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Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. Anappropriatetitleforthetextismostlikelytobe
ItmaybejustaswellforOxfordUniversity’sreputationthatthisweek’smeetingofCongregationits3552-stronggoverningbodywasheldinsecretfortheairofcivilizedrationalitythatisgenerallysupposedtopervadedonnishconversationhaslatelyturnedfractious.That’sbecausethevice-chancellorthenearestthingtheplacehastoachiefexecutivehasproposedthemostfundamentalreformstotheuniversitysincetheestablishmentofthecollegesystemin1249;andalotofthedonsandcollegesdon’tlikeit. ThetroublewithOxfordisthatitisunmanageable.Itsproblems-thedifficultyofrecruitinggooddonsandofgettingridofbadonesconcernsaboutacademicstandardsseveremoneyworriesatsomecolleges-allspringfromthat.JohnHoodwhowasrecruitedasvice-chancellorfromtheUniversityofAucklandandisnowprobablythemost-hatedantipodeaninBritishacademiclifereckonsheknowshowtosolvethisandhasproposedtoreducethepowerofdonsandcollegesandincreasethatofuniversityadministrators. Mr.Hoodisrightthattheuniversity’smanagementstructureneedsanoverhaul.Butradicalthoughhisproposalsseemtothoseinvolvedinthecurrentrowtheydonotgofarenough.ThedifficultyofmanagingOxfordstemsonlypartlyfromthenuttinessofitssystemofgovernance;themorefundamentalproblemliesinitsrelationshipwiththegovernment.That’swhyMr.Hoodshouldadoptanideathatwasonceregardedasteeteringonthelunaticfringeofradicalismbutthesedaysisdiscussedeveninpolitecircles.Theideaisindependence. Oxfordgetsaround￡5000$9500perundergraduateperyearfromthegovernment.Inreturnitacceptsthatitcanchargestudentsonly￡1150risingto￡3000nextyearontopofthat.Sinceitprobablycostsatleast￡10000ayeartoteachanundergraduatethatleavesOxfordwithadeficitof￡4000orsoperstudenttocoverfromitsownfunds. IfOxforddeclaredindependenceitwouldlosethe￡52mundergraduatesubsidyatleast.CoulditfilltheholeCertainly.America’stopuniversitieschargearound￡20000perstudentperyear.Thedifficultissuewouldnotbemoneyaloneitwouldbebalancingnumbersofnot-so-brilliantrichpeoplepayingtopwhackwiththeclevererpooreronestheywerecross-subsidising.America’stopuniversitiesmanageit:highfeesmeanbetterteachingwhichkeepscompetitionhotandacademicstandardshighwhileluringenoughdonationstoprovidebursariesforthepoor.ItshouldbeeasiertoextractmoneyfromalumniifOxfordwerenolongerstate-funded. Wecanseefromtheavailablestatisticsthatthe
Ithasoftenbeenremarkedthatthesaddestthingaboutyouthisthatitiswastedontheyoung.ReadingarecentnewspaperreportonasurveyconductedamongcollegefreshmenIrecalledtheregret "IfonlyIknewthenwhatIknownow." ThesurveydisclosedwhatIhadalreadysuspectedfrominformalpollsofstudents.Accordingtothesurveywhichwasbasedontheresponsesofover188000studentstoday’straditional-agecollegefreshmenare"morematerialisticandlessaltruistic". 41.______.Itfollowsthenthattodaythemostpopularcourseisnotliteratureorhistorybutaccounting.Interestinteachingsocialserviceandthe"altruistic"fieldsisatalowalongwithethnicandwomen’sstudies.Ontheotherhandenrollmentinbusinessprogramsengineeringandcomputerscienceiswayup. 42.______. FranklyI’mproudoftheyoungladynotherattitudebuthersuccess.Butwhycan’twehaveitbothwaysCan’tweeducatepeopleforlifeaswellasforacareerIbelievewecan.Ifwe’renotthenthatisafaultofoureducationalsystem--elementarysecondaryandhigher.Inatimeofincreasingspecializationatimewhen90percentofallthescientistswhohaveeverlivedarecurrentlyalivemorethaneverweneedtoknowwhatistrulyimportantinlife. 43.______. Mostofusfinallycometorealizethatqualityoflifeisnotentirelydeterminedbyhowmuchweearn.Sureeveryonewantstobefinanciallycomfortablebutwealsowanttofeelthatwehaveaperspectiveontheworldbeyondtheconfinesofouroccupation;wewanttobeabletorenderservicetoourfellowmanandtotheworld. 44.______. Itisequallytruethatinstudyingthediversewisdomofotherswelearnhowtothink.Moreimportantperhapseducationteachesustoseetheconnectionsbetweenthingsaswellastoseebeyondourimmediateneeds. 45.______. Inthelongrunthat’swhateducationreallyoughttobeabout.AndIthinkitcanbe.That’sthewayitshouldbe.OscarWildehaditrightwhenhesaidthatweoughttogiveourabilitytoourworkbutourgeniustoourlives.Let’shopeoureducatorsanswerthestudentscriesforcareereducationbutatthesametimelet’sensurethatthestudentsarepreparedforthedaywhentheyrealizetheirfolly.There’salotmoretolifethanajob. [A]Academicemphasisoncompetitionrationalityandexternalsacknowledgesonlyonekindofknowing.Itmakesstudentsdevaluetheirinnerselvesorlargersocialpurposes. [B]Notsurprisinginthesehardtimesthestudent’smajorobjective"istobefinanciallywelloff."Lessimportantthaneverisdevelopingameaningfulphilosophyoflife. [C]Educationmustmeettheneedsofthehumanspirit.Itmustassiststudentstodevelopasatisfactorypersonalphilosophyandsenseofvalues;tocultivatetastesforliteraturemusicandthearts;togrowinabilitytoanalyzeproblemsandarriveatthoughtfulconclusions. [D]That’snosurpriseeither.Afriendofmineasalesrepresentativeforachemicalcompanywasmakingtwicethesalaryofhercollegeinstructorsduringherfirstyearonthejob.Andthatwasfouryearsago;Shemustbeearningmuchmorenow. [E]Mostpeoplesomewherebetweentheagesof30and50finallyarriveattheinevitableconclusionthattheycoulddomorethanservingacorporationagovernmentagencyorwhatever. [F]Butthemostimportantargumentforabroadeducationisthatinstudyingtheaccumulatedwisdomoftheagesweimproveourmoralsense. [G]Whileit’struethatweallneedacareerpreferablyaprofitableoneitisequallytruethatourcivilizationhasaccumulatedanincredibleamountofknowledge--beitscientificorartistic. 42
"Youarenotheretotellmewhattodo.YouareheretotellmewhyIhavedonewhatIhavealreadydecidedtodo"MontaguNormantheBankofEngland’slongest-servinggovernor1920-1944isreputedtohaveoncetoldhiseconomicadviser.Todaythankfullycentralbanksaimtobemoretransparentintheirdecisionmakingaswellasmorerational.Butachievingeitherofthesethingsisnotalwayseasy.WiththemostlaudableofintentionstheFederalReserveAmerica’scentralbankmaybeabouttotakeastepthatcouldbackfire. UnliketheFedmanyothercentralbankshavelongdeclaredexplicitinflationtargetsandthensetinterestratestotrytomeetthese.SomeeconomistshavearguedthattheFedshoulddothesame.WithAlanGreenspantheFed’smuch-respectedchairmanduetoretirenextyear-afteramere18yearsinthejob-someFedofficialswanttoadoptatargetpresumablytomaintainthecentralbank’scredibilityinthescarynewpost-Greenspanera.TheFeddiscussedsuchatargetatitsFebruarymeetingaccordingtominutespublishedthisweek.Thissoundsencouraging.HowevertheFedisconsideringtheideajustwhensomeothercentralbanksarebeginningtoquestionwhetherstrictinflationtargetingreallyworks. Atpresentcentra1banksfocusalmostexclusivelyonconsumer-priceindices.OnthismeasureMr.Greenspancanboastthatinflationremainsundercontrol.Butsomecentralbankersnowarguethatthepricesofassetssuchashousesandsharesshouldalsosomehowbetakenintoaccount.AbroadpriceindexforAmericawhichincludeshousepricesiscurrentlyrunningat5.5%itsfastestpacesince1982.Inflationhassimplytakenadifferentform. ShouldcentralbanksalsotrytocurbincreasesinsuchassetpricesMr.Greenspancontinuestoinsistthatmonetarypolicyshouldnotbeusedtoprickasset-pricebubbles.Identifyingbubblesisdifficultexceptinretrospecthesaysandinterestratesareabluntweapon:anincreasebigenoughtohaltrisingpricescouldtriggerarecession.Itisbetterhesaystowaitforahousingorstockmarketbubbletoburstandthentocushiontheeconomybycuttinginterestrates-ashedidin2001-2002. Andyettheriskisnotjustthatassetpricescangoswiftlyintoreverse.Aswithtraditionalinflationsurgingassetpricesalsodistortpricesignalsandsocancauseamisallocationofresources-encouragingtoolittlesavingforexampleortoomuchinvestmentinhousing.Surginghousepricesmaythereforeargueforhigherinterestratesthanconventionalinflationwoulddemand.Inotherwordsstrictinflationtargeting-thefadofthe1990s-istoocrude. Whichofthefollowingswouldbethebesttitleforthetext
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictrothaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badsportsbutnottruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictrothaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badsportsbutnottruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits.
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 10
Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. InParagraphs1and2thetextshowsPTK’s
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 4
HereisaquickwaytospoilaBrusselsdinnerparty.SimplysuggestthatworldgovernanceisslippingawayfromtheG20G7G8orotherbodiesinwhichEuropeansmayhoguptohalftheseats.ThenproposewithgloomyrelishthatthefuturebelongstotheG2:newlyfashionablejargonforaputativebodyformedbyChinaandAmerica. ThefearofirrelevancehauntsEuro-typesforalltheirpublicboastingaboutEurope’sfuturemight.ThethoughtthattheEuropeanUnionmightnotgreatlyinterestChinaisespeciallypainful.Afterallthe21stcenturywasmeanttobedifferent.IndeedtoearlierleaderslikeFrance’sJacquesChiracarisingChinawaswelcomeasanotherchallengetoAmericanhegemonyusheringina“multipolarworld”inwhichtheEUwouldplayabigrole.Ifthatmeantkow-towingtoChinesedemandstoshunTaiwansnubtheDalaiLamaortonedowncriticismofhuman-rightsabusessobeit.MostEUcountriesfocusedoncommercialdiplomacywithChinatoensurethattheirleaders’visitscouldendwithflashingcamerasandthesigningofjuicycontracts. MeanwhileEurope’stradedeficitwithChinahitnearly∈170billion$250billionlastyear.InfiveyearsChinawants60%ofcarpartsinnewChinesevehiclestobelocallymade.ThisisalarmingnewsforGermanytheleadingEuropeanexportertoChinathankstocarpartsmachinetoolsandotherwidgets. AseverEuropeansdisagreeoverhowtorespond.SomearewillingtochallengeChinapolitically—forexampleGermanyBritainSwedenandtheNetherlands.Buttheyaremostlyfreetraders.ThatmakesthemhostilewhenothercountriescallforprotectionagainstallegedChinesecheating.IncontrastablockofmostlysouthernandcentralEuropeansdubbed“accommodatingmercantilists”bytheECFRTheEuropeanCouncilonForeignRelationsarequicktocallforanti-dumpingmeasures:ButthatmakesthemanxioustokeepbroaderrelationssweetbybowingtoChinaonpoliticalissues. TheresultisthatEuropeanpoliticiansoftenfindthemselvesdefendingunconditionalengagementwithChina.Theusualclaimisthatthiswillslowlytransformthecountryintoafreermoreresponsiblestakeholderintheworld.ThesecretitismurmuredistoletEuropeweaveChinaintoanentanglingwebofagreementsandsectoraldialogues.In2007nofewerthan450EuropeandelegationsvisitedChina.BigcountrieslikeFranceandBritainaddtheirownbilateraldialoguesnottrustingtheEUtoprotecttheirinterestsordothejobproperly.TherearenowsixparallelEUandnational“dialogues”withChinaonclimatechangeforexample. WhatisEuropeanfearofirrelevance
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 14
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 12
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 8
OnthefirstEarthDaytheU.S.wasapoisonednation.DenseairpollutionblanketedcitieslikeLosAngeleswheresmogalertswereafactoflife.DangerouspesticideslikeDDTwerestillinuseandwaterpollutionwasrampant—symbolizedbyragingfiresonCleveland’sCuyahogaRiver.ButthegreenmovementthatwasenergizedbyEarthDay—andthelandmarkfederalactionsthatfollowedit—changedmuchofthat.TodayairpollutionisdownsignificantlyinmosturbanareasthewateriscleanerandeventheCuyahogaishometofishagain. ButifthelandishealingAmericansmaybesickening.SinceWorldWarⅡproductionofindustrialchemicalshasrisenrapidlyandtheU.S.generatesorimportssome19billionkgofthemperday.Thesearen’tthesortsofchemicalsthatcometomindwhenwepicturepollution—hugeplantsspillingcontaminatedwastewaterintorivers.Ratherthey’rethemoleculesthatmakegoodontheold"betterlivingthroughchemistry"promiseappearinginitemslikeunbreakablebabybottlesandbig-screenTVs.Thosechemicalshaveahabitoffindingtheirwayoutofeverydayproductsandintotheenvironment—andultimatelyintolivingorganisms.Arecentbiomonitoringsurveyfoundtracesof212environmentalchemicalsinAmericans—includingtoxicmetalspesticidesetc."It’snottheenvironmentthat’scontaminatedsomuch"saysthedirectoroftheCincinnatiChildren’sEnvironmentalHealthCenter."It’sus." Asscientistsgetbetteratdetectingthechemicalsinourbodiesthey’rediscoveringthateventinyquantitiesoftoxinscanhaveapotentiallyseriousimpactonourhealth—andourchildren’sfuture.ChemicalslikebisphenolABPAandphthalates—keyingredientsinmodernplastics—maydisruptthedelicateendocrinesystem.Ahostofmodernillsthathavebeenrisinguncheckedforageneration—obesitydiabetesattention-deficitdisorder—couldhavechemicalconnections."Wedon’tgiveenvironmentalexposuretheattentionitdeserves"saysDr.PhilipLandrigan."Butthere’sanemergingunderstandingthatkidsareuniquelysusceptibletoenvironmentalhazards." Washingtonhasbeenslowtoarriveatthatconclusion.TheToxicSubstancesControlActTSCAthe34-year-oldvehicleforfederalchemicalregulationhasgenerallybeenafailure.Theburdenofprovingchemicalsdangerousfallsalmostentirelyonthegovernment.AndtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPAhasbeenabletoissuerestrictionsononlyahandfulofchemicalsandhaslackedthepowertobanevensomedangerouscancer-causingsubstances. Butchangeiscoming.TheObamaAdministrationistakingacloserlookatchemicals.MoreimportantCongressmayfinallybereadytoact."Wecan’tpermitthisassaultonourchildren’shealth—andourownhealth—tocontinue"saysSenatorFrankLautenberg. AccordingtoSenatorFrankLautenberg
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly; 2interpretthephenomenonreflectedbyitandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. Skepticalobserversbelievethatancestrytestingfailsto
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 2
ItmaybejustaswellforOxfordUniversity’sreputationthatthisweek’smeetingofCongregationits3552-stronggoverningbodywasheldinsecretfortheairofcivilizedrationalitythatisgenerallysupposedtopervadedonnishconversationhaslatelyturnedfractious.That’sbecausethevice-chancellorthenearestthingtheplacehastoachiefexecutivehasproposedthemostfundamentalreformstotheuniversitysincetheestablishmentofthecollegesystemin1249;andalotofthedonsandcollegesdon’tlikeit. ThetroublewithOxfordisthatitisunmanageable.Itsproblems-thedifficultyofrecruitinggooddonsandofgettingridofbadonesconcernsaboutacademicstandardsseveremoneyworriesatsomecolleges-allspringfromthat.JohnHoodwhowasrecruitedasvice-chancellorfromtheUniversityofAucklandandisnowprobablythemost-hatedantipodeaninBritishacademiclifereckonsheknowshowtosolvethisandhasproposedtoreducethepowerofdonsandcollegesandincreasethatofuniversityadministrators. Mr.Hoodisrightthattheuniversity’smanagementstructureneedsanoverhaul.Butradicalthoughhisproposalsseemtothoseinvolvedinthecurrentrowtheydonotgofarenough.ThedifficultyofmanagingOxfordstemsonlypartlyfromthenuttinessofitssystemofgovernance;themorefundamentalproblemliesinitsrelationshipwiththegovernment.That’swhyMr.Hoodshouldadoptanideathatwasonceregardedasteeteringonthelunaticfringeofradicalismbutthesedaysisdiscussedeveninpolitecircles.Theideaisindependence. Oxfordgetsaround￡5000$9500perundergraduateperyearfromthegovernment.Inreturnitacceptsthatitcanchargestudentsonly￡1150risingto￡3000nextyearontopofthat.Sinceitprobablycostsatleast￡10000ayeartoteachanundergraduatethatleavesOxfordwithadeficitof￡4000orsoperstudenttocoverfromitsownfunds. IfOxforddeclaredindependenceitwouldlosethe￡52mundergraduatesubsidyatleast.CoulditfilltheholeCertainly.America’stopuniversitieschargearound￡20000perstudentperyear.Thedifficultissuewouldnotbemoneyaloneitwouldbebalancingnumbersofnot-so-brilliantrichpeoplepayingtopwhackwiththeclevererpooreronestheywerecross-subsidising.America’stopuniversitiesmanageit:highfeesmeanbetterteachingwhichkeepscompetitionhotandacademicstandardshighwhileluringenoughdonationstoprovidebursariesforthepoor.ItshouldbeeasiertoextractmoneyfromalumniifOxfordwerenolongerstate-funded. Itisimpliedinthethirdparagraphthat
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 16
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictrothaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badsportsbutnottruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. WhatdoestheauthorthinkofMcKendrick’sclaimabouttheluxuryconsumptionconsequences
HereisaquickwaytospoilaBrusselsdinnerparty.SimplysuggestthatworldgovernanceisslippingawayfromtheG20G7G8orotherbodiesinwhichEuropeansmayhoguptohalftheseats.ThenproposewithgloomyrelishthatthefuturebelongstotheG2:newlyfashionablejargonforaputativebodyformedbyChinaandAmerica. ThefearofirrelevancehauntsEuro-typesforalltheirpublicboastingaboutEurope’sfuturemight.ThethoughtthattheEuropeanUnionmightnotgreatlyinterestChinaisespeciallypainful.Afterallthe21stcenturywasmeanttobedifferent.IndeedtoearlierleaderslikeFrance’sJacquesChiracarisingChinawaswelcomeasanotherchallengetoAmericanhegemonyusheringina“multipolarworld”inwhichtheEUwouldplayabigrole.Ifthatmeantkow-towingtoChinesedemandstoshunTaiwansnubtheDalaiLamaortonedowncriticismofhuman-rightsabusessobeit.MostEUcountriesfocusedoncommercialdiplomacywithChinatoensurethattheirleaders’visitscouldendwithflashingcamerasandthesigningofjuicycontracts. MeanwhileEurope’stradedeficitwithChinahitnearly∈170billion$250billionlastyear.InfiveyearsChinawants60%ofcarpartsinnewChinesevehiclestobelocallymade.ThisisalarmingnewsforGermanytheleadingEuropeanexportertoChinathankstocarpartsmachinetoolsandotherwidgets. AseverEuropeansdisagreeoverhowtorespond.SomearewillingtochallengeChinapolitically—forexampleGermanyBritainSwedenandtheNetherlands.Buttheyaremostlyfreetraders.ThatmakesthemhostilewhenothercountriescallforprotectionagainstallegedChinesecheating.IncontrastablockofmostlysouthernandcentralEuropeansdubbed“accommodatingmercantilists”bytheECFRTheEuropeanCouncilonForeignRelationsarequicktocallforanti-dumpingmeasures:ButthatmakesthemanxioustokeepbroaderrelationssweetbybowingtoChinaonpoliticalissues. TheresultisthatEuropeanpoliticiansoftenfindthemselvesdefendingunconditionalengagementwithChina.Theusualclaimisthatthiswillslowlytransformthecountryintoafreermoreresponsiblestakeholderintheworld.ThesecretitismurmuredistoletEuropeweaveChinaintoanentanglingwebofagreementsandsectoraldialogues.In2007nofewerthan450EuropeandelegationsvisitedChina.BigcountrieslikeFranceandBritainaddtheirownbilateraldialoguesnottrustingtheEUtoprotecttheirinterestsordothejobproperly.TherearenowsixparallelEUandnational“dialogues”withChinaonclimatechangeforexample. TodealwiththetradedeficitwithChinaEuropeans
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 6
OnthefirstEarthDaytheU.S.wasapoisonednation.DenseairpollutionblanketedcitieslikeLosAngeleswheresmogalertswereafactoflife.DangerouspesticideslikeDDTwerestillinuseandwaterpollutionwasrampant—symbolizedbyragingfiresonCleveland’sCuyahogaRiver.ButthegreenmovementthatwasenergizedbyEarthDay—andthelandmarkfederalactionsthatfollowedit—changedmuchofthat.TodayairpollutionisdownsignificantlyinmosturbanareasthewateriscleanerandeventheCuyahogaishometofishagain. ButifthelandishealingAmericansmaybesickening.SinceWorldWarⅡproductionofindustrialchemicalshasrisenrapidlyandtheU.S.generatesorimportssome19billionkgofthemperday.Thesearen’tthesortsofchemicalsthatcometomindwhenwepicturepollution—hugeplantsspillingcontaminatedwastewaterintorivers.Ratherthey’rethemoleculesthatmakegoodontheold"betterlivingthroughchemistry"promiseappearinginitemslikeunbreakablebabybottlesandbig-screenTVs.Thosechemicalshaveahabitoffindingtheirwayoutofeverydayproductsandintotheenvironment—andultimatelyintolivingorganisms.Arecentbiomonitoringsurveyfoundtracesof212environmentalchemicalsinAmericans—includingtoxicmetalspesticidesetc."It’snottheenvironmentthat’scontaminatedsomuch"saysthedirectoroftheCincinnatiChildren’sEnvironmentalHealthCenter."It’sus." Asscientistsgetbetteratdetectingthechemicalsinourbodiesthey’rediscoveringthateventinyquantitiesoftoxinscanhaveapotentiallyseriousimpactonourhealth—andourchildren’sfuture.ChemicalslikebisphenolABPAandphthalates—keyingredientsinmodernplastics—maydisruptthedelicateendocrinesystem.Ahostofmodernillsthathavebeenrisinguncheckedforageneration—obesitydiabetesattention-deficitdisorder—couldhavechemicalconnections."Wedon’tgiveenvironmentalexposuretheattentionitdeserves"saysDr.PhilipLandrigan."Butthere’sanemergingunderstandingthatkidsareuniquelysusceptibletoenvironmentalhazards." Washingtonhasbeenslowtoarriveatthatconclusion.TheToxicSubstancesControlActTSCAthe34-year-oldvehicleforfederalchemicalregulationhasgenerallybeenafailure.Theburdenofprovingchemicalsdangerousfallsalmostentirelyonthegovernment.AndtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPAhasbeenabletoissuerestrictionsononlyahandfulofchemicalsandhaslackedthepowertobanevensomedangerouscancer-causingsubstances. Butchangeiscoming.TheObamaAdministrationistakingacloserlookatchemicals.MoreimportantCongressmayfinallybereadytoact."Wecan’tpermitthisassaultonourchildren’shealth—andourownhealth—tocontinue"saysSenatorFrankLautenberg. TheenvironmentalchemicalsintheU.S
Ithasoftenbeenremarkedthatthesaddestthingaboutyouthisthatitiswastedontheyoung.ReadingarecentnewspaperreportonasurveyconductedamongcollegefreshmenIrecalledtheregret "IfonlyIknewthenwhatIknownow." ThesurveydisclosedwhatIhadalreadysuspectedfrominformalpollsofstudents.Accordingtothesurveywhichwasbasedontheresponsesofover188000studentstoday’straditional-agecollegefreshmenare"morematerialisticandlessaltruistic". 41.______.Itfollowsthenthattodaythemostpopularcourseisnotliteratureorhistorybutaccounting.Interestinteachingsocialserviceandthe"altruistic"fieldsisatalowalongwithethnicandwomen’sstudies.Ontheotherhandenrollmentinbusinessprogramsengineeringandcomputerscienceiswayup. 42.______. FranklyI’mproudoftheyoungladynotherattitudebuthersuccess.Butwhycan’twehaveitbothwaysCan’tweeducatepeopleforlifeaswellasforacareerIbelievewecan.Ifwe’renotthenthatisafaultofoureducationalsystem--elementarysecondaryandhigher.Inatimeofincreasingspecializationatimewhen90percentofallthescientistswhohaveeverlivedarecurrentlyalivemorethaneverweneedtoknowwhatistrulyimportantinlife. 43.______. Mostofusfinallycometorealizethatqualityoflifeisnotentirelydeterminedbyhowmuchweearn.Sureeveryonewantstobefinanciallycomfortablebutwealsowanttofeelthatwehaveaperspectiveontheworldbeyondtheconfinesofouroccupation;wewanttobeabletorenderservicetoourfellowmanandtotheworld. 44.______. Itisequallytruethatinstudyingthediversewisdomofotherswelearnhowtothink.Moreimportantperhapseducationteachesustoseetheconnectionsbetweenthingsaswellastoseebeyondourimmediateneeds. 45.______. Inthelongrunthat’swhateducationreallyoughttobeabout.AndIthinkitcanbe.That’sthewayitshouldbe.OscarWildehaditrightwhenhesaidthatweoughttogiveourabilitytoourworkbutourgeniustoourlives.Let’shopeoureducatorsanswerthestudentscriesforcareereducationbutatthesametimelet’sensurethatthestudentsarepreparedforthedaywhentheyrealizetheirfolly.There’salotmoretolifethanajob. [A]Academicemphasisoncompetitionrationalityandexternalsacknowledgesonlyonekindofknowing.Itmakesstudentsdevaluetheirinnerselvesorlargersocialpurposes. [B]Notsurprisinginthesehardtimesthestudent’smajorobjective"istobefinanciallywelloff."Lessimportantthaneverisdevelopingameaningfulphilosophyoflife. [C]Educationmustmeettheneedsofthehumanspirit.Itmustassiststudentstodevelopasatisfactorypersonalphilosophyandsenseofvalues;tocultivatetastesforliteraturemusicandthearts;togrowinabilitytoanalyzeproblemsandarriveatthoughtfulconclusions. [D]That’snosurpriseeither.Afriendofmineasalesrepresentativeforachemicalcompanywasmakingtwicethesalaryofhercollegeinstructorsduringherfirstyearonthejob.Andthatwasfouryearsago;Shemustbeearningmuchmorenow. [E]Mostpeoplesomewherebetweentheagesof30and50finallyarriveattheinevitableconclusionthattheycoulddomorethanservingacorporationagovernmentagencyorwhatever. [F]Butthemostimportantargumentforabroadeducationisthatinstudyingtheaccumulatedwisdomoftheagesweimproveourmoralsense. [G]Whileit’struethatweallneedacareerpreferablyaprofitableoneitisequallytruethatourcivilizationhasaccumulatedanincredibleamountofknowledge--beitscientificorartistic. 44
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. TheauthorusestheexampleintheendofParagraph2to
Studiesfrom10nationsrevealthattheratesofdepressionamongwomenaretwiceashighastheyareamongmen.Dowomenhaveabiologicalbentfordepressionoraresocialdoublestandardsthemajorcause Mentalhealthworkershavelongnoticedamongtheclinicallydepressedwomentakeupabiggerproportion.Untilrecentlythoughitwasunclearwhethermorewomenthanmenwereillorinsteadwhethermorewomensoughthelp.Infactamountingcollectionofstudieshasconfirmedthatmajordepressionistwiceascommonamongwomenasitisamongmen."Thisisoneofthemostconsistentfindingswehaveeverhad"saysMyrnaM.WeissmanofColumbiaUniversity. Scientistssearchingforexplanationsarechallengedbythefactthatavarietyofcuespromptdepressionindifferentpeople.Sortingoutwhichfactorsmighthaveagreaterinfluenceonwomenhasnotprovedeasy.Bothsexesstandanequalchanceofinheritingmajordepressionsogenesaremostlikelynottoblame.Yethormonesandsleepcycles--whichdifferdramaticallybetweenthesexescanaltermood.Alsomanyworkershaveproposedthatsocialdiscriminationmightputwomenunderhighlevelsofstress. In1990aninternationalgroupexaminesmooddisorders.Inthe10nationsreviewedsofartheteamhasfoundthatamonggenerationsreachingmaturityafter1945depressionseemstobeontheriseandoccursatayoungerage.Althoughoverallincidencevariesregionally"everywheretheratesofdepressionamongwomenareabouttwiceashighastheyareamongmen"Weissmansays. Incontrastlifetimeratesformanic-depressiveillnessdonotdifferaccordingtosexorculture.MarkS.GeorgeandhiscolleaguesattheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthNIMHrecentlystudiedwhichregionsofthebrainhavegreaterbloodflowduringperiodsofdepression.Georgefoundthat"thebrainactivityofthemenandwomenofdepressionlookedverydifferent."Hehassincecomparedfeelingsofangeranxietyandhappinessfindingnosuchbigadifference. BecauseoneinfiveAmericanwomenhasahistoryofdepressionespeciallyastheyoftenpursuetherapyfromothersourcessometimesontopofananti-depressantclinic.SaysLeibenluft:"Itisremarkablehowlittleworkhasbeendoneonthissubject. WhichoneofthefollowingistrueaboutMyrnaM.Weissman’scomment
HereisaquickwaytospoilaBrusselsdinnerparty.SimplysuggestthatworldgovernanceisslippingawayfromtheG20G7G8orotherbodiesinwhichEuropeansmayhoguptohalftheseats.ThenproposewithgloomyrelishthatthefuturebelongstotheG2:newlyfashionablejargonforaputativebodyformedbyChinaandAmerica. ThefearofirrelevancehauntsEuro-typesforalltheirpublicboastingaboutEurope’sfuturemight.ThethoughtthattheEuropeanUnionmightnotgreatlyinterestChinaisespeciallypainful.Afterallthe21stcenturywasmeanttobedifferent.IndeedtoearlierleaderslikeFrance’sJacquesChiracarisingChinawaswelcomeasanotherchallengetoAmericanhegemonyusheringina“multipolarworld”inwhichtheEUwouldplayabigrole.Ifthatmeantkow-towingtoChinesedemandstoshunTaiwansnubtheDalaiLamaortonedowncriticismofhuman-rightsabusessobeit.MostEUcountriesfocusedoncommercialdiplomacywithChinatoensurethattheirleaders’visitscouldendwithflashingcamerasandthesigningofjuicycontracts. MeanwhileEurope’stradedeficitwithChinahitnearly∈170billion$250billionlastyear.InfiveyearsChinawants60%ofcarpartsinnewChinesevehiclestobelocallymade.ThisisalarmingnewsforGermanytheleadingEuropeanexportertoChinathankstocarpartsmachinetoolsandotherwidgets. AseverEuropeansdisagreeoverhowtorespond.SomearewillingtochallengeChinapolitically—forexampleGermanyBritainSwedenandtheNetherlands.Buttheyaremostlyfreetraders.ThatmakesthemhostilewhenothercountriescallforprotectionagainstallegedChinesecheating.IncontrastablockofmostlysouthernandcentralEuropeansdubbed“accommodatingmercantilists”bytheECFRTheEuropeanCouncilonForeignRelationsarequicktocallforanti-dumpingmeasures:ButthatmakesthemanxioustokeepbroaderrelationssweetbybowingtoChinaonpoliticalissues. TheresultisthatEuropeanpoliticiansoftenfindthemselvesdefendingunconditionalengagementwithChina.Theusualclaimisthatthiswillslowlytransformthecountryintoafreermoreresponsiblestakeholderintheworld.ThesecretitismurmuredistoletEuropeweaveChinaintoanentanglingwebofagreementsandsectoraldialogues.In2007nofewerthan450EuropeandelegationsvisitedChina.BigcountrieslikeFranceandBritainaddtheirownbilateraldialoguesnottrustingtheEUtoprotecttheirinterestsordothejobproperly.TherearenowsixparallelEUandnational“dialogues”withChinaonclimatechangeforexample. Thelastsentenceofthepassagesuggeststhat
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 18
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 20
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