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Text 3 Eating better and more adventurously is becoming an obsession, especially among people w...
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Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. WhatdoyousupposewastheattitudeofDr.SamuelJohnsontowardsladiespreaching
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Individualappraisalsarenotalwaysveryeffectivebecause______.
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Text3 AfterdecadesofexilefromUScourtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheUSSupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts. Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheUSCourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence. Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruled’thatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence. Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions. Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults. ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity."Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendant"hesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue. Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid."Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth."Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthscanbehardtoswallow. DavidFaigmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourtsdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbanswouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossUS."Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmoreexperttestimonyinthecourts"hepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials. WhyhasPresidentBush'sbanonliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourtsin1991beenoverturned
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove.
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. AccordingtothepassagewhichofthefollowingstatementsisTRUE
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Accordingtothepassagetobetoldtodosomethingisgenerally______.
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Inanidealworldanappraisalisanopportunityto______.
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.ThewordtranspireinParagraph3canprobablymean______.
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthemethodsusedbypsychohistoriansprobablypreventthemfrom
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. Whichofthefollowingdoestheauthormentionasacharacteristicofthepracticeofpsychohistorians
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves.
Directions: Therehasrecentlybeenadiscussioninanewspaperontheissueofcommunication.Writeanessaytothenewspaperto 1.showyourunderstandingofthesymbolicmeaningofthepicturebelow 1thecontentofthepicture 2themeaning/yourunderstanding 2.giveaspecificexample/commentand 3.giveyoursuggestionastothebestwaytocommunicate. Youshouldneatlywrite160--200wordsonANSWERSHEET2.
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.TheexampleofWashoebeingsenttofetchanapplewhichisinanotherroomindicatesthat______.
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 42
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 44
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. Whichofthefollowingbeststatesthemainpointofthepassage
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
Text3 AfterdecadesofexilefromUScourtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheUSSupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts. Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheUSCourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence. Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruled’thatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence. Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions. Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults. ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity."Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendant"hesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue. Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid."Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth."Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthscanbehardtoswallow. DavidFaigmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourtsdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbanswouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossUS."Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmoreexperttestimonyinthecourts"hepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials. WhatdoCharlesHonts'laboratorystudiessuggest
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Asputbytheauthormostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodois______.
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.Thebesttitleofthispassagecanbe______.
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