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什么是P、V操作试用P、V操作描述读者一写者问题。要求允许几个阅读者可以同时读该数据集，而一个写者不能与其他进程(不管是写者还是读者)同时访问该数据集。
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某数据库有一个写进程多个读进程它们之间读写操作的互斥要求是写进程正在 写该数据库时不能有其他进程读该
有一阅览室读者进入时必须先在一张登记表上登记该表中每个表项代表阅览室中的一个座位读者离开时要消掉其登
下列关于PV操作的说法中正确的是
P、V操作是两个操作，而且都是原语操作
P、V操作中P操作可以不用原语方式，而V操作必须使用原语操作
P、V操作是一个过程，同一般函数，过程一样，只是执行管理临界区的操作
P、V操作中P操作必须使用原语方式，而V操作可以不使用原语操作
允许多个用户同时使用同一个共享文件时下列______做法通常是不对的
不允许多个写者同时对共享文件执行写操作
不允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
允许多个用户同时打开共享文件执行读操作
我们将只读数据的进程称为读者进程而写或修改数据的进程称为写者进程允许多个读者同时读数据但不允许写者与
多个进程共享一个文件其中只读文件的称为读者其中只写文件的称为写者读者可以同时读但是写者只能独立地
在生产者—消费者问题中如果对调生产者进程中的两个P操作和两个V操作则可 能发生什么情况?
在一个仓库中可以存放A和B两种产品要求1每次只能存入一种产品2A产品数量-B产品数量＜M3B产品数量
用PV操作解决读者写者问题的正确程序如下 beginSSr:Semaphore;rc:integer
用PV操作实现生产者消费者之间的同步时在访问共享缓冲区的______和______分别调动P操作和V
有一个仓库可以存放A和B两种产品但要求 1每次只能存入一种产品A或B 2-N＜A产品的数量-B产品
有一个仓库可以存放A和B两种产品但要求1每次只能存入一种产品A或B2-N＜A产品数量-B产品数量＜M
实现一个经典的读者一写者算法时若当前临界区中有读者访问写者再来时必须在临界区外面等候如果其后读者源源
读者与写者问题reader--writerproblems 在计算机体系中对一个共享文件进行操作的进
公路上有一座桥该桥一次只允许一辆汽车在桥上行驶当桥上有汽车时其他汽车不能上桥试问1这是一个同步问题还
允许多个用户同时使用同一个共享文件时下列做法是不对的
不允许多个写者同时对共享文件执行写操作
不允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
允许多个用户同时打开共享文件执行读操作
举例说明PV操作为什么要求设计成原语即对同一信号量上的操作必须互斥PS操作S.value--:IfS
允许多个用户同时使用同一个共享文件时下列做法不正确的是
允许多个用户同时打开共享文件执行读操作
允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
不允许读者和写者同时使用共享文件
不允许多个写者同时对共享文件执行写操作
实现一个经典的读者-写者算法时若当前临界区中有读者访问写者再来时必须在临界区外面等候如果其后读者源源
有一阅览室读者进入时必须先在一张登记表上登记该表中每个表项代表阅览室中的一个座位读者离开时要消掉其登
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Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 45
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 1
PrinceKlemensVonMetternichforeignministeroftheAustrianEmpireduringtheNapoleoniceraanditsaftermathwouldhavenotroublerecognizingGoogle.Tohimtheworld’smostpopularweb-searchenginewouldcloselyresembletheNapoleonicFrancethatinhisyouthhumiliatedAustriaandEurope’sotherpowers.Itsrivals—Yahoo!thelargestofthetraditionalwebgatewayseBaythebiggestonlineauctionandtradingsiteandMicrosoftasoftwareempirethatownsMSNastrugglingwebportal—wouldlookalotlikeRussiaPrussiaandAustria.Metternichrespondedbyforginganallianceamongthosethreemonarchiestocreatea"balanceofpower"againstFrance.Google’senemieshemightsayoughtnowtodothesamething. GoogleannouncedtwonewconquestsonAugust7th.ItstruckadealwithViacoman"old"mediafirmunderwhichitwillsyndicatevideoclipsfromViacombrandssuchasMTVandNickelodeontootherwebsitesandintegrateadvertisementsintothem.ThismakesGoogletheclearleaderinthefledglingbutpromisingmarketforweb-videoadvertising.ItalsoannouncedadealwithNewsCorporationanothermediagiantunderwhichitwillpro-videallthesearchandtext-advertisingtechnologyonNewsCorporation’swebsitesincludingMySpaceanenormouslypopularsocial-networkingsite. ThesearehardblowsforYahoo!andMSNwhichhadalsobeennegotiatingwithNewsCorporation.BothfirmshavebeenlosingmarketshareinwebsearchtoGoogleoverthepastyear—Googlenowhashalfthemarket.TheyhavealsofallenfurtherbehindintheiradvertisingtechnologiesandnetworkssothatbothmakelessmoneythanGoogledoesfromthesamenumberofsearches.SafaRashtchyananalystatPiperJaffrayasecuritiesfirmestimatesthatforeveryadvertisingdollarthatGooglemakesonasearchqueryYahoo!makesonly60-70cents.LastmonthYahoo!saidthatanewadvertisingalgorithmthatithaddesignedtoclosethegapinprofitabilitywillbedelayedanditssharepricefellby22%itsbiggest-everone-daydrop. MSNisfurtherbehindGooglethanYahoo!insearchanditsparentMicrosoftfacesanevenmorefundamentalthreatfromtheexpansionistnewpower.ManyofGoogle’snewventuresbeyondwebsearchenableuserstodothingsfreeofchargethroughtheirwebbrowsersthattheynowdousingMicrosoftsoftwareontheirpersonalcomputers.Googleoffersarudimentarybutfreeonlinewordprocessorandspreadsheetforinstance. ThesmallereBayontheotherhandmightinonesenseclaimGoogleasanally.Google’ssearchresultssendalotoftraffictoeBay’sauctionsiteandeBayisoneofthebiggestadvertisersonGoogle’snetwork.Buttherelationshipisimbalanced.Aninfluentialre-centstudyfromBerkeley’sHaasSchoolofBusinessestimatedthatabout12%ofeBay’srevenuescomeindirectlyfromGooglewhereasGooglegetsonly3%ofitsrevenuesfromeBay.WorstofallforeBayGoogleisstartingtoundercutitscorebusiness.SellersaresettinguptheirownwebsitesandbuyingtextadvertisementsfromGoogleandbuyersareusingitssearchratherthaneBaytoconnectwithsellersdirectly.Asaresult"eBaywouldbewisetostrikeadeeppartnershipwithYahoo!orMicrosoftinordertoregainabalanceofpowerintheindustry"saidthestudy’sauthorsJulienDecotandSteveLeesoundinglikediplomatsattheCongressofViennain1814. PrinceKlemensismentionedinthefirstparagraphto
PrinceKlemensVonMetternichforeignministeroftheAustrianEmpireduringtheNapoleoniceraanditsaftermathwouldhavenotroublerecognizingGoogle.Tohimtheworld’smostpopularweb-searchenginewouldcloselyresembletheNapoleonicFrancethatinhisyouthhumiliatedAustriaandEurope’sotherpowers.Itsrivals—Yahoo!thelargestofthetraditionalwebgatewayseBaythebiggestonlineauctionandtradingsiteandMicrosoftasoftwareempirethatownsMSNastrugglingwebportal—wouldlookalotlikeRussiaPrussiaandAustria.Metternichrespondedbyforginganallianceamongthosethreemonarchiestocreatea"balanceofpower"againstFrance.Google’senemieshemightsayoughtnowtodothesamething. GoogleannouncedtwonewconquestsonAugust7th.ItstruckadealwithViacoman"old"mediafirmunderwhichitwillsyndicatevideoclipsfromViacombrandssuchasMTVandNickelodeontootherwebsitesandintegrateadvertisementsintothem.ThismakesGoogletheclearleaderinthefledglingbutpromisingmarketforweb-videoadvertising.ItalsoannouncedadealwithNewsCorporationanothermediagiantunderwhichitwillpro-videallthesearchandtext-advertisingtechnologyonNewsCorporation’swebsitesincludingMySpaceanenormouslypopularsocial-networkingsite. ThesearehardblowsforYahoo!andMSNwhichhadalsobeennegotiatingwithNewsCorporation.BothfirmshavebeenlosingmarketshareinwebsearchtoGoogleoverthepastyear—Googlenowhashalfthemarket.TheyhavealsofallenfurtherbehindintheiradvertisingtechnologiesandnetworkssothatbothmakelessmoneythanGoogledoesfromthesamenumberofsearches.SafaRashtchyananalystatPiperJaffrayasecuritiesfirmestimatesthatforeveryadvertisingdollarthatGooglemakesonasearchqueryYahoo!makesonly60-70cents.LastmonthYahoo!saidthatanewadvertisingalgorithmthatithaddesignedtoclosethegapinprofitabilitywillbedelayedanditssharepricefellby22%itsbiggest-everone-daydrop. MSNisfurtherbehindGooglethanYahoo!insearchanditsparentMicrosoftfacesanevenmorefundamentalthreatfromtheexpansionistnewpower.ManyofGoogle’snewventuresbeyondwebsearchenableuserstodothingsfreeofchargethroughtheirwebbrowsersthattheynowdousingMicrosoftsoftwareontheirpersonalcomputers.Googleoffersarudimentarybutfreeonlinewordprocessorandspreadsheetforinstance. ThesmallereBayontheotherhandmightinonesenseclaimGoogleasanally.Google’ssearchresultssendalotoftraffictoeBay’sauctionsiteandeBayisoneofthebiggestadvertisersonGoogle’snetwork.Buttherelationshipisimbalanced.Aninfluentialre-centstudyfromBerkeley’sHaasSchoolofBusinessestimatedthatabout12%ofeBay’srevenuescomeindirectlyfromGooglewhereasGooglegetsonly3%ofitsrevenuesfromeBay.WorstofallforeBayGoogleisstartingtoundercutitscorebusiness.SellersaresettinguptheirownwebsitesandbuyingtextadvertisementsfromGoogleandbuyersareusingitssearchratherthaneBaytoconnectwithsellersdirectly.Asaresult"eBaywouldbewisetostrikeadeeppartnershipwithYahoo!orMicrosoftinordertoregainabalanceofpowerintheindustry"saidthestudy’sauthorsJulienDecotandSteveLeesoundinglikediplomatsattheCongressofViennain1814. Yahoo!andMSNaremakinglessmoneyforthesamenumberofsearcheschieflybecause
PrinceKlemensVonMetternichforeignministeroftheAustrianEmpireduringtheNapoleoniceraanditsaftermathwouldhavenotroublerecognizingGoogle.Tohimtheworld’smostpopularweb-searchenginewouldcloselyresembletheNapoleonicFrancethatinhisyouthhumiliatedAustriaandEurope’sotherpowers.Itsrivals—Yahoo!thelargestofthetraditionalwebgatewayseBaythebiggestonlineauctionandtradingsiteandMicrosoftasoftwareempirethatownsMSNastrugglingwebportal—wouldlookalotlikeRussiaPrussiaandAustria.Metternichrespondedbyforginganallianceamongthosethreemonarchiestocreatea"balanceofpower"againstFrance.Google’senemieshemightsayoughtnowtodothesamething. GoogleannouncedtwonewconquestsonAugust7th.ItstruckadealwithViacoman"old"mediafirmunderwhichitwillsyndicatevideoclipsfromViacombrandssuchasMTVandNickelodeontootherwebsitesandintegrateadvertisementsintothem.ThismakesGoogletheclearleaderinthefledglingbutpromisingmarketforweb-videoadvertising.ItalsoannouncedadealwithNewsCorporationanothermediagiantunderwhichitwillpro-videallthesearchandtext-advertisingtechnologyonNewsCorporation’swebsitesincludingMySpaceanenormouslypopularsocial-networkingsite. ThesearehardblowsforYahoo!andMSNwhichhadalsobeennegotiatingwithNewsCorporation.BothfirmshavebeenlosingmarketshareinwebsearchtoGoogleoverthepastyear—Googlenowhashalfthemarket.TheyhavealsofallenfurtherbehindintheiradvertisingtechnologiesandnetworkssothatbothmakelessmoneythanGoogledoesfromthesamenumberofsearches.SafaRashtchyananalystatPiperJaffrayasecuritiesfirmestimatesthatforeveryadvertisingdollarthatGooglemakesonasearchqueryYahoo!makesonly60-70cents.LastmonthYahoo!saidthatanewadvertisingalgorithmthatithaddesignedtoclosethegapinprofitabilitywillbedelayedanditssharepricefellby22%itsbiggest-everone-daydrop. MSNisfurtherbehindGooglethanYahoo!insearchanditsparentMicrosoftfacesanevenmorefundamentalthreatfromtheexpansionistnewpower.ManyofGoogle’snewventuresbeyondwebsearchenableuserstodothingsfreeofchargethroughtheirwebbrowsersthattheynowdousingMicrosoftsoftwareontheirpersonalcomputers.Googleoffersarudimentarybutfreeonlinewordprocessorandspreadsheetforinstance. ThesmallereBayontheotherhandmightinonesenseclaimGoogleasanally.Google’ssearchresultssendalotoftraffictoeBay’sauctionsiteandeBayisoneofthebiggestadvertisersonGoogle’snetwork.Buttherelationshipisimbalanced.Aninfluentialre-centstudyfromBerkeley’sHaasSchoolofBusinessestimatedthatabout12%ofeBay’srevenuescomeindirectlyfromGooglewhereasGooglegetsonly3%ofitsrevenuesfromeBay.WorstofallforeBayGoogleisstartingtoundercutitscorebusiness.SellersaresettinguptheirownwebsitesandbuyingtextadvertisementsfromGoogleandbuyersareusingitssearchratherthaneBaytoconnectwithsellersdirectly.Asaresult"eBaywouldbewisetostrikeadeeppartnershipwithYahoo!orMicrosoftinordertoregainabalanceofpowerintheindustry"saidthestudy’sauthorsJulienDecotandSteveLeesoundinglikediplomatsattheCongressofViennain1814. JulienandSteveseemtosuggestthat
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Itisimpliedinthepassagethatarelativisticviewofethnics
FewpeoplewoulddefendtheVictorianattitudetochildrenbutifyouwereaparentinthosedaysatleastyouknewwhereyoustood:childrenweretobeseenandnotheard.Freudandhiscompanydidawaywithallthatandparentshavebeenbewilderedeversince.Thechild’shappinessisall-importantthepsychologistssaybutwhatabouttheparents’happinessParentssuffercontinuallyfromfearandguiltwhiletheirchildrengailyrompaboutpullingtheplaceapart.Agood"old-fashioned"spankingisoutofthequestion:nomodernchild-rearingmanualwouldpermitsuchbarbarity.Thetroubleisyouarenotallowedeventoshout.WhoknowswhatdeeppsychologicalwoundsyoumightinflictThepoorchildmayneverrecoverfromthedreadfultraumaticexperience.Soitisthatparentsbendoverbackwardstoavoidgivingtheirchildrencomplexeswhichahundredyearsagohadn’tevenbeenheardof.Certainlyachildneedsloveandalotofit.Buttheexcessivepermissivenessofmodernparentsissurelydoingmoreharmthangood. Psychologistshavesucceededinunderminingparents’confidenceintheirownauthority.Andithasn’ttakenchildrenlongtogetwindofthefact.Inadditiontothegreatmodernclassicsonchild-caretherearecountlessarticlesinmagazinesandnewspapers.Withsomuchunsolicitedadviceflyingaboutmumanddadjustdon’tknowwhattodoanymore.Intheendtheydonothingatall.Sofromearlychildhoodthekidsareinchargeandparents’livesareregulatedaccordingtotheneedsoftheiroffspring.Whenthelittledearsdevelopintoteenagerstheytakecompletecontrol.Laxauthorityovertheyearsmakesadolescentrebellionagainstparentsallthemoreviolent.Iftheyoungpeoplearegoingtohaveapartyforinstanceparentsareaskedtoleavethehouse.Theirpresencemerelyspoilsthefun.Whatelsecanthepoorparentsdobutobey Childrenarehardycreaturesfarhardierthanthepsychologistswouldhaveusbelieveandmostofthemsurvivetheharmfulinfluenceofextremepermissivenesswhichisthenormalconditioninthemodernhousehold.Butagreatmanydonot.Thespreadofjuveniledelinquencyinourownageislargelyduetoparentallaxity.MotherbelievingthatlittleJohnnycanlookafterhimselfisnotathomewhenhereturnsfromschoolsolittleJohnnyroamsthestreets.Thedividing-linebetweenpermissivenessandsheernegligenceisveryfineindeed. Thepsychologistshavemuchtoanswerfor.Theyshouldkeeptheirmouthsshutandletparentsgetonwiththejob.Andifchildrenareknockedaboutalittlebitintheprocessitmaynotreallymattertoomuch.Atleastthiswillhelpthemtodevelopvigorousviewsoftheirownandgivethemsomethingpositivetoreactagainst.Perhapsthere’ssometruthintheideathatchildrenwhohavehadasurfeitofhappinessin.theirchildhoodappearlikestodgypuddingsandfail.tomakeasuccessoflife. WhatdoestheauthorwantstoillustratewithJohnnyroamingthestreets
FewpeoplewoulddefendtheVictorianattitudetochildrenbutifyouwereaparentinthosedaysatleastyouknewwhereyoustood:childrenweretobeseenandnotheard.Freudandhiscompanydidawaywithallthatandparentshavebeenbewilderedeversince.Thechild’shappinessisall-importantthepsychologistssaybutwhatabouttheparents’happinessParentssuffercontinuallyfromfearandguiltwhiletheirchildrengailyrompaboutpullingtheplaceapart.Agood"old-fashioned"spankingisoutofthequestion:nomodernchild-rearingmanualwouldpermitsuchbarbarity.Thetroubleisyouarenotallowedeventoshout.WhoknowswhatdeeppsychologicalwoundsyoumightinflictThepoorchildmayneverrecoverfromthedreadfultraumaticexperience.Soitisthatparentsbendoverbackwardstoavoidgivingtheirchildrencomplexeswhichahundredyearsagohadn’tevenbeenheardof.Certainlyachildneedsloveandalotofit.Buttheexcessivepermissivenessofmodernparentsissurelydoingmoreharmthangood. Psychologistshavesucceededinunderminingparents’confidenceintheirownauthority.Andithasn’ttakenchildrenlongtogetwindofthefact.Inadditiontothegreatmodernclassicsonchild-caretherearecountlessarticlesinmagazinesandnewspapers.Withsomuchunsolicitedadviceflyingaboutmumanddadjustdon’tknowwhattodoanymore.Intheendtheydonothingatall.Sofromearlychildhoodthekidsareinchargeandparents’livesareregulatedaccordingtotheneedsoftheiroffspring.Whenthelittledearsdevelopintoteenagerstheytakecompletecontrol.Laxauthorityovertheyearsmakesadolescentrebellionagainstparentsallthemoreviolent.Iftheyoungpeoplearegoingtohaveapartyforinstanceparentsareaskedtoleavethehouse.Theirpresencemerelyspoilsthefun.Whatelsecanthepoorparentsdobutobey Childrenarehardycreaturesfarhardierthanthepsychologistswouldhaveusbelieveandmostofthemsurvivetheharmfulinfluenceofextremepermissivenesswhichisthenormalconditioninthemodernhousehold.Butagreatmanydonot.Thespreadofjuveniledelinquencyinourownageislargelyduetoparentallaxity.MotherbelievingthatlittleJohnnycanlookafterhimselfisnotathomewhenhereturnsfromschoolsolittleJohnnyroamsthestreets.Thedividing-linebetweenpermissivenessandsheernegligenceisveryfineindeed. Thepsychologistshavemuchtoanswerfor.Theyshouldkeeptheirmouthsshutandletparentsgetonwiththejob.Andifchildrenareknockedaboutalittlebitintheprocessitmaynotreallymattertoomuch.Atleastthiswillhelpthemtodevelopvigorousviewsoftheirownandgivethemsomethingpositivetoreactagainst.Perhapsthere’ssometruthintheideathatchildrenwhohavehadasurfeitofhappinessin.theirchildhoodappearlikestodgypuddingsandfail.tomakeasuccessoflife. Itseemsthattheauthorismostcriticalof
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 9
Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 41
Directions: Havingfinishedhisend-of-termexamsauniversitystudenthasgonestraighthomewithoutsayinggoodbyetohisroommate. Writealetterexplainingthesituationtothelatterandinvitehimhomeduringthevacation. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 15
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 7
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Inwhatwayisethicssimilartolanguageuse
FewpeoplewoulddefendtheVictorianattitudetochildrenbutifyouwereaparentinthosedaysatleastyouknewwhereyoustood:childrenweretobeseenandnotheard.Freudandhiscompanydidawaywithallthatandparentshavebeenbewilderedeversince.Thechild’shappinessisall-importantthepsychologistssaybutwhatabouttheparents’happinessParentssuffercontinuallyfromfearandguiltwhiletheirchildrengailyrompaboutpullingtheplaceapart.Agood"old-fashioned"spankingisoutofthequestion:nomodernchild-rearingmanualwouldpermitsuchbarbarity.Thetroubleisyouarenotallowedeventoshout.WhoknowswhatdeeppsychologicalwoundsyoumightinflictThepoorchildmayneverrecoverfromthedreadfultraumaticexperience.Soitisthatparentsbendoverbackwardstoavoidgivingtheirchildrencomplexeswhichahundredyearsagohadn’tevenbeenheardof.Certainlyachildneedsloveandalotofit.Buttheexcessivepermissivenessofmodernparentsissurelydoingmoreharmthangood. Psychologistshavesucceededinunderminingparents’confidenceintheirownauthority.Andithasn’ttakenchildrenlongtogetwindofthefact.Inadditiontothegreatmodernclassicsonchild-caretherearecountlessarticlesinmagazinesandnewspapers.Withsomuchunsolicitedadviceflyingaboutmumanddadjustdon’tknowwhattodoanymore.Intheendtheydonothingatall.Sofromearlychildhoodthekidsareinchargeandparents’livesareregulatedaccordingtotheneedsoftheiroffspring.Whenthelittledearsdevelopintoteenagerstheytakecompletecontrol.Laxauthorityovertheyearsmakesadolescentrebellionagainstparentsallthemoreviolent.Iftheyoungpeoplearegoingtohaveapartyforinstanceparentsareaskedtoleavethehouse.Theirpresencemerelyspoilsthefun.Whatelsecanthepoorparentsdobutobey Childrenarehardycreaturesfarhardierthanthepsychologistswouldhaveusbelieveandmostofthemsurvivetheharmfulinfluenceofextremepermissivenesswhichisthenormalconditioninthemodernhousehold.Butagreatmanydonot.Thespreadofjuveniledelinquencyinourownageislargelyduetoparentallaxity.MotherbelievingthatlittleJohnnycanlookafterhimselfisnotathomewhenhereturnsfromschoolsolittleJohnnyroamsthestreets.Thedividing-linebetweenpermissivenessandsheernegligenceisveryfineindeed. Thepsychologistshavemuchtoanswerfor.Theyshouldkeeptheirmouthsshutandletparentsgetonwiththejob.Andifchildrenareknockedaboutalittlebitintheprocessitmaynotreallymattertoomuch.Atleastthiswillhelpthemtodevelopvigorousviewsoftheirownandgivethemsomethingpositivetoreactagainst.Perhapsthere’ssometruthintheideathatchildrenwhohavehadasurfeitofhappinessin.theirchildhoodappearlikestodgypuddingsandfail.tomakeasuccessoflife. Whatisimpliedinthefirstsentence
Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 43
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 19
ThemostthoroughlystudiedintellectualsinthehistoryoftheNewWorldaretheministersandpoliticalleadersofseventeenth-centuryNewEngland.AccordingtothestandardhistoryofAmericanphilosophynowhereelseincolonialAmericawas“somuchimportanceattachedtointellectualpursuits.”AccordingtomanybooksandarticlesNewEngland’sleadersestablishedthebasicthemesandpreoccupationsofanunfoldingdominantPuritantraditioninAmericanintellectuallife. TotakethisapproachtotheNewEnglandersnormallymeanstostartwiththePuritans’theologicalinnovationsandtheirdistinctiveideasaboutthechurch—importantsubjectsthatwemaynotneglect.ButinkeepingwithourexaminationofsouthernintellectuallifewemayconsidertheoriginalPuritansascarriersofEuropeancultureadjustingtoNewWorldcircumstances.TheNewEnglandcolonieswerethescenesofimportantepisodesinthepursuitofwidelyunderstoodidealsofcivilityandvirtuosity. TheearlysettlersofMassachusettsBayincludedmenofimpressiveeducationandinfluenceinEngland.BesidestheninetyorsolearnedministerswhocametoMassachusettschurchesinthedecadeafter1629therewerepoliticalleaderslikeJohnWinthropaneducatedgentlemanlawyerandofficialoftheCrownbeforehejourneyedtoBoston.ThesemenwroteandpublishedextensivelyreachingbothNewWorldandOldWorldaudiencesandgivingNewEnglandanatmosphereofintellectualearnestness. WeshouldnotforgethoweverthatmostNewEnglanderswerelesswelleducated.Whilefewcraftsmenorfarmersletalonedependentsandservantsleftliterarycompositionstobeanalyzeditisobviousthattheirviewswerelessfullyintellectualized.Theirthinkingoftenhadatraditionalsuperstitiousquality.AtailornamedJohnDanewhoemigratedinthelate1630sleftanaccountofhisreasonsforleavingEnglandthatisfilledwithsigns.Sexualconfusioneconomicfrustrationsandreligioushope—allcametogetherinadecisivemomentwhenheopenedtheBibletoldbasfatherthatthefirstlinehesawwouldsettlehisfateandreadthemagicalwords:"ComeoutfromamongthemtouchnouncleanthingandIwillbeyourGodandyoushallbemypeople."OnewonderswhatDanethoughtofthecarefulsermonsexplainingtheBiblethatheheardinPuritanchurches. MeanwhilemanysettlershadslighterreligiouscommitmentsthanDane’sasoneclergymanlearnedinconfrontingfolkalongthecoastwhomockedthattheyhadnotcometotheNewWorldfurreligion."Ourmainendwastocatchfish. ThestoryofJohnDaneshowsthatlesswell-educatedNewEnglanderswereoften
Gallowayamostlymiddle-classcommunitynorthwestofAtlanticCityispartofawaveofdistrictsacrossthenationtryingtoremakehomeworkamidconcernsthathigh-stakestestingandcompetitionforcollegehavefueledanightlygrindthatisstressingoutchildrenanddeprivingthemofplayandrestyetdoinglittletoraiseachievementparticularlyinelementarygrades. Sucheffortshavedrawncriticismfromsometeachersandsomeparentswhocounterthatstudentsmuststudymorenotlessiftheyaretosucceed.Evensotheanti-homeworkmovementhasbeenreignitedinrecentmonthsbythedocumentaryRacetoNowhereaboutburned-outstudentscaughtinapressure-cookereducationalsystem."Thereissimplynoproofthatmosthomeworkasweknowitimprovesschoolperformance"saidVickiAbelesthefilmmakerandamotherofthreefromCalifornia."Andbyexpectingkidstoworka’secondshift’inwhatshouldbetheirdowntimethepresenceofschoolworkathomeisnegativelyaffectingthehealthofouryoungpeopleandthequalityoffamilytime." SoteachersatMangoElementarySchoolinFontanaCalif.arereplacinghomeworkwith"goalwork"thatisspecifictoindividualstudent’sneedsandthatcanbecompletedinclassorathomeathisorherownpace.TheBrooklynSchoolofInquiryagiftedandtalentedprogramhasmadehomeworkoptional."Ithinkpeopleconfusehomeworkwithrigor"saidDonnaTaylortheBrooklynSchool’sprincipalwhoviewshomeworkforchildrenunder11asprimarilybenefitingparentsbyhelpingthemfeelconnectedtotheclassroom. Researchhaslongsuggestedthathomeworkinsmalldosescanreinforcebasicskillsandhelpyoungchildrendevelopstudyhabitsbutthattherearediminishingreturns.Stilleffortstorollbackhomeworkhavebeenopposedbythosewhocounterthatthereisnotenoughtimeintheschooldaytocoverrequiredtopicsandthathomeworkreinforcesclassroomlearning.InCoronadoCalif.theschoolboardrejectedaproposalbythesuperintendenttoeliminatehomeworkonweekendsandholidaysaftersomeparentssaidthatwaswhentheyhadtimetohelptheirchildrenandothersworrieditwouldresultinmorehomeworkonweeknights. Homeworkwarshavedividedcommunitiesforoveracentury.Inthe1950stheSputniklaunchingusheredinheavierworkloadsforAmericanstudentsintheracetokeepupwiththeSovietUnion.The1983report"ANationatRisk"andmorerecentlythetestingpressuresoftheNoChildLeftBehindlawalsoresultedinmorehomeworkforchildrenatyoungerages.Afewpublicandprivateschoolshaverenouncedhomeworkinrecentyearsbutmosthavesoughtamiddleground.InGallowaythepolicywouldstipulatethathomeworkcoveronlytopicsalreadyaddressedinclass.Dr.GiaquintoGalloway’ssuperintendentsaidthegoaloftheproposedpolicywastomakehomework"meaningfulandmanageable"notingthatteacherswouldhavetocoordinateassignmentssothatastudent’stotalhomeworkwouldnotexceedthetimelimit. Increasedhomeworkhadresultedfrom
ThemostthoroughlystudiedintellectualsinthehistoryoftheNewWorldaretheministersandpoliticalleadersofseventeenth-centuryNewEngland.AccordingtothestandardhistoryofAmericanphilosophynowhereelseincolonialAmericawas“somuchimportanceattachedtointellectualpursuits.”AccordingtomanybooksandarticlesNewEngland’sleadersestablishedthebasicthemesandpreoccupationsofanunfoldingdominantPuritantraditioninAmericanintellectuallife. TotakethisapproachtotheNewEnglandersnormallymeanstostartwiththePuritans’theologicalinnovationsandtheirdistinctiveideasaboutthechurch—importantsubjectsthatwemaynotneglect.ButinkeepingwithourexaminationofsouthernintellectuallifewemayconsidertheoriginalPuritansascarriersofEuropeancultureadjustingtoNewWorldcircumstances.TheNewEnglandcolonieswerethescenesofimportantepisodesinthepursuitofwidelyunderstoodidealsofcivilityandvirtuosity. TheearlysettlersofMassachusettsBayincludedmenofimpressiveeducationandinfluenceinEngland.BesidestheninetyorsolearnedministerswhocametoMassachusettschurchesinthedecadeafter1629therewerepoliticalleaderslikeJohnWinthropaneducatedgentlemanlawyerandofficialoftheCrownbeforehejourneyedtoBoston.ThesemenwroteandpublishedextensivelyreachingbothNewWorldandOldWorldaudiencesandgivingNewEnglandanatmosphereofintellectualearnestness. WeshouldnotforgethoweverthatmostNewEnglanderswerelesswelleducated.Whilefewcraftsmenorfarmersletalonedependentsandservantsleftliterarycompositionstobeanalyzeditisobviousthattheirviewswerelessfullyintellectualized.Theirthinkingoftenhadatraditionalsuperstitiousquality.AtailornamedJohnDanewhoemigratedinthelate1630sleftanaccountofhisreasonsforleavingEnglandthatisfilledwithsigns.Sexualconfusioneconomicfrustrationsandreligioushope—allcametogetherinadecisivemomentwhenheopenedtheBibletoldbasfatherthatthefirstlinehesawwouldsettlehisfateandreadthemagicalwords:"ComeoutfromamongthemtouchnouncleanthingandIwillbeyourGodandyoushallbemypeople."OnewonderswhatDanethoughtofthecarefulsermonsexplainingtheBiblethatheheardinPuritanchurches. MeanwhilemanysettlershadslighterreligiouscommitmentsthanDane’sasoneclergymanlearnedinconfrontingfolkalongthecoastwhomockedthattheyhadnotcometotheNewWorldfurreligion."Ourmainendwastocatchfish. Itissuggestedinparagraph2thatNewEnglanders
Tobeagoodfriendyouhavetogiveofyourselfnonethelessnotsomuchthatyouloseyourself.Thisisaprettypredictablerecipeforhappiness.Givingtoothers—areliablewayoffosteringfriendships—makesushappierthantakingthingsforourselves.InthelightofresearchledbyDr.ElizabethDunnattheUniversityofBritishColumbiamoneycanpurchasehappiness...ontheprerequisitethatyouutilizeitonotherpeople. Researchersadministeredthreestudiesconsecutively.Firsttheysurveyedmorethan600Americansandfoundthatspendingmoneyongiftsandcharitiesledtogreaterhappinessthanspendingmoneyononeself. Subsequentlytheyprobedintoworkerswhohadjustreceivedbonusesandobservedthattheirhappinessdidnothingeonthesizeoftheirbonusbutonthedecisiontheymadeaboutwhattodowithwhateveramountofmoneytheyreceived.Thosewhospentmoreoftheirbonusonotherswerehappierthanthosewhospentthemoneyonthemselves. Finallytheresearcherssimplydistributedmoneytoagoodmanysubjectsinstructingsometospendthemoneyonthemselvesandotherstospendthemoneyonothers.Attheendofthedaytheoneswhospentmoneyonotherswereagooddealhappier. Asaconsequencehavingfriendsandtreatingthemgenerouslyisclearlyawinningstrategyinlife.Butwhataboutinbusiness IfyouwatchevenasingleepisodeofanyrealityTVshowbasedonacompetitionsuchasTheApprenticeyou’llhearasinglephrasecropupmoreoftenthananyother:"I’mnotheretomakefriends!"IsthattrueArewebetteroffbeingcutthroatthancollaborative Onceyou’reonthejobhavingabestfriendatworkisastrongpredictorofensuingsuccess.Peoplemightdefine"best"looselythinkofthisaskindergartenwhereyoucanhavemorethanone"best"friendbutaccordingtoaGallupOrganizationstudyofmorethan5millionworkersover3556%ofthepeoplewhosaytheyhaveabestfriendatworkareengagedproductiveandsuccessfulwhileonly8%oftheoneswhodon’tare. Anotherremarkablestudyspanningdecadesrevealedthatfriendshipsinhighschoolwereaneffectivepredictorofincreasedwagesinadulthood—tothetuneof2%perpersonwhoconsideredyouaclosefriend.Toputitotherwiseifinhighschoolthreepeopleregardedyouasoneoftheirclosestsame-sexfriendsyourearningsinadulthoodworkwouldbe6%higher. Thehappytruthisthatthecompetitorswhosaythey’renotheretomakefriendsdon’twineventually.That’strueforrealityTVforbusinessandforlifeaswell. Accordingtothepassageitwouldbebetterforhigh-schoolstudentsto
Tobeagoodfriendyouhavetogiveofyourselfnonethelessnotsomuchthatyouloseyourself.Thisisaprettypredictablerecipeforhappiness.Givingtoothers—areliablewayoffosteringfriendships—makesushappierthantakingthingsforourselves.InthelightofresearchledbyDr.ElizabethDunnattheUniversityofBritishColumbiamoneycanpurchasehappiness...ontheprerequisitethatyouutilizeitonotherpeople. Researchersadministeredthreestudiesconsecutively.Firsttheysurveyedmorethan600Americansandfoundthatspendingmoneyongiftsandcharitiesledtogreaterhappinessthanspendingmoneyononeself. Subsequentlytheyprobedintoworkerswhohadjustreceivedbonusesandobservedthattheirhappinessdidnothingeonthesizeoftheirbonusbutonthedecisiontheymadeaboutwhattodowithwhateveramountofmoneytheyreceived.Thosewhospentmoreoftheirbonusonotherswerehappierthanthosewhospentthemoneyonthemselves. Finallytheresearcherssimplydistributedmoneytoagoodmanysubjectsinstructingsometospendthemoneyonthemselvesandotherstospendthemoneyonothers.Attheendofthedaytheoneswhospentmoneyonotherswereagooddealhappier. Asaconsequencehavingfriendsandtreatingthemgenerouslyisclearlyawinningstrategyinlife.Butwhataboutinbusiness IfyouwatchevenasingleepisodeofanyrealityTVshowbasedonacompetitionsuchasTheApprenticeyou’llhearasinglephrasecropupmoreoftenthananyother:"I’mnotheretomakefriends!"IsthattrueArewebetteroffbeingcutthroatthancollaborative Onceyou’reonthejobhavingabestfriendatworkisastrongpredictorofensuingsuccess.Peoplemightdefine"best"looselythinkofthisaskindergartenwhereyoucanhavemorethanone"best"friendbutaccordingtoaGallupOrganizationstudyofmorethan5millionworkersover3556%ofthepeoplewhosaytheyhaveabestfriendatworkareengagedproductiveandsuccessfulwhileonly8%oftheoneswhodon’tare. Anotherremarkablestudyspanningdecadesrevealedthatfriendshipsinhighschoolwereaneffectivepredictorofincreasedwagesinadulthood—tothetuneof2%perpersonwhoconsideredyouaclosefriend.Toputitotherwiseifinhighschoolthreepeopleregardedyouasoneoftheirclosestsame-sexfriendsyourearningsinadulthoodworkwouldbe6%higher. Thehappytruthisthatthecompetitorswhosaythey’renotheretomakefriendsdon’twineventually.That’strueforrealityTVforbusinessandforlifeaswell. TheauthorquotestheexampleoftheTVshowtoshowthat
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 5
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 3
46Withinthemodernstudyofreligionthedivisionbetweenphilosophyofreli-gionandthehistolwofreligions-longregardedasatruisminsofarasitreflectsthedistinctionbetweenuniversalandparticular-hasbecomeincreasinglyblurredinrecentyearswiththegrowinginfluenceof’culturalandcriticaltheoryonthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Unliketheearaierparadigmaticsplitbetweentheologyandanthropologyorsocialsciencemethodologyculturaltheoryhashelpednotonlytodismantlewellworndualismssuchasreligion/politicstheism/atheismsacred/secularbutmoreimportantlyhashelpedtonarrowthegapbetweenacademicpracticesandculturalpracticessuchasreligionthatscholarsseektostudy.47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.Indeedinwhatmightseenasareversalofcriticaltheory’satheisticrootsinthe"mastersofsuspicion"contemporaryculturaltheoryhasbeenadaptedbyscholarsnotonlytosuccessfullydisputetheatheisticpresuppositionsofmodernsecularthinkinginthesocialsciencestherebyrevitalizingreligiousandtheologicalreflectionintheChristianandJudaictraditionsbutmoresurprisinglyperhapsithaslegitimizedtheuseofphenomenafromtheseparticulartraditionsasresourcesforcriticalthinkingaboutreligionperse. 48BycontrasthowevertheeffectsofcriticaltheoryonthestudyofnonWesternreligionshasnotonlybeenfarmoremodestinmanycasesitseemsalsotohavehadpreciselytheoppositeeffect.InthestudyofSouthAsianreligionsforexampletheeffectofcriticaltheoryseemstohavereinforcedthepriorityofthesecular.Inhisrecentwork"ProvincialisingEurope"DipeshChakrabartypointsouttheverydifferentinterventionsofcriticaltheoryinthetwotraditions.49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.Thesetraditionsaretreatedastrulydeadashistory.Fewifanysocialscientistsworkinginthehistoryofreligionswouldevertrytomaketheconceptsofthesetraditionsintoresourcesforcontemporarycriticaltheory.50Andyet"pastWesternthinkersandtheircategoriesareneverquitedeadforusinthesameway.SouthAsianistsocialscientistswouldarguepassionatelywithaMarxoraWeberwithoutfeelinganyneedtohistoricizethemortoplacethemintheirEuropeanintellectualcontexts". 47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 13
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 17
46Withinthemodernstudyofreligionthedivisionbetweenphilosophyofreli-gionandthehistolwofreligions-longregardedasatruisminsofarasitreflectsthedistinctionbetweenuniversalandparticular-hasbecomeincreasinglyblurredinrecentyearswiththegrowinginfluenceof’culturalandcriticaltheoryonthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Unliketheearaierparadigmaticsplitbetweentheologyandanthropologyorsocialsciencemethodologyculturaltheoryhashelpednotonlytodismantlewellworndualismssuchasreligion/politicstheism/atheismsacred/secularbutmoreimportantlyhashelpedtonarrowthegapbetweenacademicpracticesandculturalpracticessuchasreligionthatscholarsseektostudy.47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.Indeedinwhatmightseenasareversalofcriticaltheory’satheisticrootsinthe"mastersofsuspicion"contemporaryculturaltheoryhasbeenadaptedbyscholarsnotonlytosuccessfullydisputetheatheisticpresuppositionsofmodernsecularthinkinginthesocialsciencestherebyrevitalizingreligiousandtheologicalreflectionintheChristianandJudaictraditionsbutmoresurprisinglyperhapsithaslegitimizedtheuseofphenomenafromtheseparticulartraditionsasresourcesforcriticalthinkingaboutreligionperse. 48BycontrasthowevertheeffectsofcriticaltheoryonthestudyofnonWesternreligionshasnotonlybeenfarmoremodestinmanycasesitseemsalsotohavehadpreciselytheoppositeeffect.InthestudyofSouthAsianreligionsforexampletheeffectofcriticaltheoryseemstohavereinforcedthepriorityofthesecular.Inhisrecentwork"ProvincialisingEurope"DipeshChakrabartypointsouttheverydifferentinterventionsofcriticaltheoryinthetwotraditions.49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.Thesetraditionsaretreatedastrulydeadashistory.Fewifanysocialscientistsworkinginthehistoryofreligionswouldevertrytomaketheconceptsofthesetraditionsintoresourcesforcontemporarycriticaltheory.50Andyet"pastWesternthinkersandtheircategoriesareneverquitedeadforusinthesameway.SouthAsianistsocialscientistswouldarguepassionatelywithaMarxoraWeberwithoutfeelinganyneedtohistoricizethemortoplacethemintheirEuropeanintellectualcontexts". 49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 11
Gallowayamostlymiddle-classcommunitynorthwestofAtlanticCityispartofawaveofdistrictsacrossthenationtryingtoremakehomeworkamidconcernsthathigh-stakestestingandcompetitionforcollegehavefueledanightlygrindthatisstressingoutchildrenanddeprivingthemofplayandrestyetdoinglittletoraiseachievementparticularlyinelementarygrades. Sucheffortshavedrawncriticismfromsometeachersandsomeparentswhocounterthatstudentsmuststudymorenotlessiftheyaretosucceed.Evensotheanti-homeworkmovementhasbeenreignitedinrecentmonthsbythedocumentaryRacetoNowhereaboutburned-outstudentscaughtinapressure-cookereducationalsystem."Thereissimplynoproofthatmosthomeworkasweknowitimprovesschoolperformance"saidVickiAbelesthefilmmakerandamotherofthreefromCalifornia."Andbyexpectingkidstoworka’secondshift’inwhatshouldbetheirdowntimethepresenceofschoolworkathomeisnegativelyaffectingthehealthofouryoungpeopleandthequalityoffamilytime." SoteachersatMangoElementarySchoolinFontanaCalif.arereplacinghomeworkwith"goalwork"thatisspecifictoindividualstudent’sneedsandthatcanbecompletedinclassorathomeathisorherownpace.TheBrooklynSchoolofInquiryagiftedandtalentedprogramhasmadehomeworkoptional."Ithinkpeopleconfusehomeworkwithrigor"saidDonnaTaylortheBrooklynSchool’sprincipalwhoviewshomeworkforchildrenunder11asprimarilybenefitingparentsbyhelpingthemfeelconnectedtotheclassroom. Researchhaslongsuggestedthathomeworkinsmalldosescanreinforcebasicskillsandhelpyoungchildrendevelopstudyhabitsbutthattherearediminishingreturns.Stilleffortstorollbackhomeworkhavebeenopposedbythosewhocounterthatthereisnotenoughtimeintheschooldaytocoverrequiredtopicsandthathomeworkreinforcesclassroomlearning.InCoronadoCalif.theschoolboardrejectedaproposalbythesuperintendenttoeliminatehomeworkonweekendsandholidaysaftersomeparentssaidthatwaswhentheyhadtimetohelptheirchildrenandothersworrieditwouldresultinmorehomeworkonweeknights. Homeworkwarshavedividedcommunitiesforoveracentury.Inthe1950stheSputniklaunchingusheredinheavierworkloadsforAmericanstudentsintheracetokeepupwiththeSovietUnion.The1983report"ANationatRisk"andmorerecentlythetestingpressuresoftheNoChildLeftBehindlawalsoresultedinmorehomeworkforchildrenatyoungerages.Afewpublicandprivateschoolshaverenouncedhomeworkinrecentyearsbutmosthavesoughtamiddleground.InGallowaythepolicywouldstipulatethathomeworkcoveronlytopicsalreadyaddressedinclass.Dr.GiaquintoGalloway’ssuperintendentsaidthegoaloftheproposedpolicywastomakehomework"meaningfulandmanageable"notingthatteacherswouldhavetocoordinateassignmentssothatastudent’stotalhomeworkwouldnotexceedthetimelimit. Criticismsofhomeworkaremainlybasedonthepremisethat
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