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苏合香丸中配伍白术、诃子的用意是
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苏合香丸中具有防止辛香走窜作用的药物是
芡实
莲子肉
诃子
乌梅
山萸肉
苏合香丸配伍诃子的用意是
敛气护正
敛肺止咳
涩肠止泻
敛阴止渴
利咽开音
因配伍禁忌而不宣合用的药组是
理中丸与健脾丸
金锁固精丸与参苓白术丸
胆宁片与苏合香丸
附子理中丸与牛黄解毒片
参芪丸与柏子养心丸
因配伍禁忌而不宜合用的药组是
理中丸与健脾丸
金锁固精丸与参苓白术丸
胆宁片与苏合香丸
附子理中丸与牛黄解毒片
参芪丸与柏子养心丸
苏合香丸的组成药物中不含
白术
诃子
犀角
朱砂
甘草
因配伍禁忌而不宜合用的药组是
理中丸与健脾丸
金锁固精丸与参苓白术丸
胆宁片与苏合香丸
附子理中丸与牛黄解毒片
参芪丸与柏子养心丸(2008年考试真题)
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A.Theculpritisclimatechangecausedbysociety’sburningoffossilfuels.Whenitcomestoglobalwarmingfarmerswhoaremoreattunedtoweatherpatternsthanmostpeople—maybetheproverbialcanariesinthecoalmine.Theweatherofcoursehasneverbeenexactlydependable—farmershavealwaysbeenatthemercyofthevagariesofsunandrain.Generalweatherpatternshaveatleastbeenbroadlypredictableallowingfarmerstoknowwhentosowtheirseedswhentotransplantwhentoharvest.Asweatherpatternsbecomelessreliablegrowerswillbetestedtodevelopnewrhythmsandsystemsforgrowingcrops. B.MostkeyboardjockeyswoulddiefortheviewfromOrinMartin’sofficewindow:appletreesinblossomlinesofcitrusdozensofvarietiesofflowersandneatrowsofpeppersandpotatoes.MartinisafarmerinSantaCruzCali~whereforthelast30yearshehasbeenaninstructorattheUniversityofCalifornia’sagro-ecologyprogramoneofthenation’soldestorganicagriculturecurriculums. C.Whatallagricultureexpertsagreeonisthatfarmersneedtostartpreparingtodayforclimatechange.Growersoughttobethinkingaboutwhatwarmertemperaturesfluctuationsinprecipitationandanincreaseinextremeweathereventswillmeanfortheirfarmsandhowtheycanrespond."Thisischange;it’snotnecessarilydisaster"saysGrubinger."Thedisasterwillcomeifpeoplearen’tprepared." D.Inrecentyearshoweversomethinghasbeenwronginhisidyllicsetting.Theweatherischanginginstrangeways.FromNewEnglandtotheMidwesttoCaliforniafarmersandscientistsarenoticingthatonce-dependableweatherpatternsareshifting. E.Amongfarmersandresearchersthereisdisagreementaboutwhichtypesofgrowersclimatechangewillimpactmost—largeagribusinessgrowingoperationsorsmallerfamily-runfarms.Someagricultureindustryobserverssaythatthebiggerfarmerswillhaveanadvantageincopingwithweatherchangesastheywillhavemoreresourcestoswitchtonewcrops.Otherssaythatsincefamilyfarmsusuallygrowawiderrangeofcropstheirbiologicaldiversitywillmakeiteasiertocopewithwhateverchangesoccur. F.Toomuchrainatthewrongtimecanmakeitdifficulttoplantorharvestcrops.Above-averagerainfallalsocontributestofungiandinsectsthatcandramaticallyreducecropyields.Toomuchwarmthisequallyproblematic.Someplantsrequireacertainnumberoffrostdayseachyearinordertothrivethefollowingspring.Astemperatureswarmfarmersmayfindthemselveshavingtoeithershifttodifferentcropsoractuallymovetheiroperationstonewlocales.Unreliableweatherwillmakeitharderforfarmerstobeasproductiveaswehavecometoexpect. Order: 4
A.Theculpritisclimatechangecausedbysociety’sburningoffossilfuels.Whenitcomestoglobalwarmingfarmerswhoaremoreattunedtoweatherpatternsthanmostpeople—maybetheproverbialcanariesinthecoalmine.Theweatherofcoursehasneverbeenexactlydependable—farmershavealwaysbeenatthemercyofthevagariesofsunandrain.Generalweatherpatternshaveatleastbeenbroadlypredictableallowingfarmerstoknowwhentosowtheirseedswhentotransplantwhentoharvest.Asweatherpatternsbecomelessreliablegrowerswillbetestedtodevelopnewrhythmsandsystemsforgrowingcrops. B.MostkeyboardjockeyswoulddiefortheviewfromOrinMartin’sofficewindow:appletreesinblossomlinesofcitrusdozensofvarietiesofflowersandneatrowsofpeppersandpotatoes.MartinisafarmerinSantaCruzCali~whereforthelast30yearshehasbeenaninstructorattheUniversityofCalifornia’sagro-ecologyprogramoneofthenation’soldestorganicagriculturecurriculums. C.Whatallagricultureexpertsagreeonisthatfarmersneedtostartpreparingtodayforclimatechange.Growersoughttobethinkingaboutwhatwarmertemperaturesfluctuationsinprecipitationandanincreaseinextremeweathereventswillmeanfortheirfarmsandhowtheycanrespond."Thisischange;it’snotnecessarilydisaster"saysGrubinger."Thedisasterwillcomeifpeoplearen’tprepared." D.Inrecentyearshoweversomethinghasbeenwronginhisidyllicsetting.Theweatherischanginginstrangeways.FromNewEnglandtotheMidwesttoCaliforniafarmersandscientistsarenoticingthatonce-dependableweatherpatternsareshifting. E.Amongfarmersandresearchersthereisdisagreementaboutwhichtypesofgrowersclimatechangewillimpactmost—largeagribusinessgrowingoperationsorsmallerfamily-runfarms.Someagricultureindustryobserverssaythatthebiggerfarmerswillhaveanadvantageincopingwithweatherchangesastheywillhavemoreresourcestoswitchtonewcrops.Otherssaythatsincefamilyfarmsusuallygrowawiderrangeofcropstheirbiologicaldiversitywillmakeiteasiertocopewithwhateverchangesoccur. F.Toomuchrainatthewrongtimecanmakeitdifficulttoplantorharvestcrops.Above-averagerainfallalsocontributestofungiandinsectsthatcandramaticallyreducecropyields.Toomuchwarmthisequallyproblematic.Someplantsrequireacertainnumberoffrostdayseachyearinordertothrivethefollowingspring.Astemperatureswarmfarmersmayfindthemselveshavingtoeithershifttodifferentcropsoractuallymovetheiroperationstonewlocales.Unreliableweatherwillmakeitharderforfarmerstobeasproductiveaswehavecometoexpect. Order: 2
Lifeatleastforaseedisbetteroutintheworld.1.Seedsknowhowtogetaround.2.Buttheyallhavethesamegoal:totakerootandgiverisetothenextgeneration.Scientistscanunderstandwhattypeofdispersalstrategyaplantemploysbylookingatitsenvironment.Forexampledispersalbyseacurrentsisimportantforplantsthatgrowonseashoresandwindisimportantinopengrasslands.Andforeachtypeofdispersalthereisatypeofdesign.3.AmongspecieswithseedsdispersedinternallybyanimalsthesizeoftheseedorfruititscolorandthepresenceofprotectivehuskswillreflecttheswallowingvisualandprocessingabilitiesoftheseeddisperserBirkinshawsaid.Forexampleseedsspreadbysmallbirdswillbesmallinsizecoveredwithplantfleshtogivethebirdsarewardforeatingithusklesssincemostbirdsareillequippedtoremovesuchanoutershellandbrightlycoloredsincebirdshavegoodcolorvision.Someseedshavenospecificdispersalstrategylikethecoco-de-merapalmtreethatonlygrowsintheSeychellesanislandchainintheIndianOcean.ThesepalmshavethelargestseedsofanyplantandlackanyseeddispersalmethodotherthangravityBirkinshawsaid.InothercasesaswiththerareMadagascanpalmsSatranaladecussilvaeandVoanioalagerardiitheseedscollectinpilesbeneaththeirparenttrees.4.AccordingtoJohnDransfieldanexpertonMadagascanpalmswiththeUnitedKingdom’sRoyalBotanicGardenKewbothofthesepalmshaveverylargeseedsthatanimalsalivetodayareincapableofmoving.Youstartdreamingupstoriesthatitcouldhavebeendistributedbyanowextinctanimalhesaid.PossibleextinctdispersersofthepalmsarelargelemursthatonceroamedMadagascarorflightlesselephantbirdswhichwerethelargestbirdsknowntohavelivedinMadagascar.ThereareonlyafewoftheseMadagascanpalmsleftstanding.5.DonaldDrakeisabotanistwiththeUniversityofHawaiiinHonoluluwhostudieshowplantandanimalinteractionaffectsreproductionofnativeplantsandfoodfornativeanimalsinthePacificOceanislands.Hesaidlossofanimalstodisperseseedscertainlyimpactsaplant’sviabilitybuthardconclusivedataaredifficulttocomeby.HeandcolleagueKimMcConkeyarecurrentlyengagedinresearchthatsuggestsanimalsmaystopperformingecologicalfunctionssuchasseeddispersallongbeforetheygoextinct.WefoundthistobethecasewithflyingfoxesDrakesaid.FlyingfoxesareamongthefewremaininglargeanimalsthatdisperseseedsonislandsinthePacificandIndianOceans.ManyflyingfoxesareeitherrareorextinctDrakesaidIftheyceasetobeeffectivedisperserslongbeforereachingthatstagethereisapossibilitythattheresultswefoundareofwideapplicability.A.Wind-dispersedseedsaregenerallylightweightandhaveadaptationssuchaswingsandparachutessotheycancatcharideonthebreeze.Water-dispersedseedssuchascoconutsarebuoyant.Seedsdispersedbyanimalsusuallyofferanutritionalrewardsothattheyareeatenortheyarestickyorbarbedsotheycanlatchontopassingbodies.B.IfresearcherscanconfirmthatindeedtheanimaldisperserofthepalmsseedsareextinctthentheonlywaytopreventthetreesthemselvesfrombecomingextinctmaybetoreintroduceseedlingsintotheforestwithacontrolledprogramofreplantingDransfieldsaid.C.Inordertomaintaineffectiveseed-dispersingpopulationstheresearcherssayitisimportanttotakeconservationactionsbeforeseed-dispersinganimalspeciesdropbelowthisthreshold.D.Someflywiththewindothersgowiththeflow.Manyhitcharidewithunsuspectinganimals.E.Someanimalsceasebeingeffectiveseeddisperserswhentheirpopulationdensitiesfallbelowapointthatinducesthemtocompeteoverfoodresources—theystopbotheringtoscatterandhidetheirfoodstores.F.Ingeneralseeddispersalawayfromtheparentplantincreasesthechancesthataseedwillreachmaturity.G.Researchersbelievethatperhapstheiranimaldispersersarelongextinct.
Withthepaceoftechnologicalchangemakingheadsspinwetendtothinkofourageasthemostinnovativeever.Wehavesmartphonesandsupercomputersbigdataandstem-celltransplants.Governmentsuniversitiesandfirmstogetherspendaround$1.4trillionayearonR&Dmorethaneverbefore.Yetnobodyrecentlyhascomeupwithaninventionhalfasusefulastoilet.Withitscleanlinesandintuitiveuserinterfacethehumbletoilettransformedthelivesofbillionsofpeople.1.Modemsciencehasfailedtomakeanythinglikethesameimpactandthisiswhyagrowingbandofthinkersclaimthatthepaceofinnovationhasslowed.2.Iftherateatwhichweinnovateandspreadslowsdownsotoootherthingsbeingequalwillourgrowthrate.EversinceMalthusforecastthatwewouldallstarvehumaningenuityhasprovedtheprophetsofdoomwrong.Butthesedaystheimpactofinnovationdoesindeedseemtobetailingoff.3.Productivityalsosupportsthepessimists’case:ittookoffinthemid-19thcenturyacceleratedintheearly20thcenturyandheldupprettywelluntiltheearly1970s.Itthendippedsharplytickedupinlate1990swithcomputerizationanddippedagaininthemid-2000s.Yetthatpatternisnotasconclusivelygloomyasthedoomsayersclaim.Lifeexpectancyisstillimprovingevenintherichworld.4.Moreoveritistooearlytowriteofftheinnovativeimpactofthepresentage.Thisgeneration’scontributiontotechnologicalprogressliesmostlyininformationtechnologyIT.5.Butaswithelectricitycompanieswilltaketimetolearnhowtousethemsoitwillprobablybemanydecadesbeforetheirfullimpactisfelt.ComputingpowerisalreadycontributingtodramaticadvancesfarbeyondthefieldofIT.Three-dimensionalprintingmaycauseanewindustrialrevolution.AutonomousvehicleslikethedriverlesscarsproducedbyGooglecouldbecommononstreetswithinadecade.Andalthoughitistoosoontojudgehowbigadealtheseinventionswillturnouttobeglobalizationshouldmakethisafruitfulperiodforinnovation.A.Theproductivitygainsafterelectrificationcamenotsmoothlybutinspurts;andthedrop-offsince2004probablyhasmoretodowiththeeconomiccrisisthanwithunderlyinglackofinvention.B.Economicgrowthisamodeminvention:20th-centurygrowthrateswerefarhigherthanthoseinthe19thcenturyandpre-1750growthrateswerealmostimperceptiblebymodemstandards.C.Ratheraselectrificationchangedeverythingbyallowingenergytobeusedfarfromwhereitwasgeneratedcomputingandcommunicationstechnologiestransformlivesandbusinessesbyallowingpeopletomakecalculationsandconnectionsfarbeyondtheirunaidedcapacity.D.Anditwasn’tjustmodemsanitationthatsprangfromlate-19thandearly-20th-centurybrains:theyproducedcarsplanesthetelephoneradioandantibiotics.E.Manymorebrainsareatworknowthanwere100yearsago:AmericanandEuropeaninventorshavebeenjoinedintheracetoproducecoolnewstuffbythosefrommanyothercountries.F.Ifthepessimistsarerighttheimplicationsarehuge.Economiescangenerategrowthbyaddingmorestuff:moreworkersinvestmentandeducation.Butsustainedincreasesinoutputperpersonwhicharenecessarytoraiseincomesandwelfareentailusingthestuffwealreadyhaveinbetterways—innovatinginotherwords.G.LifeexpectancyinAmericaforinstancehasrisenmoreslowlysince1980thanintheearly20thcentury.Thespeedoftravelintherichworldatleastisoftenslowernowthanitwasagenerationearlierafterrocketingacenturyorsoago.
It’slongbeenknownbutlittlediscussedinpolitehigh-techcirclesthatinformation-agetechnologyisnotthecleanindustryitclaimstobe.ManufacturingasinglePCcangenerate139poundsofwasteandinvolvesahostofchemicalslinkedtohighratesofcancerandbirthdefectsamongworkersandcommunities.1.DisposalCrisisofE-wasteElectronicwastee-waste—suchasobsoleteanddiscardedcomputersmonitorsprinterscellphonesandtelevisions—isoneofthefastestgrowingwastestreamsinthedevelopedworldthankstotheindustry’sphilosophyofdesignforimmediateobsolescenceandaweakelectronics-recyclinginfrastructure.2.PublicHealthProblemsIfthefullforceofthehigh-techrevolutionhitsthelandfillitshealthriskswillleavenocommunityuntouched.3.TheEuropeanSolutionTheEuropeanUnioniswayaheadoftheU.S.inrecognizingthehazardsandmovingtowardsasolution.4.HowWilltheU.S.ProceedBecausetheU.S.high-techindustryanditsfriendsinWashingtonrepresentthebiggestobstaclestotheglobalizationoftake-backlawsabroadcoalitionofenvironmentalhealthlaborandrecyclinggroupsandlocalgovernmentshasformedtheComputerTakeBackCampaigntosupportEU-stylelegislationintheU.S.5.GoingGlobalTheEuropeanapproachismorethanaminorsoftwarepatchonafundamentallyflawedprogram.Byestablishingcorporateresponsibilityforproductsattheendoftheirlivesthisstrategycouldhavewide-rangingeffectsontheinformationtechnologyindustry.TheEUapproachspreadsenvironmentalbenefitsgloballyratherthanshiftingpollutiontodevelopingnations.A.IfwecanadopttheEU’scodeintheU.S.wecandoabitofreverseengineeringonglobalization.BydownloadingEurope’sprogramtotheU.S.wecanfinallybegintocleanupthecleanindustryaroundtheglobe.B.Anestimated300to500millioncomputerswilldescendonlandfillsby2007intheU.S.alone.Three-quartersofallcomputerseversoldinthiscountryawaitdisposalingaragesandstoragefacilitiesbecausetheirownersdon’tknowwhattodowiththem.C.ThefirstEuropeanUniondirectiveone-wasteadoptedlastyearrequiresproducerstotakeresponsibilityfortheentirelifecycleoftheirproducts.By2005companieswilleitherhavetotakebackproductsdirectlyfromconsumersorfundindependentcollectorstodoso.Wastethatwasgeneratedpriortotheenactmentdatewillbetheresponsibilityofallexistingcompaniesinproportiontotheirmarketshare.Futurewasteistobetheindividualresponsibilityofeachcompanytherebycreatinganincentivetoredesignproductsforeasierandsaferrecyclinganddisposal.Noe-wastewillbeallowedinmunicipalwastestreams.D.E-wasteaccountsfor5percentofallsolidwasteinAmericabutapproximately40percentofthelead70percentoftheheavymetalsandasignificantportionoftheorganicchemicalpollutantsinAmerica’sdumps.Thise-wastecanleachintothegroundasitdidintheSiliconValley.Itwasthewidespreadcontaminationofthevalley’saquifersintheearly1980sthatinitiallypuncturedthehigh-techindustry’scleanimage.Currently;therearemoreEPAsuperfundcleanupsitesinthisvalleythananywhereelseintheU.S.Thethreattosoildrinkingwaterandpublichealthwillgrowase-wastesurgesintothewastestreamworldwide.E.HundredsoforganizationsandlocalgovernmentsintheU.S.havealreadyendorsedthecampaign’splatform.ThecampaignadvocatesthattheU.S.adoptstandardsforelectronicsmanufacturersatleastasstringentasthoseadoptedbytheEU:hazardousmaterialswouldbephasedoutandallelectronicswouldbedesignedforreuseandrecycling.Thecampaignhassparkedlegislativegroundswell.Inthepastyearalone20stateshaveintroducedlegislationtoaddresse-waste.F.Localgovernmentsandtaxpayersnowpickupthetabforthedisposalofe-waste.ThestateofCaliforniaforexamplefacesanestimated$1billionine-wastedisposalcostsoverthenextfewyears.
Smokingmeansinhalationandexhalationofthefumesofburningtobacco.Leavesofthetobaccoplantaresmokedinvariousways.Afteradryingandcuringprocesstheymayberolledintocigarsorshreddedforinsertionintosmokingpipes.Cigarettesthemostpopularmethodofsmokingconsistoffinelyshreddedtobaccorolledinlightweightpaper.About50millionpeopleintheUnitedStatescurrentlysmokeanestimatedtotalof570billioncigaretteseachyear.Butissmokingagoodhabit1.IncreasedriskofcancerSomeexpertsnoticedthatlungcancerwhichwasrarebeforethe20thcenturyhadincreaseddramaticallysinceabout1930TheAmericanCancerSocietyandotherorganizationsinitiatedstudiescomparingdeathsamongsmokersandnonsmokersoveraperiodofseveralyears.2.MoredeathsfromotherdiseasesSmokersalsorungreaterriskofdyingfromdiseasesapartfromcancers.3.CigarandpipesmokeasdangerousCigarandpipesmokecontainsthesametoxicandcarcinogeniccompoundsfoundincigarettesmoke.4.TheeffectofenvironmentaltobaccosmokeRecentresearchhasfocusedontheeffectsofenvironmentaltobaccosmokeETSthatistheeffectoftobaccosmokeonnonsmokerswhomustsharethesameenvironmentwithasmoker.5.AddictionatanearlyageThesmokinghabitandaddictiontonicotineusuallybeginsatanearlyage.Thishasledtoparticularconcernoversmokinginteenagersandyoungadults.Thereisnoneedtokillinnocenthumanbeings.Restrictingtobaccousemaybetheonlyanswertoahealthyworld.Tobaccoisharmfulnotonlytousbuttothepeopleinsurroundingareas.Tobaccousehasbeenpassedonfromgenerationtogeneration.Itisnowtimetoputabanonsmoking.Withthehelpofthousandsofpeoplesmokingcanbecontrolled.Nowitisthetimetostartatobaccobattle.Smokingneedstobecomeextinctworldwide.A.AreportbytheNationalCancerInstituteconcludedthatthemortalityratesfromcancerofthemouththroatlarynxpharynxandesophagusareapproximatelyequalinusersofcigarettescigarsandpipes.Ratesofcoronaryheartdiseaselungcanceremphysemaandchronicbronchitisareelevatedforcigarandpipesmokersandarecorrelatedtotheamountofsmokingandthedegreeofinhalation.B.IntheUnitedStatesmorethan70percentofadultsbegansmokingbeforetheageof18.Fromtheearlytomid-1990stheproportionofteenagesmokersintheUnitedStatesrosefromone-quartertoonethirddespiteincreasingwarningsaboutthehealthhazardsofsmokingandwidespreadbansonsmokinginpublicplaces.In2001surveysofstudentsingrades9through12foundthatmorethan38percentofmalestudentsandnearly30percentoffemalestudentssmoke.Althoughblackteenagershavethelowestsmokingratesofanyracialgroupcigarettesmokingamongblackteensincreased80percentinthelate1990s.C.Itisestimatedthatcigarettesareresponsibleforabout431000deathsintheUnitedStateseachyear.Lungcanceraccountsforabout30percentofallcancerdeathsintheUnitedStatesandsmokingaccountsfornearly90percentoflungcancerdeaths.Therisksofdyingfromlungcancerare23timeshigherformalesmokersand13timeshigherforfemalesmokersthannonsmokers.Additionallysmokersareatincreasedriskforcancerofthelarynxoralcavityesophagusbladderkidneyandpancreas.D.Researchhasshownthatmotherswhosmokegivebirthmorefrequentlytoprematureorunderweightbabiesprobablybecauseofadecreaseinbloodflowtotheplacenta.E.TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPAestimatesthatexposuretotheenvironmentthatcontainsallthetoxicagentsexhaledbyasmokercauses3000cancerdeathsandanestimated40000deathsfromheartdiseaseperyearinnonsmokers.Secondhandsmokecanaggravateasthmapneumoniabronchitisandimpairedbloodcirculation.F.Smokingcausesafivefoldincreaseintheriskofdyingfromchronicbronchitisandemphysemaandatwofoldincreaseindeathsfromdiseasesoftheheartandcoronaryarteries.Smokingalsoincreasestheriskofstrokeby50percent—40percentamongmenand60percentamongwomen.
Inmanydevelopingcountriessoftwarepiracyhasbecomepandemic.AccordingtoSoftwarePublishersAssociation95%ofthesoftwareinPakistanispirated89%inBrazil88%inMalaysiaand82%inMexico.1HundredsoftinygizmoshopsinthemazelikestreetsofSeoul’sYongsanelectronicsmarketofferbrandnameU.S.madeprogramsforaprogramerforafractionofthelistpriceincludingLotus1-2-3for$7.50suggestedretail:$368.NewDelhi’slargestpirateoutletisabackroomoperationthatofferscustomersacatalogofnearly400titlesandfacilitiesformakingcopiesforaslittleas$4adisk$2.50forcustomerswhobringtheirownfloppies.Howtocombatthisrampantpiracy2Thepublishers’firstapproachwastocontrolitthroughtechnicalmeans—byputtingcodesintheirprogramsthatpreventedusersfromcopyingthem.Thisstrategyworkedforawhileoratleastuntildeterminedpiratesfoundwaystogetaroundit.3Butthecodesalsomadeitdifficultforlegitimateuserstocopyprogramsontotheirharddrives.Copyprotectionbecamesounpopularthatby1986mostpublishershadabandoneditastheirfirstlineofdefense.Buttheydidn’tgiveupaltogether.ThroughassociationslikeSoftwarePublishersAssociationtheybeganpickingoffpiratesoneatatimefocusingonthebiggestabusers.4SoftwarePublishersAssociationbeganrunningspotchecksandauditsonmajorcorporationssuingfordamageswhentheyfoundfirmshadboughtsayasinglecopyofaprogramandthenmadenumerousunlicensedcopiesforitsemployees.SoftwarePublishersAssociationalsoopenedahotlineonwhichanybodycanreporttheuseofillegalsoftware.Theorganizationnowgets20to30callsadaymostlyfromformerordisgruntledemployeesandcollectsmorethan$3.5millionayearinfinesandpenalties.5TheWashingtonbasedBusinessSoftwareAllianceisconductingsimilaroperationsoverseasputtingpressureonforeigngovernmentstoenforcethecopyrightlawsalreadyonthebooks.
Lifeatleastforaseedisbetteroutintheworld.1.Seedsknowhowtogetaround.2.Buttheyallhavethesamegoal:totakerootandgiverisetothenextgeneration.Scientistscanunderstandwhattypeofdispersalstrategyaplantemploysbylookingatitsenvironment.Forexampledispersalbyseacurrentsisimportantforplantsthatgrowonseashoresandwindisimportantinopengrasslands.Andforeachtypeofdispersalthereisatypeofdesign.3.AmongspecieswithseedsdispersedinternallybyanimalsthesizeoftheseedorfruititscolorandthepresenceofprotectivehuskswillreflecttheswallowingvisualandprocessingabilitiesoftheseeddisperserBirkinshawsaid.Forexampleseedsspreadbysmallbirdswillbesmallinsizecoveredwithplantfleshtogivethebirdsarewardforeatingithusklesssincemostbirdsareillequippedtoremovesuchanoutershellandbrightlycoloredsincebirdshavegoodcolorvision.Someseedshavenospecificdispersalstrategylikethecoco-de-merapalmtreethatonlygrowsintheSeychellesanislandchainintheIndianOcean.ThesepalmshavethelargestseedsofanyplantandlackanyseeddispersalmethodotherthangravityBirkinshawsaid.InothercasesaswiththerareMadagascanpalmsSatranaladecussilvaeandVoanioalagerardiitheseedscollectinpilesbeneaththeirparenttrees.4.AccordingtoJohnDransfieldanexpertonMadagascanpalmswiththeUnitedKingdom’sRoyalBotanicGardenKewbothofthesepalmshaveverylargeseedsthatanimalsalivetodayareincapableofmoving.Youstartdreamingupstoriesthatitcouldhavebeendistributedbyanowextinctanimalhesaid.PossibleextinctdispersersofthepalmsarelargelemursthatonceroamedMadagascarorflightlesselephantbirdswhichwerethelargestbirdsknowntohavelivedinMadagascar.ThereareonlyafewoftheseMadagascanpalmsleftstanding.5.DonaldDrakeisabotanistwiththeUniversityofHawaiiinHonoluluwhostudieshowplantandanimalinteractionaffectsreproductionofnativeplantsandfoodfornativeanimalsinthePacificOceanislands.Hesaidlossofanimalstodisperseseedscertainlyimpactsaplant’sviabilitybuthardconclusivedataaredifficulttocomeby.HeandcolleagueKimMcConkeyarecurrentlyengagedinresearchthatsuggestsanimalsmaystopperformingecologicalfunctionssuchasseeddispersallongbeforetheygoextinct.WefoundthistobethecasewithflyingfoxesDrakesaid.FlyingfoxesareamongthefewremaininglargeanimalsthatdisperseseedsonislandsinthePacificandIndianOceans.ManyflyingfoxesareeitherrareorextinctDrakesaidIftheyceasetobeeffectivedisperserslongbeforereachingthatstagethereisapossibilitythattheresultswefoundareofwideapplicability.A.Wind-dispersedseedsaregenerallylightweightandhaveadaptationssuchaswingsandparachutessotheycancatcharideonthebreeze.Water-dispersedseedssuchascoconutsarebuoyant.Seedsdispersedbyanimalsusuallyofferanutritionalrewardsothattheyareeatenortheyarestickyorbarbedsotheycanlatchontopassingbodies.B.IfresearcherscanconfirmthatindeedtheanimaldisperserofthepalmsseedsareextinctthentheonlywaytopreventthetreesthemselvesfrombecomingextinctmaybetoreintroduceseedlingsintotheforestwithacontrolledprogramofreplantingDransfieldsaid.C.Inordertomaintaineffectiveseed-dispersingpopulationstheresearcherssayitisimportanttotakeconservationactionsbeforeseed-dispersinganimalspeciesdropbelowthisthreshold.D.Someflywiththewindothersgowiththeflow.Manyhitcharidewithunsuspectinganimals.E.Someanimalsceasebeingeffectiveseeddisperserswhentheirpopulationdensitiesfallbelowapointthatinducesthemtocompeteoverfoodresources—theystopbotheringtoscatterandhidetheirfoodstores.F.Ingeneralseeddispersalawayfromtheparentplantincreasesthechancesthataseedwillreachmaturity.G.Researchersbelievethatperhapstheiranimaldispersersarelongextinct.
SeveralmonthsagoplanningtovisitafriendhospitalizedwithAIDSIaskedadoctorwhetherIshouldtakeanyprecautions.You’remoreofarisktohimthanheistoyousaidthedoctorFredValentineanassociateprofessorofmedicineatNewYorkUniversityMedicalCenter.Youmighthaveacoldorsomeminorinfectionthatwouldbeveryseriousforhimifhecaughtitbecausehehasnoresistance.Therisktomethedoctorsaidwasalmostnonexistent.1.Doctorsnowthinktheyunderstandhowitinfectscantestwhethersomeonehasbeenexposedtothevirusandknowhowtopreventitsspreadtoothers.2.AIDSisasilentepidemic.AccordingtorecentfiguresfromtheCentersforDiseaseControlCDCsince197915172peopleintheUnitedStateshavebeendiagnosedashavingAIDSand7111ofthemhavedied.Thesenumbersaredoublingevery10to12months.Another60000to120000peoplehaveAIDS-related-complexARCamilderformofthediseasewhichwillturnintoAIDSin5to20percentofthecases.3.Dr.HaroldJaffechiefepidemiologistoftheAIDStaskforceattheCDCsaysthatoverfiveyearsperhaps10percentofthepeoplecarryingtheviruswillgetAIDS.Another25percentwilldevelopARC.SinceinamajorityofcasesAIDSisfatal—atleastsofar—thedeathtollcouldbeenormous.ThoughthemedicalcommunityisoverwhelminglyconvincedthatAIDScan’tbecaughtbycausalcontactthatiswhatmostpeopleworryabout.Partoftheproblemissemantic.Doctorsaretaughtnevertosayneverbecausethere’snosuchthingas100-percentcertaintyinscience.4.ButthefactsdospeakstronglyagainsttransmissionofAIDSthroughcasualcontact.Tobeginwithnoresearcherhasfoundasinglecasecontractedthatway.OfalltheAIDScasesreportedinthepastfiveyearsnotoneresultedfromsharingaresidenceaschool-roomoranofficewithanotherAIDSpatientsaysDr.Jaffe.5.TheoreticallythereisasmallriskfromabarbershopshavewithastraightedgedrazorwhichmayproduceaminuteamountofbleedingiftherazorhasbeencontaminatedwithAIDS-carryingbloodandleftuncleaned.Asimilarsituationholdsifbleedingoccursduringamanicureandtheinstrumentsarecontaminatedandnotdisinfectedbetweencustomers.A.Forexampledentalpatientsaren’tthoughttobeatrisk.Instrumentsaresterilizedbyboilingorautoclaving—theuseofsuperheatedsteamunderpressure.EitherwouldkilltheAIDSvirusifitwerepresent.Furthermoremostdentistsusedisposableneedlesforinjections.B.AIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromewasidentifiedonlyfouryearsagoandisstillasmystifyingtothepublicasitisfrightening.Thoughagreatdealremainstobelearnedaboutthediseasethestoreofinformationisincreasingquickly.C.NorhaveanyfriendsorfamilymemberswhohavetendedAIDSvictimscomedownwiththediseaseunlesstheyhadsexualcontactwiththevictim.Motherswho’vetakencareofsonsthroughtheirterminalillnesshandlingbloodbodysecretionsvomit—noneofthemhascaughtAIDS.saysDr.Valentine.D.Because392AIDSvictimscontractedAIDSfromcontaminatedbloodgiveninatransfusionorfrombloodproductsusedtotreathemophiliamanypeopleworryaboutgivingorreceivingblood.TobeginwithitisimpossibletogetAIDSbygivingblood.Anewsterilizedneedleisusedforeachdonorandisdisposedofafterward.E.Moredisturbingisthatasmanyas1.2millionAmericansmayhaveantibodiestothevirusandamajorityofthesemaybecarryingiteventhoughtheyhavenosymptoms.Someofthemcanspreadthedisease.F.Thoughthepublic’sattentionhasbeenfocusedonfearsofcasualcontactwithAIDSvictimsmedicalauthoritiesagreethatthediseaseisnoteasytocatch.IndeedthekeytocontainingAIDSliesintwoareasofcontactthatisanythingbutcasual:sexandsharingintravenousdrugneedles.Butsexanddrugabusearethingsthatpeoplecancontrol.Researchindicatesthatworriesofthissortareunfounded.G.SoresearcherssaythingslikeThere’snoevidenceofcasualspreadofAIDS.Thepublicnotrecognizingtheunderlyingprincipleissuspiciousandtendstooverestimatetheuncertainty.
It’slongbeenknownbutlittlediscussedinpolitehigh-techcirclesthatinformation-agetechnologyisnotthecleanindustryitclaimstobe.ManufacturingasinglePCcangenerate139poundsofwasteandinvolvesahostofchemicalslinkedtohighratesofcancerandbirthdefectsamongworkersandcommunities.1.DisposalCrisisofE-wasteElectronicwastee-waste—suchasobsoleteanddiscardedcomputersmonitorsprinterscellphonesandtelevisions—isoneofthefastestgrowingwastestreamsinthedevelopedworldthankstotheindustry’sphilosophyofdesignforimmediateobsolescenceandaweakelectronics-recyclinginfrastructure.2.PublicHealthProblemsIfthefullforceofthehigh-techrevolutionhitsthelandfillitshealthriskswillleavenocommunityuntouched.3.TheEuropeanSolutionTheEuropeanUnioniswayaheadoftheU.S.inrecognizingthehazardsandmovingtowardsasolution.4.HowWilltheU.S.ProceedBecausetheU.S.high-techindustryanditsfriendsinWashingtonrepresentthebiggestobstaclestotheglobalizationoftake-backlawsabroadcoalitionofenvironmentalhealthlaborandrecyclinggroupsandlocalgovernmentshasformedtheComputerTakeBackCampaigntosupportEU-stylelegislationintheU.S.5.GoingGlobalTheEuropeanapproachismorethanaminorsoftwarepatchonafundamentallyflawedprogram.Byestablishingcorporateresponsibilityforproductsattheendoftheirlivesthisstrategycouldhavewide-rangingeffectsontheinformationtechnologyindustry.TheEUapproachspreadsenvironmentalbenefitsgloballyratherthanshiftingpollutiontodevelopingnations.A.IfwecanadopttheEU’scodeintheU.S.wecandoabitofreverseengineeringonglobalization.BydownloadingEurope’sprogramtotheU.S.wecanfinallybegintocleanupthecleanindustryaroundtheglobe.B.Anestimated300to500millioncomputerswilldescendonlandfillsby2007intheU.S.alone.Three-quartersofallcomputerseversoldinthiscountryawaitdisposalingaragesandstoragefacilitiesbecausetheirownersdon’tknowwhattodowiththem.C.ThefirstEuropeanUniondirectiveone-wasteadoptedlastyearrequiresproducerstotakeresponsibilityfortheentirelifecycleoftheirproducts.By2005companieswilleitherhavetotakebackproductsdirectlyfromconsumersorfundindependentcollectorstodoso.Wastethatwasgeneratedpriortotheenactmentdatewillbetheresponsibilityofallexistingcompaniesinproportiontotheirmarketshare.Futurewasteistobetheindividualresponsibilityofeachcompanytherebycreatinganincentivetoredesignproductsforeasierandsaferrecyclinganddisposal.Noe-wastewillbeallowedinmunicipalwastestreams.D.E-wasteaccountsfor5percentofallsolidwasteinAmericabutapproximately40percentofthelead70percentoftheheavymetalsandasignificantportionoftheorganicchemicalpollutantsinAmerica’sdumps.Thise-wastecanleachintothegroundasitdidintheSiliconValley.Itwasthewidespreadcontaminationofthevalley’saquifersintheearly1980sthatinitiallypuncturedthehigh-techindustry’scleanimage.Currently;therearemoreEPAsuperfundcleanupsitesinthisvalleythananywhereelseintheU.S.Thethreattosoildrinkingwaterandpublichealthwillgrowase-wastesurgesintothewastestreamworldwide.E.HundredsoforganizationsandlocalgovernmentsintheU.S.havealreadyendorsedthecampaign’splatform.ThecampaignadvocatesthattheU.S.adoptstandardsforelectronicsmanufacturersatleastasstringentasthoseadoptedbytheEU:hazardousmaterialswouldbephasedoutandallelectronicswouldbedesignedforreuseandrecycling.Thecampaignhassparkedlegislativegroundswell.Inthepastyearalone20stateshaveintroducedlegislationtoaddresse-waste.F.Localgovernmentsandtaxpayersnowpickupthetabforthedisposalofe-waste.ThestateofCaliforniaforexamplefacesanestimated$1billionine-wastedisposalcostsoverthenextfewyears.
A.ThemainlinesthatcurrentlyserveEuropearelargelyaproductofthe19thcentury.Therailwayshavebeenindeclineformostofthe20thcentury.Fromthe1920sonwardsmotorvehiclesbeganpilferingtheshort-distancetraffic.Inthe1960stheairplanesnatchedlong-distancetravelersandmotorwayssqueezedtherailwaysstillfurther. B.TheplanswereunveiledlastmonthinBrusselsataconferenceonhigh-speedtrainshostedbytheUnionInternationaledesCheminsdeferandtheCommunityofEuropeanRailwaysagroupingthatincludesthe12CommunityrailwaysplusAustriaandSwitzerland.TheyexpandonthoseofDecember1990whichhavealreadyreceivedtheblessingoftheCommunity’stransportministers. C.Japanledthewayforwardwhenitopenedanewhigh-speedlinein1964.The"bullet"trainsbetweenTokyoandOsakawerethefirstintheworldtoaveragemorethan160kilometersperhourEuropefollowedsuit.TheFrenchhigh-speedlinebetweenParisandLyonwhichopenedintwostagesin1981and1983halvedjourneytimes.Anon-stoptrainnowtakestwohoursandthenumberofpassengerstravelingbytrainbetweenthetwocitieshastrebled.TheItalianRailwaysopeneditshigh-speedlinebetweenFlorenceandRomeduringthe1980s. D.ProgresshasbeenslowerandmorecostlyinGermanywhereGermanRailwayshasbeenplanninghigh-speedlinessince1970.Environmentaloppositiondelayedproceduresforacquiringlandwhichforcedtheauthoritiestoputlargestretchesofnewlineintotunnels.Thisinturncausedanotherproblem.Enteringatunnelathighspeedcreatespressureplusesthatcausepassengers’earstopopunpleasantly.AsaresultGermany’sintercitytrainsaresealedandpressurizedlikeaircrafttoinsulatepassengersfromthechangesinpressureoutside. E.Thescopeofthevisionisbreathtaking.AccordingtoAndresLopezprofessorofengineeringatthePolytechnicUniversityofCataloniatwiceasmanymilesofnewrailwaysarebeingplannedasmilesofmotorway.Theblueprintenvisagesthenetworkofhigh-speedlinesgrowingfromafewhundredkilometersto3000kilometersby1996and7400kilometersbytheendofthecentury.Itseesthenetworkextendingeventuallyto20000kilometerswithafurther15000kilometersofexistinglinesbeingsubstantiallyrebuiltforhighspeedsatacostof180billion. F.Neverthelessinthe1990sthepaceofopeninghasalreadybeguntoaccelerate.LastyearGermanyopeneditsfirsttwohigh-speedlinesandFranceopeneditssecondTGVline.LastmonthSpanishRailwaysbecamethefourthrailwaystojointhe250kilometersperhourclubwhenitopenedanewlinefromMadridtoSeville.Overthenextfouryearsafurthersixstretchesofhigh-speedlinewillopen:threeinFranceandoneeachinAustriaBelgiumandGermany.BritainwillfinallybelinkedtothisgrowingnetworkwhentrainsbegintorunthroughtheChannelTunnelfromLondontoBrusselsandParisalthoughdelaysindeliveringtherollingstockmakethisunlikelyuntilearlyin1994. G.FourEuropeanrailwayscurrentlyhavehigh-speedtrains.PerhapsthebestknownisFrenchRailwaysTGVwhichholdstheworldspeedrecordof515kilometersperhour.ButGermanyItalyandSpainalsohavetrainsthatarecapableofexceeding250kilometersperhourthethresholdthatdefineshighspeed.NownewplansproposeanetworknotonlylinkingcountriesintheEuropeanCommunitybutextendingacrossEasternEuropetoo. Order: 1
Rainforeststructureisdistinctfrommostotherforesttypesbecauseofitsmanylayersofvegetationreferredtoasstrata.Theloweststratumistheunderstorycomposedofpalmsherbaceousplantssuchaswildgingerandtreeseedlingsandsaplings.1.Manyhavedeepredcoloringontheundersideoftheirleavestocapturesomeofthescarcelightthatdoesmanagetoreachtheforestunderstory.Thisredcoloringenablesunderstoryplantstoabsorblightofdifferentwavelengthsthandotheplantswithrichgreen-foliagedcanopytheumbrella-shapedupperstructureoftrees.Abovetheforestfloorbutbelowthecanopyareoneormoremidstorystratamadeupofwoodyplantssuchaslargeshrubsandmidsizedtrees.Theoverstoryisthecanopyinwhichthetreecrownsformacontinuouslayerthatcapturesthemajorpartoftherainwaterandsunlighthittingtheforest.Theheightofthecanopyvariesfromregiontoregionandforesttoforestrangingfrom20to50m65to165ft.2.Researchersusehotairballoonscablescatwalkstowerssophisticatedtree-climbinggearandevenrobotstostudythemillionsofplantsandanimalsthatmaketheirhomehighupintheforestcanopy.Canopyresearchersalsousehugecranesthataredroppedintotheheartoftheforestbyhelicopters.Suspendedfromthecrane’slongmovablearmisalargecabinthatfunctionsasamobiletreetoplaboratory.Movingfromtreetotreeforestresearcherscollectspecimensconductexperimentsandobservelifeinthecanopyfrontier.Thehigheststratumoftherainforestismadeupoftheemergenttreesthoseindividualsthatstickupabovetheforestcanopy.Emergentswhichdonotformacontinuouslayerareusuallythegiantsoftheforestreachingheightsof35to70m115to230Itormoreandtrunksizesofover2m6.6Itindiameter.3.Howeverthesetreestendtobesolargethattheycollectivelyaccountforthevastmajorityofthewoodymassorbiomassoftheforest.Thenicelyorderedstrataoftherainforestincludingthecontinuouslayerofthecanopyareregularlydisturbedbynaturallyoccurringeventssuchasfallingtrees.Treesinarainforestcanopyareofteninterconnectedbyvinesandafallingtreemaypullaswellaspushothertreesdownwithitproducingadominoeffectoffallingtrees.Theresultingopeningintheforestcanopyenableslighttopourontotheforestfloor.4.Othernaturaldisturbancescreateevenlargeropeningsintheforestcanopies.ForexamplealongthehurricanebeltintheCaribbeanandthetyphoonbeltalongthewesternPacificsomeforestsaresubstantiallyalteredwhenhighwindsandstormsblowdownhundredsoftreeseveryfewdecades.5.Scientistshavefoundthatthesenaturaldisturbancesandthesubsequentforestregenerationareavitalprocessthatleadstohealthyanddiverseforests.A.Newplantsandanimalsthenmoveintotheareaandbegintogrow.B.Just2percentofthesunlightgoesthroughthemanylayersofleavesandbranchesabovesounderstoryplantspecieshavedevelopedspecialtraitstocopewithlowlightlevels.C.OnasmallerscalelargemammalssuchaselephantsregularlydestroyrainforestvegetationintheCongoRiverBasininAfrica.D.Anunderstoryofshortertreesandalaceworkofwoodyvinesorlianasproduceaforestofsuchcomplexinternalarchitecturethatmanyanimalsincludingsomesizableonesrarelyorneverdescendtotheground.E.Lessthanonepercentofthetreesintheforestresideinthecanopyandemergentlayers.F.Becausemorelightpenetratesthecanopyhoweverthevegetationoftheunderstoryandforestfloorisbetterdevelopedthaninthetropics.G.Therichgreencanopyisteemingwithlifeandforestresearchershavedevelopedingeniousmethodsforaccessingthismysteriousecosystem.
A.GetmovingB.FollowyourinterestC.ExploreotherperspectivesD.ReducescreentimeE.ForgetbrainstormingF.AllowformoreflexibilityBrainstorminginagroupbecamepopularin1953withthepublicationofabusinessbookAppliedImagination.Butit’sbeenprovennottoworksince1958whenYaleresearchersfoundthatthetechniqueactuallyreducedateam’screativeoutput:thesamenumberofpeoplegeneratemoreandbetterideasseparatelythantogether.InfactaccordingtoUniversityofOklahomaprofessorMichaelMumfordhalfofhecommonlyusedtechniquesintendedtospurcreativitydon’tworkorevenhaveanegativeimpact.AsformostcommerciallyavailablecreativitytrainingMumforddoesn’tmincewords:it’sgarbage.Whetherforadultsorkidstheworstoftheseprogramsfocussolelyonimaginationexercisesexpressionoffeelingsorimagery.Theypandertoaneasyunchallengingnotionthatallyouhavetodoisletyournaturalcreativityoutofitsshell.Howevertherearesometechniquesthatdoboostthecreativeprocess.1.Almosteverydimensionofcognitionimprovesfrom30minutesofaerobicexerciseandcreativityisnoexception.Thetypeofexercisedoesn’tmatterandtheboostlastsforatleasttwohoursafterward.Howeverthere’sacatch:thisisthecaseonlyforthephysicallyfit.Forthosewhorarelyexercisethefatiguefromaerobicactivitycounteractstheshort-termbenefits.2.Thosewhostudymulti-taskingreportthatyoucan’tworkontwoprojectssimultaneouslybutthedynamicisdifferentwhenyouhavemorethanonecreativeprojecttocomplete.Inthatsituationmoreprojectsgetcompletedontimewhenyouallowyourselftoswitchbetweenthemifsolutionsdon’tcomeimmediately.Thiscorroboratessurveysshowingthatprofessorswhosetpapersasidetobrewultimatelypublishmorepapers.Similarlypreeminentmathematiciansusuallyworkonmorethanoneproofatatime.3.AccordingtoUniversityofTexasprofessorElizabethVandewaterforeveryhourakidregularlywatchestelevisionhisoveralltimeincreativeactivities—fromfantasyplaytoartsprojects—dr0psasmuchas11percent.Withkidsspendingaboutthreehoursinfrontoftelevisionseachdaythatcouldbeaone-thirdreductionincreativetime—lesstimetodevelopasenseofcreativeself-efficacythroughplay.4.FiveexperimentsbyNorthwestern’sAdamGalinskyshowedthatthosewhohavelivedabroadoutperformothersoncreativitytasks.Creativityisalsohigheronaverageforfirstorsecondgenerationimmigrantsandbilinguals.Thetheoryisthatcross-culturalexperiencesforcepeopletoadaptandbemoreflexible.Juststudyinganotherculturecanhelp.InGalinsky’slabpeopleweremorecreativeafterwatchingaslideshowaboutChina:a45-minutesessionincreasedcreativityscoresforaweek.5.RenaSubotnikaresearcherwiththeAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhasstudiedchildren’sprogressionintoadultcreativecareers.Kidsdobestwhentheyareallowedtodevelopdeeppassionsandpursuethemwholeheartedlyattheexpenseofwell-roundedness.Kidswhohavedeepidentificationwithafieldhavebetterdisciplineandhandlesetbacksbettershenoted.Bycontrastkidsgivensuperficialexposuretomanyactivitiesdon’thavethesamecenterednesstoovercomeperiodsofdifficulty.IfyouwanttoincreaseinnovationwithinanorganizationoneofthefirstthingstodoistearoutthesuggestionboxadvisesIsaacGetzprofessoratESCPEuropeBusinessSchoolinParis.Formalizedsuggestionprotocolswhetheraboxonthewallane-mailedformoraninternalWebsiteactuallystifleinnovationbecauseemployeesfeelthattheirideasgointoablackholeofbureaucracy.Insteademployeesneedtobeabletoputtheirownideasintopractice.OneofthereasonsthatToyota’smanufacturingplantinGeorgetownKy.issosuccessfulisthatitimplementsupto99percentofemployees’ideas.
SeveralmonthsagoplanningtovisitafriendhospitalizedwithAIDSIaskedadoctorwhetherIshouldtakeanyprecautions.You’remoreofarisktohimthanheistoyousaidthedoctorFredValentineanassociateprofessorofmedicineatNewYorkUniversityMedicalCenter.Youmighthaveacoldorsomeminorinfectionthatwouldbeveryseriousforhimifhecaughtitbecausehehasnoresistance.Therisktomethedoctorsaidwasalmostnonexistent.1.Doctorsnowthinktheyunderstandhowitinfectscantestwhethersomeonehasbeenexposedtothevirusandknowhowtopreventitsspreadtoothers.2.AIDSisasilentepidemic.AccordingtorecentfiguresfromtheCentersforDiseaseControlCDCsince197915172peopleintheUnitedStateshavebeendiagnosedashavingAIDSand7111ofthemhavedied.Thesenumbersaredoublingevery10to12months.Another60000to120000peoplehaveAIDS-related-complexARCamilderformofthediseasewhichwillturnintoAIDSin5to20percentofthecases.3.Dr.HaroldJaffechiefepidemiologistoftheAIDStaskforceattheCDCsaysthatoverfiveyearsperhaps10percentofthepeoplecarryingtheviruswillgetAIDS.Another25percentwilldevelopARC.SinceinamajorityofcasesAIDSisfatal—atleastsofar—thedeathtollcouldbeenormous.ThoughthemedicalcommunityisoverwhelminglyconvincedthatAIDScan’tbecaughtbycausalcontactthatiswhatmostpeopleworryabout.Partoftheproblemissemantic.Doctorsaretaughtnevertosayneverbecausethere’snosuchthingas100-percentcertaintyinscience.4.ButthefactsdospeakstronglyagainsttransmissionofAIDSthroughcasualcontact.Tobeginwithnoresearcherhasfoundasinglecasecontractedthatway.OfalltheAIDScasesreportedinthepastfiveyearsnotoneresultedfromsharingaresidenceaschool-roomoranofficewithanotherAIDSpatientsaysDr.Jaffe.5.TheoreticallythereisasmallriskfromabarbershopshavewithastraightedgedrazorwhichmayproduceaminuteamountofbleedingiftherazorhasbeencontaminatedwithAIDS-carryingbloodandleftuncleaned.Asimilarsituationholdsifbleedingoccursduringamanicureandtheinstrumentsarecontaminatedandnotdisinfectedbetweencustomers.A.Forexampledentalpatientsaren’tthoughttobeatrisk.Instrumentsaresterilizedbyboilingorautoclaving—theuseofsuperheatedsteamunderpressure.EitherwouldkilltheAIDSvirusifitwerepresent.Furthermoremostdentistsusedisposableneedlesforinjections.B.AIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromewasidentifiedonlyfouryearsagoandisstillasmystifyingtothepublicasitisfrightening.Thoughagreatdealremainstobelearnedaboutthediseasethestoreofinformationisincreasingquickly.C.NorhaveanyfriendsorfamilymemberswhohavetendedAIDSvictimscomedownwiththediseaseunlesstheyhadsexualcontactwiththevictim.Motherswho’vetakencareofsonsthroughtheirterminalillnesshandlingbloodbodysecretionsvomit—noneofthemhascaughtAIDS.saysDr.Valentine.D.Because392AIDSvictimscontractedAIDSfromcontaminatedbloodgiveninatransfusionorfrombloodproductsusedtotreathemophiliamanypeopleworryaboutgivingorreceivingblood.TobeginwithitisimpossibletogetAIDSbygivingblood.Anewsterilizedneedleisusedforeachdonorandisdisposedofafterward.E.Moredisturbingisthatasmanyas1.2millionAmericansmayhaveantibodiestothevirusandamajorityofthesemaybecarryingiteventhoughtheyhavenosymptoms.Someofthemcanspreadthedisease.F.Thoughthepublic’sattentionhasbeenfocusedonfearsofcasualcontactwithAIDSvictimsmedicalauthoritiesagreethatthediseaseisnoteasytocatch.IndeedthekeytocontainingAIDSliesintwoareasofcontactthatisanythingbutcasual:sexandsharingintravenousdrugneedles.Butsexanddrugabusearethingsthatpeoplecancontrol.Researchindicatesthatworriesofthissortareunfounded.G.SoresearcherssaythingslikeThere’snoevidenceofcasualspreadofAIDS.Thepublicnotrecognizingtheunderlyingprincipleissuspiciousandtendstooverestimatetheuncertainty.
Todaythereiswidespreadagreementthatmultinationalcorporationswillhaveanimportanteffectoninternationalrelationsandworldeconomy.Butthereislittleagreementonexactlywhatthateffectwillbe.Therearetwogroupsofthosewhoseethemasbenevolentandthosewhoseethemasevil.Amongthosewhoseemultinationalcorporationsasbenevolentmanyemphasizetheirimportanceinhelpingreducethegapbetweenrichcountriesandpoorones.Thesebusinessgiantsarereferredtoasenginesofdevelopmentbecauseitisclaimedthattheydomoretoimprovetheeconomiclifeinlessdevelopedcountriesthanallgovernmentalforeignaidprogramshaveeverdone.Bysettingupfactoriesabroadtheyprovidejobs;byequippingthesefactorieswiththelatestmachinesandequipmenttheymakeavailablethemostmoderntechnology.1.Infacttheydobetterontheirown.Itmayhavebeennecessaryinthemid-nineteencenturyforAdmiralPerrytothreatentheJapanesewithnavalbombardmentiftheydidnotallowwesterncountriestotradewiththem.Suchthreatswouldmakenosensetoday.2.Theleadersofmultinationalcorporationsseepatriotismasold-fashionedthenation-stateobsoleteandwarinpursuitofnationalglorydownrightfoolish.Theybelievethatthemultinationalcorporationisamodernconceptevolvedtomeettherequirementsofmodernagewhilethenation-stateisstillrootedinarchaicconceptsunsympathetictotheneedofourcomplexworld.3.IthinkanofficialofGeneralElectriconcesaidgettingGeneralElectriceverywhereintheworldisthebiggestthingwecandoforworldpeace.Theseproponentsofthemultinationalcorporationscomebyandlargefromthebusinessworld.Therearehowevermanycriticsamongacademicstudentsofmultinationalcorporationswhoregardthemasasinisterforce.Theyhaveproduceddetailedstudiestoprovethatthebenefitsofmultinationalcorporationsaremostlyillusory.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationsprovidejobstheypointoutthatthisisatthecostofjobsinothercountries.Totheclaimthatmultinationalcorporationstransfertechnologytheyreply:1oftentheequipmentshippedoverseasisoutofdate;2theirtechnologyisoftenunsuitableformanyofthelessdevelopedcountrieswherelaborisplentifulandthereforecheap.4.Thereforetheymaintainthatinsteadofbeingtheenginesofdevelopmentthemultinationalcorporationsareactuallyenginesofimpoverishment.Thesecriticsdonotdenythatconsumptionoftheproductsofthesecorporationshasrisenincountriesaroundtheworld.5.Thereforealthoughthesecorporationsmaybreakdownnationalfrontierstheystrengthenclassdistinctionswideningthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcreatinggreatersocialinjusticeandinstability.A.ThelongexpensiveAmericanwarinVietnamdidnotbringnewopportunitiesinSoutheastAsiaforthemultinationalcorporations.ThedecisionoftheNixonadministrationtoimproverelationswithChinawasmoreprofitabletothem.B.ThefactthatbothAmericanteenagersandMexicanpeasantsaredrinkingCocaColadoesnotmeanthatthelifeoftheMexicanpeasantsisgettingbetterduetothemultinationalcorporations.C.Theythereforecharacterizethemselvesashard-headedpeoplewhoarehelpingtobringaboutamorecooperativesystemorworldorderbybreakingdownnationalgeographicalpoliticaleconomicandideologicalbarriers.D.Onestudyactuallyshowedthatmultinationalcorporationsdonotinvestcapitalfromwealthycountriesbutprefertofinancetheiroperationsfromthelocaleconomy.Inotherwordstheyaresimplytransferringwealthfrompoorercountriestoricherones.E.Accordingtothesecriticsstateswillsoonrealizethattheyhavelosttheircontroloverissuessuchastaxationemploymentandeventhestabilityoftheirowncurrency.F.Buttheypointoutthatthisso-calledGlobalShoppingCenterisavailableonlytoaverysmallportionofthelocalpopulation.G.Becausegoodsarenowproducedwithinthelessdevelopedcountriesthereislessneedforthemtoimportfromabroadandtheirbalanceofpaymentswillimprove.Multinationalcorporationstodaydonotneedtheircountriestoprovidemilitaryforcetoopenforeigncountriestotheirinvestmentproductsandsales.
A.ThemainlinesthatcurrentlyserveEuropearelargelyaproductofthe19thcentury.Therailwayshavebeenindeclineformostofthe20thcentury.Fromthe1920sonwardsmotorvehiclesbeganpilferingtheshort-distancetraffic.Inthe1960stheairplanesnatchedlong-distancetravelersandmotorwayssqueezedtherailwaysstillfurther. B.TheplanswereunveiledlastmonthinBrusselsataconferenceonhigh-speedtrainshostedbytheUnionInternationaledesCheminsdeferandtheCommunityofEuropeanRailwaysagroupingthatincludesthe12CommunityrailwaysplusAustriaandSwitzerland.TheyexpandonthoseofDecember1990whichhavealreadyreceivedtheblessingoftheCommunity’stransportministers. C.Japanledthewayforwardwhenitopenedanewhigh-speedlinein1964.The"bullet"trainsbetweenTokyoandOsakawerethefirstintheworldtoaveragemorethan160kilometersperhourEuropefollowedsuit.TheFrenchhigh-speedlinebetweenParisandLyonwhichopenedintwostagesin1981and1983halvedjourneytimes.Anon-stoptrainnowtakestwohoursandthenumberofpassengerstravelingbytrainbetweenthetwocitieshastrebled.TheItalianRailwaysopeneditshigh-speedlinebetweenFlorenceandRomeduringthe1980s. D.ProgresshasbeenslowerandmorecostlyinGermanywhereGermanRailwayshasbeenplanninghigh-speedlinessince1970.Environmentaloppositiondelayedproceduresforacquiringlandwhichforcedtheauthoritiestoputlargestretchesofnewlineintotunnels.Thisinturncausedanotherproblem.Enteringatunnelathighspeedcreatespressureplusesthatcausepassengers’earstopopunpleasantly.AsaresultGermany’sintercitytrainsaresealedandpressurizedlikeaircrafttoinsulatepassengersfromthechangesinpressureoutside. E.Thescopeofthevisionisbreathtaking.AccordingtoAndresLopezprofessorofengineeringatthePolytechnicUniversityofCataloniatwiceasmanymilesofnewrailwaysarebeingplannedasmilesofmotorway.Theblueprintenvisagesthenetworkofhigh-speedlinesgrowingfromafewhundredkilometersto3000kilometersby1996and7400kilometersbytheendofthecentury.Itseesthenetworkextendingeventuallyto20000kilometerswithafurther15000kilometersofexistinglinesbeingsubstantiallyrebuiltforhighspeedsatacostof180billion. F.Neverthelessinthe1990sthepaceofopeninghasalreadybeguntoaccelerate.LastyearGermanyopeneditsfirsttwohigh-speedlinesandFranceopeneditssecondTGVline.LastmonthSpanishRailwaysbecamethefourthrailwaystojointhe250kilometersperhourclubwhenitopenedanewlinefromMadridtoSeville.Overthenextfouryearsafurthersixstretchesofhigh-speedlinewillopen:threeinFranceandoneeachinAustriaBelgiumandGermany.BritainwillfinallybelinkedtothisgrowingnetworkwhentrainsbegintorunthroughtheChannelTunnelfromLondontoBrusselsandParisalthoughdelaysindeliveringtherollingstockmakethisunlikelyuntilearlyin1994. G.FourEuropeanrailwayscurrentlyhavehigh-speedtrains.PerhapsthebestknownisFrenchRailwaysTGVwhichholdstheworldspeedrecordof515kilometersperhour.ButGermanyItalyandSpainalsohavetrainsthatarecapableofexceeding250kilometersperhourthethresholdthatdefineshighspeed.NownewplansproposeanetworknotonlylinkingcountriesintheEuropeanCommunitybutextendingacrossEasternEuropetoo. Order: 5
Whenwecomparemenwithanimalswemustrememberthatamanisalsoananimal.Butinmakingthiscomparisonitissometimesmoreconvenienttorefertotherestoftheanimalkingdomasanimals.1.Manyanimalsareintelligentinthesensethattheycanexploretheirsurroundingsoracquirenewskillsbylearningfromtheirparents.Animalorganismshaveorganswhosephysicalpowerexceedsthepowerofmen.Thebodiesofmenhavenowingsandcannotfly.Mencannotimitatefishandspendlongperiodsunderwaterunlesstheycarrybreathingapparatuswiththem.2.Butitisveryuncommonforanimalstogomadordestroytheirownkind.Animalslefttothemselvesdonotdisturbthebalanceofnature.Theydonotturngrasslandintodesertormakewaterundrinkablebyfillingwholelakesandriverswithwastematerials.Comparedwithmostotherorganisms—ifweseehimasapartofnature—maniswastefulanddestructive.Thoughheismoreintelligentthananimalsheoftenuseshisintelligenceforstrangepurposes.3.ThispowerispossessedbytherichbusinessmaninChicagoandthepoorprimitiveBushmanoftheKalahariDesertinAfrica.ItmayindeedshowitselfmoreobviouslyintheBushmanwhoseenvironmentdoesnotprovidehimwithsecurityandwhoseentirefoodsupplyisacquiredbyfacingnewsituations.Itisapowerwhichcanbewastedormisusedorbeweakenedthroughneglect.Butitisapowerwhichbelongstoeveryhumanbeing.4.Languagegivesdepthtohumancommunitiesintime.Itenablesonegenerationtohandonitsexperiencetoanotherbymeansofstorieswhicharetheoriginofhumanhistory.Itisonlyhumanbeingswhorecognizeapastandfutureandwhofeelthattheystandatacertainpointinthedevelopmentoftheircommunity.5.Thisbringsustoanotheraspectofhumanintelligence.Manismoreadaptablethananimalsbutintheagesofcivilizationhehasusedthispowerinaspecialway.AfewcommunitiesliketheAfricanBushmanstillmanagetosurviveinaprimitiveway.Butothermenwishtomaketheirfuturemoresecureandtrytofindawayofdoingthiswhichistypicalofcivilizedcommunities.A.Wecallthiscapacityintelligence.Itschiefinstrumentorweaponishumanlanguageasystemofsymbolsspokenorwrittenwhichenablesmentocommunicateinformationandpurposeandseeonesituationintermsofanother.Theabilitytousesymbolsisnotpossessedbyanimalsanditisamajoraspectofhumanintelligence.B.Likeanimalsmenareadaptedtoacertainenvironment.Theyrequirefoodandwater;theycandigestonlycertainkindsoffood.Theyrequirewarmth;theycansurviveonlywithincertainlimitsoftemperature.C.Man’ssenseoffutureleadshimtoprovideforthefuture.Heaccumulatesfoodclothesusefulobjectsrawmaterialsbuildingsinformationandinmoderntimesheaccumulatesmoney—themeansofexchangeandthereforeanimportantmeansofpoweroverothermen.D.Differentfromananimalmanisabletoconvertanaturalenvironmentintoahumansocialenvironment—anenvironmentwhichrepresentstheaccumulatedlaborofmanygenerations.E.Wecannotsaythatmenaresuperiortoanimals.Buttheydifferfromanimalsinseveralimportantways.Andallthesedifferencesarereallyaspectsofoneandthesamedifference.Thiscentraldifferenceisman’sunusualmentalflexibilityhisabilitytomeetanewsituationinanewwayandhiscapacitytolearnfromhisexperienceandtheexperienceofothers.F.Itisverydoubtfulwhethermenaresuperiortoanimals.Itistruethattheirresponsesaremorecomplex.G.Manisconcernedabouthislivingenvironment.Thediscoveriesofscienceandtheinventionsoftechnologyhaveproducedanenvironmentwhichisalmostequivalenttoasecondoutershellofbodyandisadaptednotonlytolocalconditionsbutalsotoaverywiderangeofvariationsinclimatealtitudeandotherfeaturesofthegeographicalsurroundings.
Rainforeststructureisdistinctfrommostotherforesttypesbecauseofitsmanylayersofvegetationreferredtoasstrata.Theloweststratumistheunderstorycomposedofpalmsherbaceousplantssuchaswildgingerandtreeseedlingsandsaplings.1.Manyhavedeepredcoloringontheundersideoftheirleavestocapturesomeofthescarcelightthatdoesmanagetoreachtheforestunderstory.Thisredcoloringenablesunderstoryplantstoabsorblightofdifferentwavelengthsthandotheplantswithrichgreen-foliagedcanopytheumbrella-shapedupperstructureoftrees.Abovetheforestfloorbutbelowthecanopyareoneormoremidstorystratamadeupofwoodyplantssuchaslargeshrubsandmidsizedtrees.Theoverstoryisthecanopyinwhichthetreecrownsformacontinuouslayerthatcapturesthemajorpartoftherainwaterandsunlighthittingtheforest.Theheightofthecanopyvariesfromregiontoregionandforesttoforestrangingfrom20to50m65to165ft.2.Researchersusehotairballoonscablescatwalkstowerssophisticatedtree-climbinggearandevenrobotstostudythemillionsofplantsandanimalsthatmaketheirhomehighupintheforestcanopy.Canopyresearchersalsousehugecranesthataredroppedintotheheartoftheforestbyhelicopters.Suspendedfromthecrane’slongmovablearmisalargecabinthatfunctionsasamobiletreetoplaboratory.Movingfromtreetotreeforestresearcherscollectspecimensconductexperimentsandobservelifeinthecanopyfrontier.Thehigheststratumoftherainforestismadeupoftheemergenttreesthoseindividualsthatstickupabovetheforestcanopy.Emergentswhichdonotformacontinuouslayerareusuallythegiantsoftheforestreachingheightsof35to70m115to230Itormoreandtrunksizesofover2m6.6Itindiameter.3.Howeverthesetreestendtobesolargethattheycollectivelyaccountforthevastmajorityofthewoodymassorbiomassoftheforest.Thenicelyorderedstrataoftherainforestincludingthecontinuouslayerofthecanopyareregularlydisturbedbynaturallyoccurringeventssuchasfallingtrees.Treesinarainforestcanopyareofteninterconnectedbyvinesandafallingtreemaypullaswellaspushothertreesdownwithitproducingadominoeffectoffallingtrees.Theresultingopeningintheforestcanopyenableslighttopourontotheforestfloor.4.Othernaturaldisturbancescreateevenlargeropeningsintheforestcanopies.ForexamplealongthehurricanebeltintheCaribbeanandthetyphoonbeltalongthewesternPacificsomeforestsaresubstantiallyalteredwhenhighwindsandstormsblowdownhundredsoftreeseveryfewdecades.5.Scientistshavefoundthatthesenaturaldisturbancesandthesubsequentforestregenerationareavitalprocessthatleadstohealthyanddiverseforests.A.Newplantsandanimalsthenmoveintotheareaandbegintogrow.B.Just2percentofthesunlightgoesthroughthemanylayersofleavesandbranchesabovesounderstoryplantspecieshavedevelopedspecialtraitstocopewithlowlightlevels.C.OnasmallerscalelargemammalssuchaselephantsregularlydestroyrainforestvegetationintheCongoRiverBasininAfrica.D.Anunderstoryofshortertreesandalaceworkofwoodyvinesorlianasproduceaforestofsuchcomplexinternalarchitecturethatmanyanimalsincludingsomesizableonesrarelyorneverdescendtotheground.E.Lessthanonepercentofthetreesintheforestresideinthecanopyandemergentlayers.F.Becausemorelightpenetratesthecanopyhoweverthevegetationoftheunderstoryandforestfloorisbetterdevelopedthaninthetropics.G.Therichgreencanopyisteemingwithlifeandforestresearchershavedevelopedingeniousmethodsforaccessingthismysteriousecosystem.
Rainforeststructureisdistinctfrommostotherforesttypesbecauseofitsmanylayersofvegetationreferredtoasstrata.Theloweststratumistheunderstorycomposedofpalmsherbaceousplantssuchaswildgingerandtreeseedlingsandsaplings.1.Manyhavedeepredcoloringontheundersideoftheirleavestocapturesomeofthescarcelightthatdoesmanagetoreachtheforestunderstory.Thisredcoloringenablesunderstoryplantstoabsorblightofdifferentwavelengthsthandotheplantswithrichgreen-foliagedcanopytheumbrella-shapedupperstructureoftrees.Abovetheforestfloorbutbelowthecanopyareoneormoremidstorystratamadeupofwoodyplantssuchaslargeshrubsandmidsizedtrees.Theoverstoryisthecanopyinwhichthetreecrownsformacontinuouslayerthatcapturesthemajorpartoftherainwaterandsunlighthittingtheforest.Theheightofthecanopyvariesfromregiontoregionandforesttoforestrangingfrom20to50m65to165ft.2.Researchersusehotairballoonscablescatwalkstowerssophisticatedtree-climbinggearandevenrobotstostudythemillionsofplantsandanimalsthatmaketheirhomehighupintheforestcanopy.Canopyresearchersalsousehugecranesthataredroppedintotheheartoftheforestbyhelicopters.Suspendedfromthecrane’slongmovablearmisalargecabinthatfunctionsasamobiletreetoplaboratory.Movingfromtreetotreeforestresearcherscollectspecimensconductexperimentsandobservelifeinthecanopyfrontier.Thehigheststratumoftherainforestismadeupoftheemergenttreesthoseindividualsthatstickupabovetheforestcanopy.Emergentswhichdonotformacontinuouslayerareusuallythegiantsoftheforestreachingheightsof35to70m115to230Itormoreandtrunksizesofover2m6.6Itindiameter.3.Howeverthesetreestendtobesolargethattheycollectivelyaccountforthevastmajorityofthewoodymassorbiomassoftheforest.Thenicelyorderedstrataoftherainforestincludingthecontinuouslayerofthecanopyareregularlydisturbedbynaturallyoccurringeventssuchasfallingtrees.Treesinarainforestcanopyareofteninterconnectedbyvinesandafallingtreemaypullaswellaspushothertreesdownwithitproducingadominoeffectoffallingtrees.Theresultingopeningintheforestcanopyenableslighttopourontotheforestfloor.4.Othernaturaldisturbancescreateevenlargeropeningsintheforestcanopies.ForexamplealongthehurricanebeltintheCaribbeanandthetyphoonbeltalongthewesternPacificsomeforestsaresubstantiallyalteredwhenhighwindsandstormsblowdownhundredsoftreeseveryfewdecades.5.Scientistshavefoundthatthesenaturaldisturbancesandthesubsequentforestregenerationareavitalprocessthatleadstohealthyanddiverseforests.A.Newplantsandanimalsthenmoveintotheareaandbegintogrow.B.Just2percentofthesunlightgoesthroughthemanylayersofleavesandbranchesabovesounderstoryplantspecieshavedevelopedspecialtraitstocopewithlowlightlevels.C.OnasmallerscalelargemammalssuchaselephantsregularlydestroyrainforestvegetationintheCongoRiverBasininAfrica.D.Anunderstoryofshortertreesandalaceworkofwoodyvinesorlianasproduceaforestofsuchcomplexinternalarchitecturethatmanyanimalsincludingsomesizableonesrarelyorneverdescendtotheground.E.Lessthanonepercentofthetreesintheforestresideinthecanopyandemergentlayers.F.Becausemorelightpenetratesthecanopyhoweverthevegetationoftheunderstoryandforestfloorisbetterdevelopedthaninthetropics.G.Therichgreencanopyisteemingwithlifeandforestresearchershavedevelopedingeniousmethodsforaccessingthismysteriousecosystem.
Overthelastdecadedemandforthemostcommoncosmeticsurgeryprocedureslikebreastenlargementsandnosejobshasincreasedbymorethan400percent.AccordingtoDr.DaiDaviesofthePlasticSurgeryPartnershipinHammersmiththemajorityofcosmeticsurgerypatientsarenotchasingphysicalperfection.Rathertheyaredriventofantasticlengthstoimprovetheirappearancebyadesiretolooknormal.1Whatweallcraveistolooknormalandnormaliswhatisprescribedbytheadvertisingmediaandotherexternalpressures.Theygiveusaperceptionofwhatisphysicallyacceptableandwefeelwemustlooklikethat.2InAmericathedebateisnolongeraboutwhethersurgeryisnormal;ratheritcentresonwhatagepeopleshouldbebeforegoingundertheknife.NewYorksurgeonDr.GerardImberrecommendsmaintenanceworkforpeopleintheirthirties.TheideaofwaitinguntiloneneedsaheroictransformationissillyhesaysBythenyou’vewasted20greatyearsofyourlifeandallowedthingstogetoutofhand.Dr.Imberdrawsthelineatoperatingonpeoplewhoareunder18however.Itseemsthatsomeonewedon’tconsideroldenoughtoorderadrinkshouldn’tbeconsideringplasticsurgery.IntheUKcosmeticsurgeryhaslongbeenseenastheexclusivedomainoftheveryrichandfamous.3Buttheproportionatecostoftreatmenthasfallensubstantiallybringingallbutthemostadvancedlasertechnologywithinthereachofmostpeople.Dr.Davieswhoclaimstocaterfortheaveragepersonagrees.Hesays:Itreatafewoftherichandfamousandanawfullotofsecretaries.Ofcourse￡3000foranoperationisalotofmoney.Butitisalsoaninvestmentforlifewhichcostsabouthalfthepriceofagoodfamilyholiday.4Dr.Daviessuspectsthattheincreasingsophisticationofthefatinjectingandremovaltechniquesthatallowpatientstobetreatedwithalocalanaestheticinanafternoonhasalsohelpedpromotethepopularityofcosmeticsurgery.5Yetasonewomanwhorecentlypaid￡2500forliposuctiontoremovefatfromherthighsadmittedtheslopetobecomingacosmeticsurgeryVeteranisadeceptivelygentleone.Ihadmylegsdonebecausethey’dbeenbuggingmeforyears.Butgoingintotheclinicwassolowkeyandeffectiveitwhettedmyappetite.NowIdon’tthinkthere’sanyoperationthatIwouldruleouthavingifIcouldaffordit./
Overthelastdecadedemandforthemostcommoncosmeticsurgeryprocedureslikebreastenlargementsandnosejobshasincreasedbymorethan400percent.AccordingtoDr.DaiDaviesofthePlasticSurgeryPartnershipinHammersmiththemajorityofcosmeticsurgerypatientsarenotchasingphysicalperfection.Rathertheyaredriventofantasticlengthstoimprovetheirappearancebyadesiretolooknormal.1Whatweallcraveistolooknormalandnormaliswhatisprescribedbytheadvertisingmediaandotherexternalpressures.Theygiveusaperceptionofwhatisphysicallyacceptableandwefeelwemustlooklikethat.2InAmericathedebateisnolongeraboutwhethersurgeryisnormal;ratheritcentresonwhatagepeopleshouldbebeforegoingundertheknife.NewYorksurgeonDr.GerardImberrecommendsmaintenanceworkforpeopleintheirthirties.TheideaofwaitinguntiloneneedsaheroictransformationissillyhesaysBythenyou’vewasted20greatyearsofyourlifeandallowedthingstogetoutofhand.Dr.Imberdrawsthelineatoperatingonpeoplewhoareunder18however.Itseemsthatsomeonewedon’tconsideroldenoughtoorderadrinkshouldn’tbeconsideringplasticsurgery.IntheUKcosmeticsurgeryhaslongbeenseenastheexclusivedomainoftheveryrichandfamous.3Buttheproportionatecostoftreatmenthasfallensubstantiallybringingallbutthemostadvancedlasertechnologywithinthereachofmostpeople.Dr.Davieswhoclaimstocaterfortheaveragepersonagrees.Hesays:Itreatafewoftherichandfamousandanawfullotofsecretaries.Ofcourse￡3000foranoperationisalotofmoney.Butitisalsoaninvestmentforlifewhichcostsabouthalfthepriceofagoodfamilyholiday.4Dr.Daviessuspectsthattheincreasingsophisticationofthefatinjectingandremovaltechniquesthatallowpatientstobetreatedwithalocalanaestheticinanafternoonhasalsohelpedpromotethepopularityofcosmeticsurgery.5Yetasonewomanwhorecentlypaid￡2500forliposuctiontoremovefatfromherthighsadmittedtheslopetobecomingacosmeticsurgeryVeteranisadeceptivelygentleone.Ihadmylegsdonebecausethey’dbeenbuggingmeforyears.Butgoingintotheclinicwassolowkeyandeffectiveitwhettedmyappetite.NowIdon’tthinkthere’sanyoperationthatIwouldruleouthavingifIcouldaffordit./
It’slongbeenknownbutlittlediscussedinpolitehigh-techcirclesthatinformation-agetechnologyisnotthecleanindustryitclaimstobe.ManufacturingasinglePCcangenerate139poundsofwasteandinvolvesahostofchemicalslinkedtohighratesofcancerandbirthdefectsamongworkersandcommunities.1.DisposalCrisisofE-wasteElectronicwastee-waste—suchasobsoleteanddiscardedcomputersmonitorsprinterscellphonesandtelevisions—isoneofthefastestgrowingwastestreamsinthedevelopedworldthankstotheindustry’sphilosophyofdesignforimmediateobsolescenceandaweakelectronics-recyclinginfrastructure.2.PublicHealthProblemsIfthefullforceofthehigh-techrevolutionhitsthelandfillitshealthriskswillleavenocommunityuntouched.3.TheEuropeanSolutionTheEuropeanUnioniswayaheadoftheU.S.inrecognizingthehazardsandmovingtowardsasolution.4.HowWilltheU.S.ProceedBecausetheU.S.high-techindustryanditsfriendsinWashingtonrepresentthebiggestobstaclestotheglobalizationoftake-backlawsabroadcoalitionofenvironmentalhealthlaborandrecyclinggroupsandlocalgovernmentshasformedtheComputerTakeBackCampaigntosupportEU-stylelegislationintheU.S.5.GoingGlobalTheEuropeanapproachismorethanaminorsoftwarepatchonafundamentallyflawedprogram.Byestablishingcorporateresponsibilityforproductsattheendoftheirlivesthisstrategycouldhavewide-rangingeffectsontheinformationtechnologyindustry.TheEUapproachspreadsenvironmentalbenefitsgloballyratherthanshiftingpollutiontodevelopingnations.A.IfwecanadopttheEU’scodeintheU.S.wecandoabitofreverseengineeringonglobalization.BydownloadingEurope’sprogramtotheU.S.wecanfinallybegintocleanupthecleanindustryaroundtheglobe.B.Anestimated300to500millioncomputerswilldescendonlandfillsby2007intheU.S.alone.Three-quartersofallcomputerseversoldinthiscountryawaitdisposalingaragesandstoragefacilitiesbecausetheirownersdon’tknowwhattodowiththem.C.ThefirstEuropeanUniondirectiveone-wasteadoptedlastyearrequiresproducerstotakeresponsibilityfortheentirelifecycleoftheirproducts.By2005companieswilleitherhavetotakebackproductsdirectlyfromconsumersorfundindependentcollectorstodoso.Wastethatwasgeneratedpriortotheenactmentdatewillbetheresponsibilityofallexistingcompaniesinproportiontotheirmarketshare.Futurewasteistobetheindividualresponsibilityofeachcompanytherebycreatinganincentivetoredesignproductsforeasierandsaferrecyclinganddisposal.Noe-wastewillbeallowedinmunicipalwastestreams.D.E-wasteaccountsfor5percentofallsolidwasteinAmericabutapproximately40percentofthelead70percentoftheheavymetalsandasignificantportionoftheorganicchemicalpollutantsinAmerica’sdumps.Thise-wastecanleachintothegroundasitdidintheSiliconValley.Itwasthewidespreadcontaminationofthevalley’saquifersintheearly1980sthatinitiallypuncturedthehigh-techindustry’scleanimage.Currently;therearemoreEPAsuperfundcleanupsitesinthisvalleythananywhereelseintheU.S.Thethreattosoildrinkingwaterandpublichealthwillgrowase-wastesurgesintothewastestreamworldwide.E.HundredsoforganizationsandlocalgovernmentsintheU.S.havealreadyendorsedthecampaign’splatform.ThecampaignadvocatesthattheU.S.adoptstandardsforelectronicsmanufacturersatleastasstringentasthoseadoptedbytheEU:hazardousmaterialswouldbephasedoutandallelectronicswouldbedesignedforreuseandrecycling.Thecampaignhassparkedlegislativegroundswell.Inthepastyearalone20stateshaveintroducedlegislationtoaddresse-waste.F.Localgovernmentsandtaxpayersnowpickupthetabforthedisposalofe-waste.ThestateofCaliforniaforexamplefacesanestimated$1billionine-wastedisposalcostsoverthenextfewyears.
A.GetmovingB.FollowyourinterestC.ExploreotherperspectivesD.ReducescreentimeE.ForgetbrainstormingF.AllowformoreflexibilityBrainstorminginagroupbecamepopularin1953withthepublicationofabusinessbookAppliedImagination.Butit’sbeenprovennottoworksince1958whenYaleresearchersfoundthatthetechniqueactuallyreducedateam’screativeoutput:thesamenumberofpeoplegeneratemoreandbetterideasseparatelythantogether.InfactaccordingtoUniversityofOklahomaprofessorMichaelMumfordhalfofhecommonlyusedtechniquesintendedtospurcreativitydon’tworkorevenhaveanegativeimpact.AsformostcommerciallyavailablecreativitytrainingMumforddoesn’tmincewords:it’sgarbage.Whetherforadultsorkidstheworstoftheseprogramsfocussolelyonimaginationexercisesexpressionoffeelingsorimagery.Theypandertoaneasyunchallengingnotionthatallyouhavetodoisletyournaturalcreativityoutofitsshell.Howevertherearesometechniquesthatdoboostthecreativeprocess.1.Almosteverydimensionofcognitionimprovesfrom30minutesofaerobicexerciseandcreativityisnoexception.Thetypeofexercisedoesn’tmatterandtheboostlastsforatleasttwohoursafterward.Howeverthere’sacatch:thisisthecaseonlyforthephysicallyfit.Forthosewhorarelyexercisethefatiguefromaerobicactivitycounteractstheshort-termbenefits.2.Thosewhostudymulti-taskingreportthatyoucan’tworkontwoprojectssimultaneouslybutthedynamicisdifferentwhenyouhavemorethanonecreativeprojecttocomplete.Inthatsituationmoreprojectsgetcompletedontimewhenyouallowyourselftoswitchbetweenthemifsolutionsdon’tcomeimmediately.Thiscorroboratessurveysshowingthatprofessorswhosetpapersasidetobrewultimatelypublishmorepapers.Similarlypreeminentmathematiciansusuallyworkonmorethanoneproofatatime.3.AccordingtoUniversityofTexasprofessorElizabethVandewaterforeveryhourakidregularlywatchestelevisionhisoveralltimeincreativeactivities—fromfantasyplaytoartsprojects—dr0psasmuchas11percent.Withkidsspendingaboutthreehoursinfrontoftelevisionseachdaythatcouldbeaone-thirdreductionincreativetime—lesstimetodevelopasenseofcreativeself-efficacythroughplay.4.FiveexperimentsbyNorthwestern’sAdamGalinskyshowedthatthosewhohavelivedabroadoutperformothersoncreativitytasks.Creativityisalsohigheronaverageforfirstorsecondgenerationimmigrantsandbilinguals.Thetheoryisthatcross-culturalexperiencesforcepeopletoadaptandbemoreflexible.Juststudyinganotherculturecanhelp.InGalinsky’slabpeopleweremorecreativeafterwatchingaslideshowaboutChina:a45-minutesessionincreasedcreativityscoresforaweek.5.RenaSubotnikaresearcherwiththeAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhasstudiedchildren’sprogressionintoadultcreativecareers.Kidsdobestwhentheyareallowedtodevelopdeeppassionsandpursuethemwholeheartedlyattheexpenseofwell-roundedness.Kidswhohavedeepidentificationwithafieldhavebetterdisciplineandhandlesetbacksbettershenoted.Bycontrastkidsgivensuperficialexposuretomanyactivitiesdon’thavethesamecenterednesstoovercomeperiodsofdifficulty.IfyouwanttoincreaseinnovationwithinanorganizationoneofthefirstthingstodoistearoutthesuggestionboxadvisesIsaacGetzprofessoratESCPEuropeBusinessSchoolinParis.Formalizedsuggestionprotocolswhetheraboxonthewallane-mailedformoraninternalWebsiteactuallystifleinnovationbecauseemployeesfeelthattheirideasgointoablackholeofbureaucracy.Insteademployeesneedtobeabletoputtheirownideasintopractice.OneofthereasonsthatToyota’smanufacturingplantinGeorgetownKy.issosuccessfulisthatitimplementsupto99percentofemployees’ideas.
Whenwecomparemenwithanimalswemustrememberthatamanisalsoananimal.Butinmakingthiscomparisonitissometimesmoreconvenienttorefertotherestoftheanimalkingdomasanimals.1.Manyanimalsareintelligentinthesensethattheycanexploretheirsurroundingsoracquirenewskillsbylearningfromtheirparents.Animalorganismshaveorganswhosephysicalpowerexceedsthepowerofmen.Thebodiesofmenhavenowingsandcannotfly.Mencannotimitatefishandspendlongperiodsunderwaterunlesstheycarrybreathingapparatuswiththem.2.Butitisveryuncommonforanimalstogomadordestroytheirownkind.Animalslefttothemselvesdonotdisturbthebalanceofnature.Theydonotturngrasslandintodesertormakewaterundrinkablebyfillingwholelakesandriverswithwastematerials.Comparedwithmostotherorganisms—ifweseehimasapartofnature—maniswastefulanddestructive.Thoughheismoreintelligentthananimalsheoftenuseshisintelligenceforstrangepurposes.3.ThispowerispossessedbytherichbusinessmaninChicagoandthepoorprimitiveBushmanoftheKalahariDesertinAfrica.ItmayindeedshowitselfmoreobviouslyintheBushmanwhoseenvironmentdoesnotprovidehimwithsecurityandwhoseentirefoodsupplyisacquiredbyfacingnewsituations.Itisapowerwhichcanbewastedormisusedorbeweakenedthroughneglect.Butitisapowerwhichbelongstoeveryhumanbeing.4.Languagegivesdepthtohumancommunitiesintime.Itenablesonegenerationtohandonitsexperiencetoanotherbymeansofstorieswhicharetheoriginofhumanhistory.Itisonlyhumanbeingswhorecognizeapastandfutureandwhofeelthattheystandatacertainpointinthedevelopmentoftheircommunity.5.Thisbringsustoanotheraspectofhumanintelligence.Manismoreadaptablethananimalsbutintheagesofcivilizationhehasusedthispowerinaspecialway.AfewcommunitiesliketheAfricanBushmanstillmanagetosurviveinaprimitiveway.Butothermenwishtomaketheirfuturemoresecureandtrytofindawayofdoingthiswhichistypicalofcivilizedcommunities.A.Wecallthiscapacityintelligence.Itschiefinstrumentorweaponishumanlanguageasystemofsymbolsspokenorwrittenwhichenablesmentocommunicateinformationandpurposeandseeonesituationintermsofanother.Theabilitytousesymbolsisnotpossessedbyanimalsanditisamajoraspectofhumanintelligence.B.Likeanimalsmenareadaptedtoacertainenvironment.Theyrequirefoodandwater;theycandigestonlycertainkindsoffood.Theyrequirewarmth;theycansurviveonlywithincertainlimitsoftemperature.C.Man’ssenseoffutureleadshimtoprovideforthefuture.Heaccumulatesfoodclothesusefulobjectsrawmaterialsbuildingsinformationandinmoderntimesheaccumulatesmoney—themeansofexchangeandthereforeanimportantmeansofpoweroverothermen.D.Differentfromananimalmanisabletoconvertanaturalenvironmentintoahumansocialenvironment—anenvironmentwhichrepresentstheaccumulatedlaborofmanygenerations.E.Wecannotsaythatmenaresuperiortoanimals.Buttheydifferfromanimalsinseveralimportantways.Andallthesedifferencesarereallyaspectsofoneandthesamedifference.Thiscentraldifferenceisman’sunusualmentalflexibilityhisabilitytomeetanewsituationinanewwayandhiscapacitytolearnfromhisexperienceandtheexperienceofothers.F.Itisverydoubtfulwhethermenaresuperiortoanimals.Itistruethattheirresponsesaremorecomplex.G.Manisconcernedabouthislivingenvironment.Thediscoveriesofscienceandtheinventionsoftechnologyhaveproducedanenvironmentwhichisalmostequivalenttoasecondoutershellofbodyandisadaptednotonlytolocalconditionsbutalsotoaverywiderangeofvariationsinclimatealtitudeandotherfeaturesofthegeographicalsurroundings.
Lifeatleastforaseedisbetteroutintheworld.1.Seedsknowhowtogetaround.2.Buttheyallhavethesamegoal:totakerootandgiverisetothenextgeneration.Scientistscanunderstandwhattypeofdispersalstrategyaplantemploysbylookingatitsenvironment.Forexampledispersalbyseacurrentsisimportantforplantsthatgrowonseashoresandwindisimportantinopengrasslands.Andforeachtypeofdispersalthereisatypeofdesign.3.AmongspecieswithseedsdispersedinternallybyanimalsthesizeoftheseedorfruititscolorandthepresenceofprotectivehuskswillreflecttheswallowingvisualandprocessingabilitiesoftheseeddisperserBirkinshawsaid.Forexampleseedsspreadbysmallbirdswillbesmallinsizecoveredwithplantfleshtogivethebirdsarewardforeatingithusklesssincemostbirdsareillequippedtoremovesuchanoutershellandbrightlycoloredsincebirdshavegoodcolorvision.Someseedshavenospecificdispersalstrategylikethecoco-de-merapalmtreethatonlygrowsintheSeychellesanislandchainintheIndianOcean.ThesepalmshavethelargestseedsofanyplantandlackanyseeddispersalmethodotherthangravityBirkinshawsaid.InothercasesaswiththerareMadagascanpalmsSatranaladecussilvaeandVoanioalagerardiitheseedscollectinpilesbeneaththeirparenttrees.4.AccordingtoJohnDransfieldanexpertonMadagascanpalmswiththeUnitedKingdom’sRoyalBotanicGardenKewbothofthesepalmshaveverylargeseedsthatanimalsalivetodayareincapableofmoving.Youstartdreamingupstoriesthatitcouldhavebeendistributedbyanowextinctanimalhesaid.PossibleextinctdispersersofthepalmsarelargelemursthatonceroamedMadagascarorflightlesselephantbirdswhichwerethelargestbirdsknowntohavelivedinMadagascar.ThereareonlyafewoftheseMadagascanpalmsleftstanding.5.DonaldDrakeisabotanistwiththeUniversityofHawaiiinHonoluluwhostudieshowplantandanimalinteractionaffectsreproductionofnativeplantsandfoodfornativeanimalsinthePacificOceanislands.Hesaidlossofanimalstodisperseseedscertainlyimpactsaplant’sviabilitybuthardconclusivedataaredifficulttocomeby.HeandcolleagueKimMcConkeyarecurrentlyengagedinresearchthatsuggestsanimalsmaystopperformingecologicalfunctionssuchasseeddispersallongbeforetheygoextinct.WefoundthistobethecasewithflyingfoxesDrakesaid.FlyingfoxesareamongthefewremaininglargeanimalsthatdisperseseedsonislandsinthePacificandIndianOceans.ManyflyingfoxesareeitherrareorextinctDrakesaidIftheyceasetobeeffectivedisperserslongbeforereachingthatstagethereisapossibilitythattheresultswefoundareofwideapplicability.A.Wind-dispersedseedsaregenerallylightweightandhaveadaptationssuchaswingsandparachutessotheycancatcharideonthebreeze.Water-dispersedseedssuchascoconutsarebuoyant.Seedsdispersedbyanimalsusuallyofferanutritionalrewardsothattheyareeatenortheyarestickyorbarbedsotheycanlatchontopassingbodies.B.IfresearcherscanconfirmthatindeedtheanimaldisperserofthepalmsseedsareextinctthentheonlywaytopreventthetreesthemselvesfrombecomingextinctmaybetoreintroduceseedlingsintotheforestwithacontrolledprogramofreplantingDransfieldsaid.C.Inordertomaintaineffectiveseed-dispersingpopulationstheresearcherssayitisimportanttotakeconservationactionsbeforeseed-dispersinganimalspeciesdropbelowthisthreshold.D.Someflywiththewindothersgowiththeflow.Manyhitcharidewithunsuspectinganimals.E.Someanimalsceasebeingeffectiveseeddisperserswhentheirpopulationdensitiesfallbelowapointthatinducesthemtocompeteoverfoodresources—theystopbotheringtoscatterandhidetheirfoodstores.F.Ingeneralseeddispersalawayfromtheparentplantincreasesthechancesthataseedwillreachmaturity.G.Researchersbelievethatperhapstheiranimaldispersersarelongextinct.
Inmanydevelopingcountriessoftwarepiracyhasbecomepandemic.AccordingtoSoftwarePublishersAssociation95%ofthesoftwareinPakistanispirated89%inBrazil88%inMalaysiaand82%inMexico.1HundredsoftinygizmoshopsinthemazelikestreetsofSeoul’sYongsanelectronicsmarketofferbrandnameU.S.madeprogramsforaprogramerforafractionofthelistpriceincludingLotus1-2-3for$7.50suggestedretail:$368.NewDelhi’slargestpirateoutletisabackroomoperationthatofferscustomersacatalogofnearly400titlesandfacilitiesformakingcopiesforaslittleas$4adisk$2.50forcustomerswhobringtheirownfloppies.Howtocombatthisrampantpiracy2Thepublishers’firstapproachwastocontrolitthroughtechnicalmeans—byputtingcodesintheirprogramsthatpreventedusersfromcopyingthem.Thisstrategyworkedforawhileoratleastuntildeterminedpiratesfoundwaystogetaroundit.3Butthecodesalsomadeitdifficultforlegitimateuserstocopyprogramsontotheirharddrives.Copyprotectionbecamesounpopularthatby1986mostpublishershadabandoneditastheirfirstlineofdefense.Buttheydidn’tgiveupaltogether.ThroughassociationslikeSoftwarePublishersAssociationtheybeganpickingoffpiratesoneatatimefocusingonthebiggestabusers.4SoftwarePublishersAssociationbeganrunningspotchecksandauditsonmajorcorporationssuingfordamageswhentheyfoundfirmshadboughtsayasinglecopyofaprogramandthenmadenumerousunlicensedcopiesforitsemployees.SoftwarePublishersAssociationalsoopenedahotlineonwhichanybodycanreporttheuseofillegalsoftware.Theorganizationnowgets20to30callsadaymostlyfromformerordisgruntledemployeesandcollectsmorethan$3.5millionayearinfinesandpenalties.5TheWashingtonbasedBusinessSoftwareAllianceisconductingsimilaroperationsoverseasputtingpressureonforeigngovernmentstoenforcethecopyrightlawsalreadyonthebooks.
Smokingmeansinhalationandexhalationofthefumesofburningtobacco.Leavesofthetobaccoplantaresmokedinvariousways.Afteradryingandcuringprocesstheymayberolledintocigarsorshreddedforinsertionintosmokingpipes.Cigarettesthemostpopularmethodofsmokingconsistoffinelyshreddedtobaccorolledinlightweightpaper.About50millionpeopleintheUnitedStatescurrentlysmokeanestimatedtotalof570billioncigaretteseachyear.Butissmokingagoodhabit1.IncreasedriskofcancerSomeexpertsnoticedthatlungcancerwhichwasrarebeforethe20thcenturyhadincreaseddramaticallysinceabout1930TheAmericanCancerSocietyandotherorganizationsinitiatedstudiescomparingdeathsamongsmokersandnonsmokersoveraperiodofseveralyears.2.MoredeathsfromotherdiseasesSmokersalsorungreaterriskofdyingfromdiseasesapartfromcancers.3.CigarandpipesmokeasdangerousCigarandpipesmokecontainsthesametoxicandcarcinogeniccompoundsfoundincigarettesmoke.4.TheeffectofenvironmentaltobaccosmokeRecentresearchhasfocusedontheeffectsofenvironmentaltobaccosmokeETSthatistheeffectoftobaccosmokeonnonsmokerswhomustsharethesameenvironmentwithasmoker.5.AddictionatanearlyageThesmokinghabitandaddictiontonicotineusuallybeginsatanearlyage.Thishasledtoparticularconcernoversmokinginteenagersandyoungadults.Thereisnoneedtokillinnocenthumanbeings.Restrictingtobaccousemaybetheonlyanswertoahealthyworld.Tobaccoisharmfulnotonlytousbuttothepeopleinsurroundingareas.Tobaccousehasbeenpassedonfromgenerationtogeneration.Itisnowtimetoputabanonsmoking.Withthehelpofthousandsofpeoplesmokingcanbecontrolled.Nowitisthetimetostartatobaccobattle.Smokingneedstobecomeextinctworldwide.A.AreportbytheNationalCancerInstituteconcludedthatthemortalityratesfromcancerofthemouththroatlarynxpharynxandesophagusareapproximatelyequalinusersofcigarettescigarsandpipes.Ratesofcoronaryheartdiseaselungcanceremphysemaandchronicbronchitisareelevatedforcigarandpipesmokersandarecorrelatedtotheamountofsmokingandthedegreeofinhalation.B.IntheUnitedStatesmorethan70percentofadultsbegansmokingbeforetheageof18.Fromtheearlytomid-1990stheproportionofteenagesmokersintheUnitedStatesrosefromone-quartertoonethirddespiteincreasingwarningsaboutthehealthhazardsofsmokingandwidespreadbansonsmokinginpublicplaces.In2001surveysofstudentsingrades9through12foundthatmorethan38percentofmalestudentsandnearly30percentoffemalestudentssmoke.Althoughblackteenagershavethelowestsmokingratesofanyracialgroupcigarettesmokingamongblackteensincreased80percentinthelate1990s.C.Itisestimatedthatcigarettesareresponsibleforabout431000deathsintheUnitedStateseachyear.Lungcanceraccountsforabout30percentofallcancerdeathsintheUnitedStatesandsmokingaccountsfornearly90percentoflungcancerdeaths.Therisksofdyingfromlungcancerare23timeshigherformalesmokersand13timeshigherforfemalesmokersthannonsmokers.Additionallysmokersareatincreasedriskforcancerofthelarynxoralcavityesophagusbladderkidneyandpancreas.D.Researchhasshownthatmotherswhosmokegivebirthmorefrequentlytoprematureorunderweightbabiesprobablybecauseofadecreaseinbloodflowtotheplacenta.E.TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPAestimatesthatexposuretotheenvironmentthatcontainsallthetoxicagentsexhaledbyasmokercauses3000cancerdeathsandanestimated40000deathsfromheartdiseaseperyearinnonsmokers.Secondhandsmokecanaggravateasthmapneumoniabronchitisandimpairedbloodcirculation.F.Smokingcausesafivefoldincreaseintheriskofdyingfromchronicbronchitisandemphysemaandatwofoldincreaseindeathsfromdiseasesoftheheartandcoronaryarteries.Smokingalsoincreasestheriskofstrokeby50percent—40percentamongmenand60percentamongwomen.
SeveralmonthsagoplanningtovisitafriendhospitalizedwithAIDSIaskedadoctorwhetherIshouldtakeanyprecautions.You’remoreofarisktohimthanheistoyousaidthedoctorFredValentineanassociateprofessorofmedicineatNewYorkUniversityMedicalCenter.Youmighthaveacoldorsomeminorinfectionthatwouldbeveryseriousforhimifhecaughtitbecausehehasnoresistance.Therisktomethedoctorsaidwasalmostnonexistent.1.Doctorsnowthinktheyunderstandhowitinfectscantestwhethersomeonehasbeenexposedtothevirusandknowhowtopreventitsspreadtoothers.2.AIDSisasilentepidemic.AccordingtorecentfiguresfromtheCentersforDiseaseControlCDCsince197915172peopleintheUnitedStateshavebeendiagnosedashavingAIDSand7111ofthemhavedied.Thesenumbersaredoublingevery10to12months.Another60000to120000peoplehaveAIDS-related-complexARCamilderformofthediseasewhichwillturnintoAIDSin5to20percentofthecases.3.Dr.HaroldJaffechiefepidemiologistoftheAIDStaskforceattheCDCsaysthatoverfiveyearsperhaps10percentofthepeoplecarryingtheviruswillgetAIDS.Another25percentwilldevelopARC.SinceinamajorityofcasesAIDSisfatal—atleastsofar—thedeathtollcouldbeenormous.ThoughthemedicalcommunityisoverwhelminglyconvincedthatAIDScan’tbecaughtbycausalcontactthatiswhatmostpeopleworryabout.Partoftheproblemissemantic.Doctorsaretaughtnevertosayneverbecausethere’snosuchthingas100-percentcertaintyinscience.4.ButthefactsdospeakstronglyagainsttransmissionofAIDSthroughcasualcontact.Tobeginwithnoresearcherhasfoundasinglecasecontractedthatway.OfalltheAIDScasesreportedinthepastfiveyearsnotoneresultedfromsharingaresidenceaschool-roomoranofficewithanotherAIDSpatientsaysDr.Jaffe.5.TheoreticallythereisasmallriskfromabarbershopshavewithastraightedgedrazorwhichmayproduceaminuteamountofbleedingiftherazorhasbeencontaminatedwithAIDS-carryingbloodandleftuncleaned.Asimilarsituationholdsifbleedingoccursduringamanicureandtheinstrumentsarecontaminatedandnotdisinfectedbetweencustomers.A.Forexampledentalpatientsaren’tthoughttobeatrisk.Instrumentsaresterilizedbyboilingorautoclaving—theuseofsuperheatedsteamunderpressure.EitherwouldkilltheAIDSvirusifitwerepresent.Furthermoremostdentistsusedisposableneedlesforinjections.B.AIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromewasidentifiedonlyfouryearsagoandisstillasmystifyingtothepublicasitisfrightening.Thoughagreatdealremainstobelearnedaboutthediseasethestoreofinformationisincreasingquickly.C.NorhaveanyfriendsorfamilymemberswhohavetendedAIDSvictimscomedownwiththediseaseunlesstheyhadsexualcontactwiththevictim.Motherswho’vetakencareofsonsthroughtheirterminalillnesshandlingbloodbodysecretionsvomit—noneofthemhascaughtAIDS.saysDr.Valentine.D.Because392AIDSvictimscontractedAIDSfromcontaminatedbloodgiveninatransfusionorfrombloodproductsusedtotreathemophiliamanypeopleworryaboutgivingorreceivingblood.TobeginwithitisimpossibletogetAIDSbygivingblood.Anewsterilizedneedleisusedforeachdonorandisdisposedofafterward.E.Moredisturbingisthatasmanyas1.2millionAmericansmayhaveantibodiestothevirusandamajorityofthesemaybecarryingiteventhoughtheyhavenosymptoms.Someofthemcanspreadthedisease.F.Thoughthepublic’sattentionhasbeenfocusedonfearsofcasualcontactwithAIDSvictimsmedicalauthoritiesagreethatthediseaseisnoteasytocatch.IndeedthekeytocontainingAIDSliesintwoareasofcontactthatisanythingbutcasual:sexandsharingintravenousdrugneedles.Butsexanddrugabusearethingsthatpeoplecancontrol.Researchindicatesthatworriesofthissortareunfounded.G.SoresearcherssaythingslikeThere’snoevidenceofcasualspreadofAIDS.Thepublicnotrecognizingtheunderlyingprincipleissuspiciousandtendstooverestimatetheuncertainty.
A.ThemainlinesthatcurrentlyserveEuropearelargelyaproductofthe19thcentury.Therailwayshavebeenindeclineformostofthe20thcentury.Fromthe1920sonwardsmotorvehiclesbeganpilferingtheshort-distancetraffic.Inthe1960stheairplanesnatchedlong-distancetravelersandmotorwayssqueezedtherailwaysstillfurther. B.TheplanswereunveiledlastmonthinBrusselsataconferenceonhigh-speedtrainshostedbytheUnionInternationaledesCheminsdeferandtheCommunityofEuropeanRailwaysagroupingthatincludesthe12CommunityrailwaysplusAustriaandSwitzerland.TheyexpandonthoseofDecember1990whichhavealreadyreceivedtheblessingoftheCommunity’stransportministers. C.Japanledthewayforwardwhenitopenedanewhigh-speedlinein1964.The"bullet"trainsbetweenTokyoandOsakawerethefirstintheworldtoaveragemorethan160kilometersperhourEuropefollowedsuit.TheFrenchhigh-speedlinebetweenParisandLyonwhichopenedintwostagesin1981and1983halvedjourneytimes.Anon-stoptrainnowtakestwohoursandthenumberofpassengerstravelingbytrainbetweenthetwocitieshastrebled.TheItalianRailwaysopeneditshigh-speedlinebetweenFlorenceandRomeduringthe1980s. D.ProgresshasbeenslowerandmorecostlyinGermanywhereGermanRailwayshasbeenplanninghigh-speedlinessince1970.Environmentaloppositiondelayedproceduresforacquiringlandwhichforcedtheauthoritiestoputlargestretchesofnewlineintotunnels.Thisinturncausedanotherproblem.Enteringatunnelathighspeedcreatespressureplusesthatcausepassengers’earstopopunpleasantly.AsaresultGermany’sintercitytrainsaresealedandpressurizedlikeaircrafttoinsulatepassengersfromthechangesinpressureoutside. E.Thescopeofthevisionisbreathtaking.AccordingtoAndresLopezprofessorofengineeringatthePolytechnicUniversityofCataloniatwiceasmanymilesofnewrailwaysarebeingplannedasmilesofmotorway.Theblueprintenvisagesthenetworkofhigh-speedlinesgrowingfromafewhundredkilometersto3000kilometersby1996and7400kilometersbytheendofthecentury.Itseesthenetworkextendingeventuallyto20000kilometerswithafurther15000kilometersofexistinglinesbeingsubstantiallyrebuiltforhighspeedsatacostof180billion. F.Neverthelessinthe1990sthepaceofopeninghasalreadybeguntoaccelerate.LastyearGermanyopeneditsfirsttwohigh-speedlinesandFranceopeneditssecondTGVline.LastmonthSpanishRailwaysbecamethefourthrailwaystojointhe250kilometersperhourclubwhenitopenedanewlinefromMadridtoSeville.Overthenextfouryearsafurthersixstretchesofhigh-speedlinewillopen:threeinFranceandoneeachinAustriaBelgiumandGermany.BritainwillfinallybelinkedtothisgrowingnetworkwhentrainsbegintorunthroughtheChannelTunnelfromLondontoBrusselsandParisalthoughdelaysindeliveringtherollingstockmakethisunlikelyuntilearlyin1994. G.FourEuropeanrailwayscurrentlyhavehigh-speedtrains.PerhapsthebestknownisFrenchRailwaysTGVwhichholdstheworldspeedrecordof515kilometersperhour.ButGermanyItalyandSpainalsohavetrainsthatarecapableofexceeding250kilometersperhourthethresholdthatdefineshighspeed.NownewplansproposeanetworknotonlylinkingcountriesintheEuropeanCommunitybutextendingacrossEasternEuropetoo. Order: 3
Withthepaceoftechnologicalchangemakingheadsspinwetendtothinkofourageasthemostinnovativeever.Wehavesmartphonesandsupercomputersbigdataandstem-celltransplants.Governmentsuniversitiesandfirmstogetherspendaround$1.4trillionayearonR&Dmorethaneverbefore.Yetnobodyrecentlyhascomeupwithaninventionhalfasusefulastoilet.Withitscleanlinesandintuitiveuserinterfacethehumbletoilettransformedthelivesofbillionsofpeople.1.Modemsciencehasfailedtomakeanythinglikethesameimpactandthisiswhyagrowingbandofthinkersclaimthatthepaceofinnovationhasslowed.2.Iftherateatwhichweinnovateandspreadslowsdownsotoootherthingsbeingequalwillourgrowthrate.EversinceMalthusforecastthatwewouldallstarvehumaningenuityhasprovedtheprophetsofdoomwrong.Butthesedaystheimpactofinnovationdoesindeedseemtobetailingoff.3.Productivityalsosupportsthepessimists’case:ittookoffinthemid-19thcenturyacceleratedintheearly20thcenturyandheldupprettywelluntiltheearly1970s.Itthendippedsharplytickedupinlate1990swithcomputerizationanddippedagaininthemid-2000s.Yetthatpatternisnotasconclusivelygloomyasthedoomsayersclaim.Lifeexpectancyisstillimprovingevenintherichworld.4.Moreoveritistooearlytowriteofftheinnovativeimpactofthepresentage.Thisgeneration’scontributiontotechnologicalprogressliesmostlyininformationtechnologyIT.5.Butaswithelectricitycompanieswilltaketimetolearnhowtousethemsoitwillprobablybemanydecadesbeforetheirfullimpactisfelt.ComputingpowerisalreadycontributingtodramaticadvancesfarbeyondthefieldofIT.Three-dimensionalprintingmaycauseanewindustrialrevolution.AutonomousvehicleslikethedriverlesscarsproducedbyGooglecouldbecommononstreetswithinadecade.Andalthoughitistoosoontojudgehowbigadealtheseinventionswillturnouttobeglobalizationshouldmakethisafruitfulperiodforinnovation.A.Theproductivitygainsafterelectrificationcamenotsmoothlybutinspurts;andthedrop-offsince2004probablyhasmoretodowiththeeconomiccrisisthanwithunderlyinglackofinvention.B.Economicgrowthisamodeminvention:20th-centurygrowthrateswerefarhigherthanthoseinthe19thcenturyandpre-1750growthrateswerealmostimperceptiblebymodemstandards.C.Ratheraselectrificationchangedeverythingbyallowingenergytobeusedfarfromwhereitwasgeneratedcomputingandcommunicationstechnologiestransformlivesandbusinessesbyallowingpeopletomakecalculationsandconnectionsfarbeyondtheirunaidedcapacity.D.Anditwasn’tjustmodemsanitationthatsprangfromlate-19thandearly-20th-centurybrains:theyproducedcarsplanesthetelephoneradioandantibiotics.E.Manymorebrainsareatworknowthanwere100yearsago:AmericanandEuropeaninventorshavebeenjoinedintheracetoproducecoolnewstuffbythosefrommanyothercountries.F.Ifthepessimistsarerighttheimplicationsarehuge.Economiescangenerategrowthbyaddingmorestuff:moreworkersinvestmentandeducation.Butsustainedincreasesinoutputperpersonwhicharenecessarytoraiseincomesandwelfareentailusingthestuffwealreadyhaveinbetterways—innovatinginotherwords.G.LifeexpectancyinAmericaforinstancehasrisenmoreslowlysince1980thanintheearly20thcentury.Thespeedoftravelintherichworldatleastisoftenslowernowthanitwasagenerationearlierafterrocketingacenturyorsoago.
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