthebasicprincipleofframespersecondthenumberofimagesneededtoproduceonesecondoffilm.Becausesoundfilmrunsattwentyfourframespersecondafilmanimatormustmaketwenty-fourimagesforeachsecondofanimationthatheorshewishestocreate.[E]ThemostimportanthistoricalfigureinJapaneseanimationOsamuTezukacreatedthefirstanimatedtelevisionseriesinJapanTetsuwanAtomAstroBoy.[F]Forinstanceifananimatordecidesonanactionthatwilltake3secondsofanimationtocompletetheanimatorwillhavetocreateimagestofill72framesoffilm3secondsofmovementmultipliedbyarunningspeedof24framespersecond.
Youareasalesmaninapharmacycompany.WritealettertoMr.Wangoneofyourcustomerstointroduceanewmedicinetohim. Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead. Donotwritetheaddress.
ForyearsInternetmerchantshavepouredmillionsofdollarsintonewtechnologiestomaketheirsiteseasiertouse.Sowhyaren’tonlinecustomershappier Customersatisfactionlevelshaveremainedalmostflatthroughthelastseveralyears.TheproblemaccordingtoLarryFreedchiefexecutiveofaconsultingandresearchfirmcalledForeSeeResultsisnotsomuchthatconsumershaveignoredthemanyimprovementsmadeinrecentyears.RatherhesaidtheystillexpectmorefromInternetshoppingthanithasdelivered. "Ifwewalkintoalocalstorewedon’texpectthatexperiencetobebetterthanitwasacoupleyearsago"Mr.Freedsaid."Butweexpectsitestobebetter.Thebargoesupeveryyear."InForeSee’slatestsurveyreleasedlastmonthjustfivee-commercesitesregisteredscoreshigherthan80outof100andnositescoredhigherthan85.Itwasmuchthesamestoryayearagowhenjustfivescoredhigherthan80withnositesurpassing85."Scoreshaveinchedupovertimeforthebeste-commercecompaniesbuttheoverallnumbershaven’tmoveddrastically"Mr.Freedsaid."Atthesametimethoughifyoudon’tdoanythingyouseeyourscoresdropsteadily." ThatdynamichasbeenachallengeforonlinemerchantsandinvestorswhoadecadeagoenvisionedInternetstoresasrelativelyinexpensiveandthereforeextremelyprofitableoperations.NowsomeobserverspredictafuturewhereonlineretailerswillessentiallyadoptsomethingliketheQVCmodelwithsalesstaffpitchingthesite’smerchandisewithpolishedvideopresentationsproducedinahigh-techtelevisionstudio. QVC.comisevolvinginthatdirection.TheWebsitewhichsoldmorethan$1billioninmerchandisein2006hasforthelastfiveyearsletvisitorswatchalivefeedofthenetwork’sbroadcast.ButinrecentmonthsQVC.comhasalsogivenvisitorsthechancetowatcharchivesofentireshowsandinthecomingmonthsvisitorswillbeabletofindmorevideosegmentsfromrecentshowsfeaturingindividualproductsthatremaininstock.BobMyersseniorvicepresidentofQVC.comsaidtheWebsite’svideosalesmanshipisespeciallyeffectivewhencombinedwithdetailedproductinformationcustomerreviewsandmultiplephotographs. Abouteightmonthsagoforinstanceacustomersaidthatshecouldnotdeterminethesizeofahandbagfromthephotographsonthesitebecauseshecouldnottelltheheightofthemodelwhowasholdingit.Withintwoweeksthesitetestedandintroducedanewsystemshowingthebagswithwomenofthreedifferentheights.Theresultswereimmediate:womenwhosawthenewphotographsboughtthebagsatleast10percentmorefrequentlythanthosewhohadnot. StillMr.Myerssaidvideoisacriticallyimportantelementtosales."E-commercestartedwithtelevisioncommerce"hesaid."Thesiteswhoengageandentertaincustomerswillbewinninghereinthenearfuture."Suchaprospectisnotnecessarilydauntingtoothere-commerceexecutives.GordonMageeheadofInternetmarketingforDrs.Foster&SmithbasedinaRhinelanderWis.saidatransitiontovideo"willbeseamlessforus."ThecompanyMr.Mageesaidhasinrecentweeksdiscussedputtingsomeofitsproductonvideo"socustomerscouldseea360-degreeviewtheydon’thavetomanipulatethemselves. Mr.Magee’sattitudetowardsusingvideosinE-commerceseemstobe
Everysecond1hectareoftheworld’srainforestisdestroyed.That’sequivalenttotwofootballfields.AnareathesizeofNewYorkCityislosteveryday.Inayearthataddsupto31millionhectares—morethanthelandareaofPoland.Thisalarmingrateofdestructionhasseriousconsequencesfortheenvironment;scientistsestimateforexamplethat137speciesofplantinsectoranimalbecomeextincteverydayduetologging.InBritishColumbiawheresince1990thirteenrainforestvalleyshavebeenclearcut142speciesofsalmonhavealreadybecomeextinctandthehabitatsofgrizzlybearswolvesandmanyothercreaturesarethreatened.Logginghoweverprovidesjobsprofitstaxesforthegovernmentandcheapproductsofallkindsforconsumerssothegovernmentisreluctanttorestrictorcontrolit. MuchofCanada’sforestryproductiongoestowardsmakingpulpandpaper.AccordingtotheCanadianPulpandPaperAssociationCanadasupplies34%oftheworld’swoodpulpand49%ofitsnewsprintpaper.IfthesepaperproductscouldbeproducedinsomeotherwayCanadianforestscouldbepreserved.Recentlyapossiblealternativewayofproducingpaperhasbeensuggestedbyagriculturalistsandenvironmentalists:aplantcalledhemp. Hemphasbeencultivatedbymanyculturesforthousandsofyears.Itproducesfiberwhichcanbemadeintopaperfueloilstextilesfoodandrope.Formanycenturiesitwasessentialtotheeconomiesofmanycountriesbecauseitwasusedtomaketheropesandcablesusedonsailingships;colonialexpansionandtheestablishmentofaworldwidetradingnetworkwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouthemp.Nowadaysships’cablesareusuallymadefromwireorsyntheticfibresbutscientistsarenowsuggestingthatthecultivationofhempshouldberevivedfortheproductionofpaperandpulp.Accordingtoitsproponentsfourtimesasmuchpapercanbeproducedfromlandusinghempratherthantreesandmanyenvironmentalistsbelievethatthelarge-scalecultivationofhempcouldreducethepressureonCanada’sforests. Howeverthereisaproblem:hempisillegalinmanycountriesoftheworld.Thisplantsousefulforfiberropeoilfuelandtextilesisaspeciesofcannabisrelatedtotheplantfromwhichmarijuanaisproduced.Inthelate1930samovementtobanthedrugmarijuanabegantogatherforceresultingintheeventualbanningofthecultivationnotonlyoftheplantusedtoproducethedrugbutalsoofthecommercialfiber-producinghempplant.AlthoughbothGeorgeWashingtonandThomasJeffersongrewhempinlargequantitiesontheirownlandanyAmericangrowingtheplanttodaywouldsoonfindhimselfinprison—despitethefactthatmarijuanacannotbeproducedfromthehempplantsinceitcontainsalmostnoTHCtheactiveingredientinthedrug. Inrecentyearstwomajormovementsforlegalizationhavebeengatheringstrength.OnegroupofactivistsbelievesthatALLcannabisshouldbelegal—boththehempplantandthemarijuanaplant—andthattheuseofthedrugmarijuanashouldnotbeanoffense.Theyarguethatmarijuanaisnotdangerousoraddictiveandthatitisusedbylargenumbersofpeoplewhoarenotcriminalsbutproductivemembersofsociety.Theyalsopointoutthatmarijuanaislesstoxicthanalcoholortobacco.Theotherlegalizationmovementisconcernedonlywiththehempplantusedtoproducefiber;thisgroupwantstomakeitlegaltocultivatetheplantandsellthefiberforpaperandpulpproduction.Thissecondgrouphashadamajortriumphrecently:in1997Canadalegalizedthefarmingofhempforfiber.Forthefirsttimesince1938hundredsoffarmersareplantingthiscropandsoonwecanexpecttoseepulpandpaperproducedfromthisnewsource. Theauthorseemstoimplyinthepassagethat
ForyearsInternetmerchantshavepouredmillionsofdollarsintonewtechnologiestomaketheirsiteseasiertouse.Sowhyaren’tonlinecustomershappier Customersatisfactionlevelshaveremainedalmostflatthroughthelastseveralyears.TheproblemaccordingtoLarryFreedchiefexecutiveofaconsultingandresearchfirmcalledForeSeeResultsisnotsomuchthatconsumershaveignoredthemanyimprovementsmadeinrecentyears.RatherhesaidtheystillexpectmorefromInternetshoppingthanithasdelivered. "Ifwewalkintoalocalstorewedon’texpectthatexperiencetobebetterthanitwasacoupleyearsago"Mr.Freedsaid."Butweexpectsitestobebetter.Thebargoesupeveryyear."InForeSee’slatestsurveyreleasedlastmonthjustfivee-commercesitesregisteredscoreshigherthan80outof100andnositescoredhigherthan85.Itwasmuchthesamestoryayearagowhenjustfivescoredhigherthan80withnositesurpassing85."Scoreshaveinchedupovertimeforthebeste-commercecompaniesbuttheoverallnumbershaven’tmoveddrastically"Mr.Freedsaid."Atthesametimethoughifyoudon’tdoanythingyouseeyourscoresdropsteadily." ThatdynamichasbeenachallengeforonlinemerchantsandinvestorswhoadecadeagoenvisionedInternetstoresasrelativelyinexpensiveandthereforeextremelyprofitableoperations.NowsomeobserverspredictafuturewhereonlineretailerswillessentiallyadoptsomethingliketheQVCmodelwithsalesstaffpitchingthesite’smerchandisewithpolishedvideopresentationsproducedinahigh-techtelevisionstudio. QVC.comisevolvinginthatdirection.TheWebsitewhichsoldmorethan$1billioninmerchandisein2006hasforthelastfiveyearsletvisitorswatchalivefeedofthenetwork’sbroadcast.ButinrecentmonthsQVC.comhasalsogivenvisitorsthechancetowatcharchivesofentireshowsandinthecomingmonthsvisitorswillbeabletofindmorevideosegmentsfromrecentshowsfeaturingindividualproductsthatremaininstock.BobMyersseniorvicepresidentofQVC.comsaidtheWebsite’svideosalesmanshipisespeciallyeffectivewhencombinedwithdetailedproductinformationcustomerreviewsandmultiplephotographs. Abouteightmonthsagoforinstanceacustomersaidthatshecouldnotdeterminethesizeofahandbagfromthephotographsonthesitebecauseshecouldnottelltheheightofthemodelwhowasholdingit.Withintwoweeksthesitetestedandintroducedanewsystemshowingthebagswithwomenofthreedifferentheights.Theresultswereimmediate:womenwhosawthenewphotographsboughtthebagsatleast10percentmorefrequentlythanthosewhohadnot. StillMr.Myerssaidvideoisacriticallyimportantelementtosales."E-commercestartedwithtelevisioncommerce"hesaid."Thesiteswhoengageandentertaincustomerswillbewinninghereinthenearfuture."Suchaprospectisnotnecessarilydauntingtoothere-commerceexecutives.GordonMageeheadofInternetmarketingforDrs.Foster&SmithbasedinaRhinelanderWis.saidatransitiontovideo"willbeseamlessforus."ThecompanyMr.Mageesaidhasinrecentweeksdiscussedputtingsomeofitsproductonvideo"socustomerscouldseea360-degreeviewtheydon’thavetomanipulatethemselves. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethat
AssummerrollsaroundlawmakersinWashingtonarepreparingtovoteonajobsbillthatwouldinclude$1billionforsummerjobsforteens.Muchoftheurgencyfortheprogramstemsfromtheprivate-sectorplungeinsummerjobsforteenagersoverthepastfewyears.It’snosecretthattherecessionwallopedteens’jobsasmuchasitdidtheirparents.Butsomeeconomistsfindtheclamorforpublicjobsprogramsalittleironicgivenlastyear’smidrecessionminimumwageincreasewhichmayhavereducedteenemploymentevenbeyondtherecessionarydrop. Beforetheminimumwagejumpedto$7.25anhourlastsummerUniversityofCalifornia-IrvineeconomistDavidNeumarkestimatedthatitwouldleadtoanadditional300000joblossesforteensandyoungadults.The2009wageincreasewassetinmotioninabetterlabormarketinMay2007whenCongressvotedtoboosttheminimumfrom$5.15anhourto$7.25anhouroverthecourseofthenexttwoyears. It’shardtoparsethejobslostbecauseoftherecessionandthoselostbecauseoftheminimumwageincrease--there’snodirectevaluationoftheimpactofthewageincreaseyet--butit’slikelythatraisingthewagefloorcontributedtotherecord-highteenunemploymentratesNeumarksays."Almosteveryoneacceptsthatminimumwagesdecreaseemploymentorlikelyincreaseunemploymentoftheleast-skilled"hesays.Neumarkadvocatedfordelayinglastyear’sincrease. Theunemploymentrateforteenagerswas25.4percentinAprilcomparedwith9.9percentoverallaccordingtotheBureauofLaborStatistics.Teensgenerallyhavehigherunemploymentrates.InNovember2007themonthbeforethestartoftherecessiontheunemploymentratefortheoverallpopulationwas4.7percentversus16.2percentforworkersaged16to19.Teenemploymenthasbeendecliningforsometime.Thepercentageofteenswithjobshasfallenfromabout57percentin1989toabout40percentin2007bothdatesreflecthealthyeconomies.Thereasonsarediverse.ForonethingincreasedschoolenrollmentappearstoaccountforaboutathirdofthatdeclineaccordingtotheEconomicPolicyInstitute."Forteenstherehasbeenaremarkablelong-termshiftfromsummeremploymenttosummerenrollment"reportsEPIeconomistHeidiShierholz. Oneofthecriticalissuesforjob-seekingteensisthechangingfaceofthecompetitionwhichisincreasinglyskilled."Notonlyaretheycompetingwitheachotherforavailablepositionsbuttheyarecompetingwithrecentcollegegraduatesandjobseekerswhohavetwoormoreyearsofon-the-jobexperienceandarewillingtotakealmostanypositionthatprovidesasteadypaycheck"saysJohnChallengerofoutplacementfirmChallengerGray&Christmas. Themostimportantthingforjob-seekingteensis
Animationisakindofmotionpicturescreatedbyrecordingaseriesofstillimages-ofdrawingsobjectsorpeopleinvariouspositionsofincrementalmovement-thatwhenplayedbacknolongerappearindividuallyasstaticimagesbutcombinetoproducetheillusionofunbrokenmotion.Thetermanimationappliestocreationsonfilmvideoorcomputersandeventomotiontoyswhichusuallyconsistofaseriesofdrawingsorphotographsonpaperthatareviewedwithamechanicaldeviceorbyflippingthroughahand-heldsequenceofimages.41TechniquesTherearemanywaystocreateanimationdependingonwhetherthematerialsusedareflatsuchasdrawingspaintingsorcut-outpiecesofpaperordimensionalsuchasclaypuppetshouseholdobjectsorevenpeople.42ProductionProcessAfterchoosinganideaforafilmananimatormustthinkaboutaconceptintermsofindividualactions.43HistoryAnimationhasbeenapartofcinemahistoryfromthetimethefirstmotionpicturesweremadeinthelate1800s.44WaltDisneyThecompany’sfounderWaltDisneywasborninChicagoIllinoisbutgrewupinKansasCityMissouriwherehemetanimatorUb1werksandcomposerCarlStallingwhoweretobeimportanttohisfuturesuccess.45JapaneseAnimationJapaneseanimationknownasanimeblossomedafterWorldWarII1939-1945andtodayisimmenselypopularbothwithinJapanandworldwide.CurrentTrendsTwotrendsintheanimationindustryarelikelytohaveaprofoundinfluenceonitsfutureasignificantincreaseinproductionandexhibitionopportunitiesandthegrowingimportanceofnewtechnologies.[A]Someearlylive-actionfilmsknownastrickfilmsusedtheanimationtechniqueofstopactioninwhichthecameraisstoppedandanobjectisremovedoraddedtoashotbeforefilmingisresumed.[B]Disneywithhisthen-partnerIwerkscreatedacharacterthatwastobecomethemostfamousanimatedfigureinhistoryMickeyMouse.[C]Asidefromtelevisionperhapsthelargestinfluenceonthestyleofrecentanimationworldwidehascomefromcomputertechnologies.Experimentswithelectronicanimationbeganinthe1930sbutitwasnotuntilthelate1970sthatcomputeranimationbecameviablebeyondscientificandgovernmentapplicationsparticularlyforusebytheentertainmentindustry.[D]Ineachcaseananimatormustkeepinmindthebasicprincipleofframespersecondthenumberofimagesneededtoproduceonesecondoffilm.Becausesoundfilmrunsattwentyfourframespersecondafilmanimatormustmaketwenty-fourimagesforeachsecondofanimationthatheorshewishestocreate.[E]ThemostimportanthistoricalfigureinJapaneseanimationOsamuTezukacreatedthefirstanimatedtelevisionseriesinJapanTetsuwanAtomAstroBoy.[F]Forinstanceifananimatordecidesonanactionthatwilltake3secondsofanimationtocompletetheanimatorwillhavetocreateimagestofill72framesoffilm3secondsofmovementmultipliedbyarunningspeedof24framespersecond.
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 15
AssummerrollsaroundlawmakersinWashingtonarepreparingtovoteonajobsbillthatwouldinclude$1billionforsummerjobsforteens.Muchoftheurgencyfortheprogramstemsfromtheprivate-sectorplungeinsummerjobsforteenagersoverthepastfewyears.It’snosecretthattherecessionwallopedteens’jobsasmuchasitdidtheirparents.Butsomeeconomistsfindtheclamorforpublicjobsprogramsalittleironicgivenlastyear’smidrecessionminimumwageincreasewhichmayhavereducedteenemploymentevenbeyondtherecessionarydrop. Beforetheminimumwagejumpedto$7.25anhourlastsummerUniversityofCalifornia-IrvineeconomistDavidNeumarkestimatedthatitwouldleadtoanadditional300000joblossesforteensandyoungadults.The2009wageincreasewassetinmotioninabetterlabormarketinMay2007whenCongressvotedtoboosttheminimumfrom$5.15anhourto$7.25anhouroverthecourseofthenexttwoyears. It’shardtoparsethejobslostbecauseoftherecessionandthoselostbecauseoftheminimumwageincrease--there’snodirectevaluationoftheimpactofthewageincreaseyet--butit’slikelythatraisingthewagefloorcontributedtotherecord-highteenunemploymentratesNeumarksays."Almosteveryoneacceptsthatminimumwagesdecreaseemploymentorlikelyincreaseunemploymentoftheleast-skilled"hesays.Neumarkadvocatedfordelayinglastyear’sincrease. Theunemploymentrateforteenagerswas25.4percentinAprilcomparedwith9.9percentoverallaccordingtotheBureauofLaborStatistics.Teensgenerallyhavehigherunemploymentrates.InNovember2007themonthbeforethestartoftherecessiontheunemploymentratefortheoverallpopulationwas4.7percentversus16.2percentforworkersaged16to19.Teenemploymenthasbeendecliningforsometime.Thepercentageofteenswithjobshasfallenfromabout57percentin1989toabout40percentin2007bothdatesreflecthealthyeconomies.Thereasonsarediverse.ForonethingincreasedschoolenrollmentappearstoaccountforaboutathirdofthatdeclineaccordingtotheEconomicPolicyInstitute."Forteenstherehasbeenaremarkablelong-termshiftfromsummeremploymenttosummerenrollment"reportsEPIeconomistHeidiShierholz. Oneofthecriticalissuesforjob-seekingteensisthechangingfaceofthecompetitionwhichisincreasinglyskilled."Notonlyaretheycompetingwitheachotherforavailablepositionsbuttheyarecompetingwithrecentcollegegraduatesandjobseekerswhohavetwoormoreyearsofon-the-jobexperienceandarewillingtotakealmostanypositionthatprovidesasteadypaycheck"saysJohnChallengerofoutplacementfirmChallengerGray&Christmas. ThewordwallopedLine3Paragraph1mostprobablymeans.
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 19
AFrenchmanthepsychologistAlfredBinetpublishedthefirststandardizedtestofhumanintelligencein1905.46ButitwasanAmericanLewisTermanapsychologyprofessoratStanfordwhothoughttodividea_testtaker’smentalageasrevealedbythatscorebyhisorherbiologicalagetoderiveanumberthathecalledIQ.Itwouldbehardtothinkofapop-scientificcoinagethathashadagreaterimpactonthewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselvesandothers.47Nocountry:embracedtheIQmorethoroughlythantheU.S.wheremillionsofpeoplehavetheirIQmeasuredannuallymanywithadirectdescendantofBinet’soriginaltestalthoughnotnecessarilyforthepurposeBinetintended.Hedevelopedhistestasawayofidentifyingpublicschoolstudentswhoneededextrahelpinlearningandthatisstilloneofitsleadinguses.ButthebroaderandmorecontroversialuseofIQtestinghasitsrootsinatheoryofintelligence—partsciencepartsociology—thatdevelopedinthelate19thcenturybeforeBinet’sworkandentirelyseparatefromit.48ChampionedfirstbyCharlesDarwin’scousinFrancisGaltonitheldthatintelligencewasthemostvaluablehumanattributeandthatifpeoplewhohadalotofitcouldbeidentifiedandputinleadershippositionsallofsocietywouldbenefit.TermanbelievedIQtestsshouldbeusedtoconductagreatsortingoutofthepopulationsothatyoungpeoplewouldbeassignedonthebasisoftheirscorestoparticularlevelsintheschoolsystemwhichwouldleadtocorrespondingsocioeconomicdestinationsinadultlife.ThebeginningoftheIQ-testingmovementoverlappedwiththeeugenicsmovement—hugelypopularinAmericaandEuropeamongthebettersort.In1958aBritishsociologistnamedMichaelYoungcoinedthewordmeritocracytodenoteasocietythatorganizesitselfaccordingtoIQ-testscores.TermanandmanyotherearlyadvocatesofIQtestinghadinmindthecreationofanAmericanmeritocracythoughtheworddidn’texistthen.49TheybelievedIQtestscouldbethemeanstocreateforthefirsttimeeverasocietyinwhichadvantagewouldgotothepeoplewhodeserveditratherthantothosewhohadbeenbornintoit.InordertobelievethisthoughyouhavetobelievethatmeritandascoreonanIQtestarethesamething.50LongbeforeIQwasinventedAmericaprideditselfonbeingacountrywithoutaclasssysteminwhichpeopleoftalentandindustrywouldriseandberewarded.TheadventofintelligencetestsdidnotdramaticallyaffectthedegreeofsocialmobilityintheU.S.—atleastnotenoughforanychangetoshowupinthesocial-sciencedata.
MarkTwainonceobservedthatgivingupsmokingiseasy.Heknewbecausehe’ddoneithundredsoftimeshimself.Givingupforeverisatriflemoredifficultapparentlyanditiswellknownthatitismuchmoredifficultforsomepeoplethanforothers.Whyisthisso Fewdoctorsbelieveanylongerthatitissimplyaquestionofwillpower.Andforthosepeoplethatcontinuetoviewaddictsasmerely"weak"recentgeneticresearchmayforcearethink.AstudyconductedbyJacquelineVinkoftheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamusedadatabasecalledtheNetherlandsTwinRegistertoanalyzethesmokinghabitsoftwins.HerresultspublishedinthePharmacogenomicsJournalsuggestthatanindividual’sdegreeofnicotinedependenceandeventhenumberofcigaretteshesmokesperdayarestronglygeneticallyinfluenced. TheNetherlandsTwinRegisterisavoluntarydatabasethatcontainsdetailsofsome7000pairsofadulttwinsagedbetween15and70and28000pairsofchildhoodtwins.Suchdatabasesareprizedbygeneticistsbecausetheyallowthecomparisonofidenticaltwinswhosharealltheirgeneswithfraternaltwinswhosharehalf.InthiscasehoweverDr.Vinkdidnotmakeuseofthatfact.Forherthedatabasewasmerelyaconvenientrepositoryofinformation.Insteadofcomparingidenticalandfraternaltwinssheconcentratedontheadultfraternaltwinsmostofwhomhadcompletedquestionnairesabouttheirhabitsincludingsmokingand536ofwhomhadgivenDNAsamplestotheregister. Thehumangenomeishuge.ItconsistsofbillionsofDNA"letters"someofwhichcanbestrungtogethertomakesensethegenesbutmanyofwhichhaveeithernofunctionoranunknownfunction.Tofollowwhatisgoingongeneticistsrelyonmarkerstheyhaveidentifiedwithinthegenome.Theseareplaceswherethegeneticlettersmayvarybetweenindividuals.Ifaparticularvariantisroutinelyassociatedwithaparticularphysicalfeatureorabehaviorpatternitsuggeststhataparticularversionofanearbygeneisinfluencingthatfeatureorbehavior. Dr.Vinkfoundfourmarkerswhichseemedtobeassociatedwithsmoking.Theywereonchromosomes3610and14suggestingthatatleastfourgenesareinvolved.Dr.Vinkhopesthatfindinggenesresponsiblefornicotinedependencewillmakeitpossibletoidentifythecausesofsuchdependence.Thatwillhelptoclassifysmokersbettersomearesocialsmokerswhileothersarephysicallyaddictedandthusenable"quitting"programstobecustomized. ResultssuchasDr.Vink’smustbeinterpretedwithcare.Associationstudiesassuchprojectsareknownhaveadisturbinghabitofdisappearingasitwereinapuffofsmokewhensomeonetriestoreplicatethem.ButifDr.VinkreallyhasexposedageneticlinkwithaddictionthenMarkTwain’sproblemmayeventuallybecomeathingofthepast. ThemajordifferencebetweenDr.Vinkandothergeneticistsisthat
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 3
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently--thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone--isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright. Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets--whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife--nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages. Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastthreesentencesthat
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 13
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently--thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone--isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright. Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets--whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife--nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages. Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse. Thefirstsentenceoftheopeningparagraphindicatesthat
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 17
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently--thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone--isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright. Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets--whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife--nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages. Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse. Intheauthor’sopinionthecountriesthatruledoveralargenumberofothercountriesare
MarkTwainonceobservedthatgivingupsmokingiseasy.Heknewbecausehe’ddoneithundredsoftimeshimself.Givingupforeverisatriflemoredifficultapparentlyanditiswellknownthatitismuchmoredifficultforsomepeoplethanforothers.Whyisthisso Fewdoctorsbelieveanylongerthatitissimplyaquestionofwillpower.Andforthosepeoplethatcontinuetoviewaddictsasmerely"weak"recentgeneticresearchmayforcearethink.AstudyconductedbyJacquelineVinkoftheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamusedadatabasecalledtheNetherlandsTwinRegistertoanalyzethesmokinghabitsoftwins.HerresultspublishedinthePharmacogenomicsJournalsuggestthatanindividual’sdegreeofnicotinedependenceandeventhenumberofcigaretteshesmokesperdayarestronglygeneticallyinfluenced. TheNetherlandsTwinRegisterisavoluntarydatabasethatcontainsdetailsofsome7000pairsofadulttwinsagedbetween15and70and28000pairsofchildhoodtwins.Suchdatabasesareprizedbygeneticistsbecausetheyallowthecomparisonofidenticaltwinswhosharealltheirgeneswithfraternaltwinswhosharehalf.InthiscasehoweverDr.Vinkdidnotmakeuseofthatfact.Forherthedatabasewasmerelyaconvenientrepositoryofinformation.Insteadofcomparingidenticalandfraternaltwinssheconcentratedontheadultfraternaltwinsmostofwhomhadcompletedquestionnairesabouttheirhabitsincludingsmokingand536ofwhomhadgivenDNAsamplestotheregister. Thehumangenomeishuge.ItconsistsofbillionsofDNA"letters"someofwhichcanbestrungtogethertomakesensethegenesbutmanyofwhichhaveeithernofunctionoranunknownfunction.Tofollowwhatisgoingongeneticistsrelyonmarkerstheyhaveidentifiedwithinthegenome.Theseareplaceswherethegeneticlettersmayvarybetweenindividuals.Ifaparticularvariantisroutinelyassociatedwithaparticularphysicalfeatureorabehaviorpatternitsuggeststhataparticularversionofanearbygeneisinfluencingthatfeatureorbehavior. Dr.Vinkfoundfourmarkerswhichseemedtobeassociatedwithsmoking.Theywereonchromosomes3610and14suggestingthatatleastfourgenesareinvolved.Dr.Vinkhopesthatfindinggenesresponsiblefornicotinedependencewillmakeitpossibletoidentifythecausesofsuchdependence.Thatwillhelptoclassifysmokersbettersomearesocialsmokerswhileothersarephysicallyaddictedandthusenable"quitting"programstobecustomized. ResultssuchasDr.Vink’smustbeinterpretedwithcare.Associationstudiesassuchprojectsareknownhaveadisturbinghabitofdisappearingasitwereinapuffofsmokewhensomeonetriestoreplicatethem.ButifDr.VinkreallyhasexposedageneticlinkwithaddictionthenMarkTwain’sproblemmayeventuallybecomeathingofthepast. TheultimatepurposeofDr.Vink’sresearchisto
Animationisakindofmotionpicturescreatedbyrecordingaseriesofstillimages-ofdrawingsobjectsorpeopleinvariouspositionsofincrementalmovement-thatwhenplayedbacknolongerappearindividuallyasstaticimagesbutcombinetoproducetheillusionofunbrokenmotion.Thetermanimationappliestocreationsonfilmvideoorcomputersandeventomotiontoyswhichusuallyconsistofaseriesofdrawingsorphotographsonpaperthatareviewedwithamechanicaldeviceorbyflippingthroughahand-heldsequenceofimages.41TechniquesTherearemanywaystocreateanimationdependingonwhetherthematerialsusedareflatsuchasdrawingspaintingsorcut-outpiecesofpaperordimensionalsuchasclaypuppetshouseholdobjectsorevenpeople.42ProductionProcessAfterchoosinganideaforafilmananimatormustthinkaboutaconceptintermsofindividualactions.43HistoryAnimationhasbeenapartofcinemahistoryfromthetimethefirstmotionpicturesweremadeinthelate1800s.44WaltDisneyThecompany’sfounderWaltDisneywasborninChicagoIllinoisbutgrewupinKansasCityMissouriwherehemetanimatorUb1werksandcomposerCarlStallingwhoweretobeimportanttohisfuturesuccess.45JapaneseAnimationJapaneseanimationknownasanimeblossomedafterWorldWarII1939-1945andtodayisimmenselypopularbothwithinJapanandworldwide.CurrentTrendsTwotrendsintheanimationindustryarelikelytohaveaprofoundinfluenceonitsfutureasignificantincreaseinproductionandexhibitionopportunitiesandthegrowingimportanceofnewtechnologies.[A]Someearlylive-actionfilmsknownastrickfilmsusedtheanimationtechniqueofstopactioninwhichthecameraisstoppedandanobjectisremovedoraddedtoashotbeforefilmingisresumed.[B]Disneywithhisthen-partnerIwerkscreatedacharacterthatwastobecomethemostfamousanimatedfigureinhistoryMickeyMouse.[C]Asidefromtelevisionperhapsthelargestinfluenceonthestyleofrecentanimationworldwidehascomefromcomputertechnologies.Experimentswithelectronicanimationbeganinthe1930sbutitwasnotuntilthelate1970sthatcomputeranimationbecameviablebeyondscientificandgovernmentapplicationsparticularlyforusebytheentertainmentindustry.[D]Ineachcaseananimatormustkeepinmindthebasicprincipleofframespersecondthenumberofimagesneededtoproduceonesecondoffilm.Becausesoundfilmrunsattwentyfourframespersecondafilmanimatormustmaketwenty-fourimagesforeachsecondofanimationthatheorshewishestocreate.[E]ThemostimportanthistoricalfigureinJapaneseanimationOsamuTezukacreatedthefirstanimatedtelevisionseriesinJapanTetsuwanAtomAstroBoy.[F]Forinstanceifananimatordecidesonanactionthatwilltake3secondsofanimationtocompletetheanimatorwillhavetocreateimagestofill72framesoffilm3secondsofmovementmultipliedbyarunningspeedof24framespersecond.
Makinggoodcoffeeisnotasimplebusiness.Coffeebushesmustbegrowninshade.Ahillsideisbest--butitmustn’tbetoo1.Afterthreeyearsthebusheswillstartto2bright-redcoffee"cherries"whicharepickedprocessedto3theinnerpartandspreadouttodryfordays4onconcrete.Theyare5againtoseparatethebeanwhichneedstorestpreferablyforafewmonths.Onlythencanitberoastedgroundandbrewed6thestuffthatdreamsaresuppressedwith. InMexicoandpartsofCentralAmerica7inColombiamostcoffeefarmersaresmallholders.Theyfounditespeciallyhardto8therecentfallinthecoffeeprice.The9oftheirincomemakesithardforfarmerstoinvestto10theircropsaysFernandoCelis.Thefallforcedmanysmallfarmersto11othercropsormigratetocities. Forfarmersonewayoutofthis12istoseparatethepricetheyarepaid13theinternationalcommoditiesmarkets.Thisisthe14ofFair-tradeanorganizationwhichcertifiesproductsas"responsibly"sourced.Fair-tradedeterminesatwhatpricefarmersmakewhatitconsidersa15profit.Itscurrent16isthattheappropriatefigureis10%abovethemarketprice. 17salesofFair-trade-certifiedcoffeehaveincreasedfrom$22.5mperyearto$87mperyearsince1998.Thisisstillatinyfractionoftheoverallworldcoffeetradeworth$10billion18Butthereareplentyofothermarketsforhigh-qualitycoffee.Somesmallproducerscan19morebymarketingtheircoffeeasorganicor"bird-friendly"becauseunlikelargemechanizedplantationstheyhave20shadetrees. 5
Despitedecadesofscientificresearchnooneyetknowshowmuchdamagehumanactivityisdoingtotheenvironment.Humansarethoughttoberesponsibleforawholehostofenvironmentalproblemsrangingfromglobalwarningtoozonedepletion.Whatisnotindoubthoweveristhedevastatingeffecthumansarehavingontheanimalandplantlifeoftheplanet. Currentlyanestimated50000speciesbecomeextincteveryyear.IfthiscarriesontheimpactonalllivingcreaturesislikelytobeprofoundsaysDr.NickMiddletonageographeratOxfordUniversity."Allspeciesdependinsomewayoneachothertosurvive.Andthedangeristhatifyouremoveonespeciesfromthisverycomplexwebofinterrelationshipsyouhaveverylittleideaabouttheknock-oneffectsofotherextinctions." Complicatingmattersisthefactthattherearenoobvioussolutionstotheproblem.Unlikeglobalwarningandozonedepletion—whichifthepoliticalwillwastherecouldbereducedbycuttinggasemissions—preservingbiodiversityremainsanintractableproblem. Thelatestideais"sustainablemanagement"whichisseenasapracticalandeconomicalwayofprotectingspeciesfromextinction.Thismeanshumansshouldbeabletouseanyspeciesofanimalorplantfortheirbenefitprovidedenoughindividualsofthatspeciesareleftalivetoensureitscontinuedexistence. Forinstanceinsteadofdependingonlargelyineffectivelawsagainstpoachingitgiveslocalpeopleagoodeconomicreasontopreserveplantsandanimals.InZimbabwethereisasustainablemanagementprojectelephants.Foreigntouristspaylargesumsofmoneytokilltheseanimalsforsport.Thismoneyisthengiventotheinhabitantsoftheareawherethehuntingtakesplace.Intheorylocalswillbeencouragedtoprotectelephantsinsteadofpoachingthem—orallowingotherstopoachthem—becauseoftheeconomicbenefitinvolved. Thissoundslikeasensiblestrategybutitremainstobeseenwhetheritwillwork.Withcorruptionendemicinmanydevelopingcountriessomeobserversareskepticalthatthemoneywillactuallyreachthepeopleitisintendedfor．Otherswonderhoweffectivethelocalswillbeatstoppingpoachers. Therearealsoquestionsaboutwhethersustainablemanagementispracticalwhenitcomestoprotectingareasofgreat-bio-diversitysuchastheworld’stropicalforests.Intheorytheprincipleshouldbethesameaswithelephants—allowloggingcompaniestocutdownacertainnumberoftreesbutnotsomanyastocompletelydestroytheforest. Sustainablemanagementofforestsrequirescontrolsonthenumberoftreeswhicharecutdownaswellasinvestmentinreplacingthem.Butbecausealmostalltropicalforestsarelocatedincountrieswhichdesperatelyneedrevenuefromloggingtherearefewregulationstodothis.Moreoverunrestrictedloggingissomuchmoreprofitablethatwoodpricesfrommanagedforestswouldcostuptofivetimesmore—anincreasethatconsumersnomatterhow"green"areunlikelytopay. Forthesereasonssustainablemanagementoftropicalforestsisunlikelytobecomewidespreadinthenearfuture.Thisisdishearteningnews.It’sestimatedtheseforestscontainanythingfrom50to90percentofallanimalandplantspeciesonEarth.Inonestudyofafive-square-kilometerareaofrainforestinPeruforinstancescientistscounted1300speciesofbutterflyand600speciesofbird.IntheentirecontinentalUnitedStatesonly400speciesofbutterflyand700speciesofbirdhavebeenrecorded. ScientistProfessorNormanMyersseesthissituationasagigantic"experimentwe’reconductingwithourplanet"."Wedon’tknowwhattheoutcomewillbe.Ifwemakeamessofitwecan’tmovetoanotherplanet…It’sacaseofoneplanetoneexperiment. WhatfactorsmightNOTaffectthepracticalityofsustainablemanagement
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