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Therearestillsignificantgapsbetweenwomenandmenintermsoftheirinvolvementinfamilylifethetaskstheyperformandtheresponsibilitiestheytake.YetatleastindevelopedWesterncountriesbothwomenandmenexpressadesireforgreaterequalityinfamilylife.Itisevidentthatintermsofattitudesandbeliefstheproblemcannotsimplybethoughtofintermsofwomenwantingmentosharemoreequallyandmenbeingreluctanttodoso.Thechallengenowistodeveloppoliciesandpracticesbasedonapresumptionofsharedresponsibilitybetweenmenandwomenandapresumptionthattherearepotentialbenefitsformenandwomenaswellasforfamiliesandthecommunityifthereisgreatergenderequalityintheresponsibilitiesandpleasuresoffamilylife.Thesearebecomingkeyconcernsofresearcherspolicymakerscommunityworkersandmoreimportantlyfamilymembersthemselves. 41.______ DespitethesignificantincreaseinthenumberofwomenwithdependentchildrenwhoareinthepaidworkforceAustralianresearchstudiesoverthelast15yearsareconsistentinshowingthatdivisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareveryrigidindeedWatson1991.Intermsoftimewomenperformapproximately90percentofchildcaretasksand70percentofallfamilyworkandonly14percentoffathersarehighlyparticipantintermsoftimespentonfamilyworkRussell1983.DemoandAcock1993inarecentUSstudyalsofoundthatwomencontinuetoperformaConstantandmajorproportionofhouseholdlabour68percentto95percentacrossallfamilytypesfirstmarriagedivorcedstep-familyornevermarriedregardlessofwhethertheyareemployedornon-employedinpaidwork. 42.______ Divisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareparticularlyproblematicinfamiliesinwhichbothparentsareemployedoutsidethehomedual-workerfamilies.Employedmothersadjusttheirjobsandpersonallivestoaccommodatefamilycommitmentsmorethanemployedfathersdo.Mothersarelesslikelytoworkovertimeandaremorelikelytotaketimeoffworktoattendtochildren’sneedsVandenHeuvel1993.MothersspendlesstimeonpersonalleisureactivitiesthantheirpartnersafactorthatoftenleadstoresentmentDemoandAcock1993. 43.______ Theparentalroleiscentraltothestress-relatedanxietyreportedbyemployedmothersandamajorcontributortosuchstressistheirtakingagreaterroleinchildcareVandenHenvel1993.EdgarandGiezer1992foundthatcloseto90percentofbothhusbandsandwivesagreedthatthemanshouldshareequallyinchildcareyet55percentofhusbandsandwivesclaimedthatthemenactuallydidthis.Theseclaimsaredespitethefindingsmentionedearlierthatpointtoamuchlowerparticipationratebyfathers.Amother’swantingherpartnertodomorehouseworkandchildcareisabetterpredictorofpoorfamilyadjustmentthanisactualtimespentbyfathersinthesetasksDemoandAcock1993.Itisthisdesiretogetherwithitslackoffulfillmentinmostfamiliesthatbringaboutstressinthefemaleparent. 44.______ FamilytherapistsandsocialworkresearchersareincreasinglydefiningfamilyproblemsintermsofalackofinvolvementandsupportfromfathersandareconcernedwithdifficultiesinvolvedinhavingfatherstakeresponsibilityforthesolutionoffamilyandchildbehaviourproblemsEdgarandGlezer1986.Yetafatheracceptingresponsibilityforbehaviourproblemsislinkedwithpositiveoutcomes. 45.______ Researchstudieslendstrongsupporttotheargumentthattherearebenefitsforfamiliesconsideringachangetoafairerormoreequitabledivisionofthepleasuresandpainsoffamilylife.Greaterequalityintheperformanceoffamilyworkisassociatedwithlowerlevelsoffamilystressandhigherself-esteembetterhealthandhighermaritalsatisfactionformothers.Thereisalsohighermaritalsatisfactionoffathersespeciallywhentheytakemoreresponsibilityfortheneedsoftheirchildren--fathersarehappierwhentheyaremoreinvolvedRussell1984. [A]Originsofanxietyinworkingmothers [B]Thepresumptionsofpolicymakers [C]Theexperts’viewofthemaleparent’srole [D]Comparisonofemployedandnon-employedmothers [E]Thebenefitsofbalancedresponsibility [F]Theunchangedroleofthefemaleparent [G]Theimpactofdualemployment 41
Conventionalwisdomsaystreesaregoodfortheenvironment.Theyabsorbcarbondioxide--agreenhousegas--fromtheatmosphereandstoreitascarbonwhilereleasingoxygen.Therootsoftreeshavebeenthoughttotrapsedimentsandnutrientsinthesoilkeepingnearbyriversfreeflowing.Treeshavealsobeencreditedwithsteadyingtheflowoftheseriverskeepingitrelativelyconstantthroughwetanddryseasonsthuspreventingbothdroughtandflooding.Perniciousnonsenseconcludetwopiecesofresearchpublishedthisweek.Thefirstafour-yearinternationalstudyledbyresearchersattheUniversityofNewcastleinBritainandtheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamidentifiesseveralmythsaboutthelinkbetweenforestsandwater.Forexampleinaridandsemi-aridareastreesconsumefarmorewaterthantheytrap.Anditisnotthetreesthatcatchsedimentandnutrientsandsteadytheflowoftheriversbutthefactthatthesoilhasnotbeencompressed.TheWorldCommissiononWaterestimatesthatthedemandforwaterwillincreasebyaround50%inthenext30years.Moreoveraround4billionpeople--onehalfoftheworld’spopulation--willliveinconditionsofseverewaterstressmeaningtheywillnothaveenoughwaterfordrinkingandwashingtostayhealthyby2025.ThegovernmentofSouthAfricahasbeentakingatoughapproachtotreessinceitbecamethefirsttotreatwaterasabasichumanrightin1998.Inaschemepraisedbythehydrologiststhestatepenalizesforestrycompaniesforpreventingthiswaterreachingriversandundergroundaquifers.InIndialargetree-plantingschemesnotonlylosevaluablewaterbutdimthetrueproblemidentifiedbythehydrologists:theunregulatedremovalofwaterfromaquiferstoirrigatecrops.Farmersneednopermittodrillaboreholeandasmostfarmersreceivefreeelectricitythereislittleeconomiccontrolonthevolumeofwaterpumped.SoareportofBritain’sDepartmentforInternationalDevelopmentconcludesthatthereisnoscientificevidencethatforestsincreaseorstabilizewaterflowinaridorsemi-aridareas.Itrecommendsthatifwatershortagesareaproblemgovernmentsshouldimposelimitsonforestplantation.ThesecondpieceofresearchlookedathowlongtheforestsoftheAmazonbasinclingontocarbon.Growingtreesconsumecarbondioxideanditwasthoughtthatonlywhenthetreediedperhapshundredsofyearslaterwouldthecarbonbereturnedtotheatmosphere.Nosuchluck.InapaperpublishedinNaturethisweekateamofAmericanandBrazilianscientistsfoundthattreesweresilentlyreturningthecarbonafterjustfiveyears.Beforetakinganaxetotreeshoweverconsiderthemeritsofthetropicalrainforests.Whatresulthasthefirstresearchfound
Ifyouhaveeverlongedforameatsubstitutethatsmeltandtastedliketherealthingbutdidnotinvolvekillingananimalthenyourordercouldbereadysoon.Researchersbelieveitwillsoonbepossibletogrowculturedmeatinquantitieslargeenoughtoofferthemeatindustryanalternativesourceofsupply.Growingmusclecellsthemaincomponentofmeatinanutrientbrothiseasy.Thedifficultyispersuadingthosecellstoformsomethingthatresemblesrealmeat.PaulKosniktheheadofengineeringatafirmcalledTissueGenesisishopingtodoitbystretchingthecellswithmechanicalanchors.Thisencouragesthemtoformsmallbundlessurroundedbyconnectivetissueanarrangementsimilartorealmuscle.RobertDennisabiomedicalengineerattheUniversityofNorthCarolinabelievesthesecretofgrowinghealthymuscletissueinalaboratoryistounderstandhowitinteractswithitssurroundings.Innaturetissuesexistaselementsinalargersystemandtheydependonothertissuesfortheirsurvival.Withoutappropriatestimulifromtheirneighbourstheydegenerate.DrDennisandhisteamhavebeenworkingontheseneighbourlyinteractionsforthepastthreeyearsandreportsomesuccessinengineeringtwoofthemostimportant--thosebetweenmusclesandtendonsandmusclesandnerves.AttheTouroCollegeSchoolofHealthSciencesinNewYorkMorrisBenjaminsonandhisteamareworkingonremovinglivingtissuefromfishandthengrowingitinculture.Thisapproachhastheadvantagethatthetissuehasafunctioningsystemofbloodvesselstodelivernutrientssoitshouldbepossibletogrowtissueculturesmorethanamillimetrethick--thecurrentlimit.HenkHaagsmanameatscientistattheUniversityofUtrechtintheNetherlandsistryingtomakemincedporkfromculturedstemcellswiththebackingofStegemanasausagecompany.Itcouldbeusedinsausagesburgersandsauces.ButwhywouldanyonewanttoeatculturedmeatratherthansomethingfreshlyslaughteredandjustofftheboneOneanswertomixmetaphorsisthatitwouldallowvegetarianstohavetheirmeatloafandeatittoo.Butthesausage-meatprojectsuggestsanotherreason:hygiene.AsIngridNewkirkofPETAananimal-rightsgroupputsitnoonewhoconsiderswhat’sinameathotdogcouldgenuinelyexpressanyreluctanceateatingacleanclonedmeatproduct.CulturedmeatcouldbegrowninsterileconditionsavoidingSalmonellaE.coliandothernasties.Itcouldalsobemadehealthierbyadjustingitscomposition--introducing.heart-friendlyomega-3fattyacidsforexample.Youcouldeventakeacellfromanendangeredanimalandwithoutthreateningitsextinctionmakemeatfromit.Accordingtothelastsentencewecaninferthat
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.Thistexttellsusthat
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 11
IfBillGateseverhadreasontodoubtthatthebrashyoungbillionairesofGooglewereouttogethimthetimeforsuchuncertaintyisnowofficiallyover.Lastmonth’sdramaticallyrevisedversionofitsprogramGoogleDesktopisagloveslapacrossthefaceofMicrosoft’sfabledchiefsoftwarearchitect.ObviouslyGoogle’supdatetoaprevioustoolthatsearchedpeople’sharddrivesinadditiontotheusuallightning-quicksurveyoftheentireWorldWideWebGoogleDesktop2turnsouttobeanot-so-stealthyattempttohijackthedesktopfromMicrosoft.AndinamovethatmustbeparticularlygallingtoGatestheprogramdoesitinawaythatdirectlystealsthunderfromMicrosoft’supcomingWindowsupdateVista.SpecificallyI’mtalkingaboutGoogle’sfeaturecalledSidebarastackofsmallwindowsthatsitonthesideofthescreenanddynamicallydrawonWebandpersonalinformationtotrackthingslikeweatherstockpricesyoure-mailyourphotosrecentlyopeneddocumentsandWebdestinations.SeveralyearsagodemonstratinganearlyversionofVistaMicrosoftproudlyshowedacolumnofon-screentilesthatdidthesamekindsofthings.Microsoft’snameforthisupcomingfeaturewhichitstillplanstoincludeinVistawhenitshipsinlate2006:Sidebar.That’snotall.GoogleproductmanagerNakhilBhatlaexplainsthatanotherpurposeofDesktopistousethesearchboxtoquicklylocateprogramsandfilesthatyouwanttoopen--bypassingtheWindowswayofclickingonaniconorusingtheStartmenu.ClearlyGoogleissquattingonMicrosoft’sturfaskinguserstoliveinitsenvironmentasopposedtoBill’s.Microsoftstillbelievesthatthecentralpointofpersonalcomputingisproductivity.That’swhythedesktopsearchinVistawilllimititselftoprobingtheuser’sharddisk.Microsoft’sexplanationforthisapproachisthatmixingWeb-searchresultswithhitsfromyourowninformationisjusttooconfusing.Thingsgomoreefficientlythetheorygoeswhenyourpersonaldatapondissegregatedfromtheoceanofinformationdatalocatedelsewhereintheworld.MicrosoftoffersWebsearchasaseparateprogram.IncontrastGoogleDesktopsearchesbringresultsfromeverywhere--yourharddiskyouremailandbillionsofWebsites.That’sbecausetheGooglemissionisorganizingandmanagingalltheworld’sinformation.Youshouldn’thavetothinkaboutwheretheinformationcomesfromsaysGoogleVPSusanWojcicki.ThoughGoogle-sitesacknowledgedifficultiesinmergingthepersonalwiththepublictheircorebeliefisthattheessenceof21st-centurycomputingspringsfromtheconnectivitythatallowsallhumanknowledgefrombookstoinstantmessagestobepotentiallyshared.AsGoogletriestoannexnewinformationflowsitincreasinglyrunssmackagainstissuesofprivacycopyrightandcensorship.That’sonepartofGoogle’schallenge.TheotherwillbefendingoffBillGatesundoubtedlydeterminedtoprovethathisvisionofcomputingstilldominates.AccordingtothefirstparagraphwhatismostannoyingtoGates
Prudentinvestorslearnedlongagothatputtingyoureggsintolotsofbasketsreducesrisk.Conservationistshavenowhitonasimilaridea:apopulationofendangeredanimalswillhaveabetterchanceofsurvivalifitisdividedintointerconnectedgroups.Theprospectsofthespecieswillbebetterbecausethechancethatalltheconstituentsubpopulationswilldieoutatthesametimeislow.Andinthelongtermitmatterslittleifoneortwogroupsdodisappearbecauseimmigrantsfrombetter-faringpatcheswilleventuallyre-establishthespecies’oldhaunts.Oneendangeredspeciesdividedinjustthiswayistheworld’srarestcarnivoretheEthiopianwolfwhichliveshighinthemeadowsoftheBaleMountains.Just350existinthreepocketsofmeadowconnectedbynarrow’valleysintheBaleMountainsNationalParkwithafurther150outsidethisarea.TwoofthemainthreatstotheEthiopianwolfcomefromdiseasescarriedbydomesticdogs.Oneoftheserabiesisofparticularconcernbecauseitisepidemicinthedogpopulation.Atfirstblushvaccinatingthewolvesagainstrabiesseemsasimplesolution.Itwouldbeambitiousbecausetheprevailingthinking--thatallindividualsmatterandthereforealloutbreaksofdiseaseshouldbecompletelyhalted--impliesthatalargeproportionofwolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.DanHaydonoftheUniversityofGlasgowandhiscolleaguesbelievethatconservationbiologistsshouldthinkdifferently.Withtheexceptionofhumansspeciesareimportantbutindividualsarenot.Someoutbreaksofdiseasecanbetolerated.InapaperpublishedthisweekinNaturetheyrecastthemathematicsofvaccinationwiththisinmind.Onepidemiologists’standardassumptionthateveryindividualcountsvaccinationprogrammesareintendedtopreventepidemicsbyensuringthateachinfectedanimalonaveragepassesthediseaseontolessthanonehealthyanimal.Thisimpliesthataroundtwo-thirdsofallthewolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.Aprogrammethatsoughttosaveaspeciesratherthanindividualswouldalloweachinfectedwolftopassthediseaseontomorethanonehealthyanimalandhencerequirefewervaccinations.DrHaydonandhiscolleagueshavecalculatedusingdatafromarabiesoutbreakin2003thatvaccinatingbetween10%and25%wouldsufficeprovidedveterinariansgavejabstothosewolveslivinginthenarrowvalleysthatconnectthesubpopulations.Ifthethreatofrabiesaroseeveryfiveyearstargetingallthewolvesinthecorridorswouldcuttheriskofextinctionovera20-yearperiodbyfourfold.Ifthiswerebackedupbyvaccinatingamere10%ofthewolvesinthethreeconnectedmeadowsthechanceofextinctionwoulddroptolessthanonein1000.Savingafewseemstobeanefficientwayofprotectingthemany.Theideathatnearlyallthewolveswouldneedtobevaccinated
Therearestillsignificantgapsbetweenwomenandmenintermsoftheirinvolvementinfamilylifethetaskstheyperformandtheresponsibilitiestheytake.YetatleastindevelopedWesterncountriesbothwomenandmenexpressadesireforgreaterequalityinfamilylife.Itisevidentthatintermsofattitudesandbeliefstheproblemcannotsimplybethoughtofintermsofwomenwantingmentosharemoreequallyandmenbeingreluctanttodoso.Thechallengenowistodeveloppoliciesandpracticesbasedonapresumptionofsharedresponsibilitybetweenmenandwomenandapresumptionthattherearepotentialbenefitsformenandwomenaswellasforfamiliesandthecommunityifthereisgreatergenderequalityintheresponsibilitiesandpleasuresoffamilylife.Thesearebecomingkeyconcernsofresearcherspolicymakerscommunityworkersandmoreimportantlyfamilymembersthemselves. 41.______ DespitethesignificantincreaseinthenumberofwomenwithdependentchildrenwhoareinthepaidworkforceAustralianresearchstudiesoverthelast15yearsareconsistentinshowingthatdivisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareveryrigidindeedWatson1991.Intermsoftimewomenperformapproximately90percentofchildcaretasksand70percentofallfamilyworkandonly14percentoffathersarehighlyparticipantintermsoftimespentonfamilyworkRussell1983.DemoandAcock1993inarecentUSstudyalsofoundthatwomencontinuetoperformaConstantandmajorproportionofhouseholdlabour68percentto95percentacrossallfamilytypesfirstmarriagedivorcedstep-familyornevermarriedregardlessofwhethertheyareemployedornon-employedinpaidwork. 42.______ Divisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareparticularlyproblematicinfamiliesinwhichbothparentsareemployedoutsidethehomedual-workerfamilies.Employedmothersadjusttheirjobsandpersonallivestoaccommodatefamilycommitmentsmorethanemployedfathersdo.Mothersarelesslikelytoworkovertimeandaremorelikelytotaketimeoffworktoattendtochildren’sneedsVandenHeuvel1993.MothersspendlesstimeonpersonalleisureactivitiesthantheirpartnersafactorthatoftenleadstoresentmentDemoandAcock1993. 43.______ Theparentalroleiscentraltothestress-relatedanxietyreportedbyemployedmothersandamajorcontributortosuchstressistheirtakingagreaterroleinchildcareVandenHenvel1993.EdgarandGiezer1992foundthatcloseto90percentofbothhusbandsandwivesagreedthatthemanshouldshareequallyinchildcareyet55percentofhusbandsandwivesclaimedthatthemenactuallydidthis.Theseclaimsaredespitethefindingsmentionedearlierthatpointtoamuchlowerparticipationratebyfathers.Amother’swantingherpartnertodomorehouseworkandchildcareisabetterpredictorofpoorfamilyadjustmentthanisactualtimespentbyfathersinthesetasksDemoandAcock1993.Itisthisdesiretogetherwithitslackoffulfillmentinmostfamiliesthatbringaboutstressinthefemaleparent. 44.______ FamilytherapistsandsocialworkresearchersareincreasinglydefiningfamilyproblemsintermsofalackofinvolvementandsupportfromfathersandareconcernedwithdifficultiesinvolvedinhavingfatherstakeresponsibilityforthesolutionoffamilyandchildbehaviourproblemsEdgarandGlezer1986.Yetafatheracceptingresponsibilityforbehaviourproblemsislinkedwithpositiveoutcomes. 45.______ Researchstudieslendstrongsupporttotheargumentthattherearebenefitsforfamiliesconsideringachangetoafairerormoreequitabledivisionofthepleasuresandpainsoffamilylife.Greaterequalityintheperformanceoffamilyworkisassociatedwithlowerlevelsoffamilystressandhigherself-esteembetterhealthandhighermaritalsatisfactionformothers.Thereisalsohighermaritalsatisfactionoffathersespeciallywhentheytakemoreresponsibilityfortheneedsoftheirchildren--fathersarehappierwhentheyaremoreinvolvedRussell1984. [A]Originsofanxietyinworkingmothers [B]Thepresumptionsofpolicymakers [C]Theexperts’viewofthemaleparent’srole [D]Comparisonofemployedandnon-employedmothers [E]Thebenefitsofbalancedresponsibility [F]Theunchangedroleofthefemaleparent [G]Theimpactofdualemployment 45
Ifyouhaveeverlongedforameatsubstitutethatsmeltandtastedliketherealthingbutdidnotinvolvekillingananimalthenyourordercouldbereadysoon.Researchersbelieveitwillsoonbepossibletogrowculturedmeatinquantitieslargeenoughtoofferthemeatindustryanalternativesourceofsupply.Growingmusclecellsthemaincomponentofmeatinanutrientbrothiseasy.Thedifficultyispersuadingthosecellstoformsomethingthatresemblesrealmeat.PaulKosniktheheadofengineeringatafirmcalledTissueGenesisishopingtodoitbystretchingthecellswithmechanicalanchors.Thisencouragesthemtoformsmallbundlessurroundedbyconnectivetissueanarrangementsimilartorealmuscle.RobertDennisabiomedicalengineerattheUniversityofNorthCarolinabelievesthesecretofgrowinghealthymuscletissueinalaboratoryistounderstandhowitinteractswithitssurroundings.Innaturetissuesexistaselementsinalargersystemandtheydependonothertissuesfortheirsurvival.Withoutappropriatestimulifromtheirneighbourstheydegenerate.DrDennisandhisteamhavebeenworkingontheseneighbourlyinteractionsforthepastthreeyearsandreportsomesuccessinengineeringtwoofthemostimportant--thosebetweenmusclesandtendonsandmusclesandnerves.AttheTouroCollegeSchoolofHealthSciencesinNewYorkMorrisBenjaminsonandhisteamareworkingonremovinglivingtissuefromfishandthengrowingitinculture.Thisapproachhastheadvantagethatthetissuehasafunctioningsystemofbloodvesselstodelivernutrientssoitshouldbepossibletogrowtissueculturesmorethanamillimetrethick--thecurrentlimit.HenkHaagsmanameatscientistattheUniversityofUtrechtintheNetherlandsistryingtomakemincedporkfromculturedstemcellswiththebackingofStegemanasausagecompany.Itcouldbeusedinsausagesburgersandsauces.ButwhywouldanyonewanttoeatculturedmeatratherthansomethingfreshlyslaughteredandjustofftheboneOneanswertomixmetaphorsisthatitwouldallowvegetarianstohavetheirmeatloafandeatittoo.Butthesausage-meatprojectsuggestsanotherreason:hygiene.AsIngridNewkirkofPETAananimal-rightsgroupputsitnoonewhoconsiderswhat’sinameathotdogcouldgenuinelyexpressanyreluctanceateatingacleanclonedmeatproduct.CulturedmeatcouldbegrowninsterileconditionsavoidingSalmonellaE.coliandothernasties.Itcouldalsobemadehealthierbyadjustingitscomposition--introducing.heart-friendlyomega-3fattyacidsforexample.Youcouldeventakeacellfromanendangeredanimalandwithoutthreateningitsextinctionmakemeatfromit.TheresearchmethodofMorrisBenjaminsonandhisteam
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown. Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently. Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse. Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit. 49
IfBillGateseverhadreasontodoubtthatthebrashyoungbillionairesofGooglewereouttogethimthetimeforsuchuncertaintyisnowofficiallyover.Lastmonth’sdramaticallyrevisedversionofitsprogramGoogleDesktopisagloveslapacrossthefaceofMicrosoft’sfabledchiefsoftwarearchitect.ObviouslyGoogle’supdatetoaprevioustoolthatsearchedpeople’sharddrivesinadditiontotheusuallightning-quicksurveyoftheentireWorldWideWebGoogleDesktop2turnsouttobeanot-so-stealthyattempttohijackthedesktopfromMicrosoft.AndinamovethatmustbeparticularlygallingtoGatestheprogramdoesitinawaythatdirectlystealsthunderfromMicrosoft’supcomingWindowsupdateVista.SpecificallyI’mtalkingaboutGoogle’sfeaturecalledSidebarastackofsmallwindowsthatsitonthesideofthescreenanddynamicallydrawonWebandpersonalinformationtotrackthingslikeweatherstockpricesyoure-mailyourphotosrecentlyopeneddocumentsandWebdestinations.SeveralyearsagodemonstratinganearlyversionofVistaMicrosoftproudlyshowedacolumnofon-screentilesthatdidthesamekindsofthings.Microsoft’snameforthisupcomingfeaturewhichitstillplanstoincludeinVistawhenitshipsinlate2006:Sidebar.That’snotall.GoogleproductmanagerNakhilBhatlaexplainsthatanotherpurposeofDesktopistousethesearchboxtoquicklylocateprogramsandfilesthatyouwanttoopen--bypassingtheWindowswayofclickingonaniconorusingtheStartmenu.ClearlyGoogleissquattingonMicrosoft’sturfaskinguserstoliveinitsenvironmentasopposedtoBill’s.Microsoftstillbelievesthatthecentralpointofpersonalcomputingisproductivity.That’swhythedesktopsearchinVistawilllimititselftoprobingtheuser’sharddisk.Microsoft’sexplanationforthisapproachisthatmixingWeb-searchresultswithhitsfromyourowninformationisjusttooconfusing.Thingsgomoreefficientlythetheorygoeswhenyourpersonaldatapondissegregatedfromtheoceanofinformationdatalocatedelsewhereintheworld.MicrosoftoffersWebsearchasaseparateprogram.IncontrastGoogleDesktopsearchesbringresultsfromeverywhere--yourharddiskyouremailandbillionsofWebsites.That’sbecausetheGooglemissionisorganizingandmanagingalltheworld’sinformation.Youshouldn’thavetothinkaboutwheretheinformationcomesfromsaysGoogleVPSusanWojcicki.ThoughGoogle-sitesacknowledgedifficultiesinmergingthepersonalwiththepublictheircorebeliefisthattheessenceof21st-centurycomputingspringsfromtheconnectivitythatallowsallhumanknowledgefrombookstoinstantmessagestobepotentiallyshared.AsGoogletriestoannexnewinformationflowsitincreasinglyrunssmackagainstissuesofprivacycopyrightandcensorship.That’sonepartofGoogle’schallenge.TheotherwillbefendingoffBillGatesundoubtedlydeterminedtoprovethathisvisionofcomputingstilldominates.BysayingsquattingonMicrosoft’sturftheauthormeansthat
Prudentinvestorslearnedlongagothatputtingyoureggsintolotsofbasketsreducesrisk.Conservationistshavenowhitonasimilaridea:apopulationofendangeredanimalswillhaveabetterchanceofsurvivalifitisdividedintointerconnectedgroups.Theprospectsofthespecieswillbebetterbecausethechancethatalltheconstituentsubpopulationswilldieoutatthesametimeislow.Andinthelongtermitmatterslittleifoneortwogroupsdodisappearbecauseimmigrantsfrombetter-faringpatcheswilleventuallyre-establishthespecies’oldhaunts.Oneendangeredspeciesdividedinjustthiswayistheworld’srarestcarnivoretheEthiopianwolfwhichliveshighinthemeadowsoftheBaleMountains.Just350existinthreepocketsofmeadowconnectedbynarrow’valleysintheBaleMountainsNationalParkwithafurther150outsidethisarea.TwoofthemainthreatstotheEthiopianwolfcomefromdiseasescarriedbydomesticdogs.Oneoftheserabiesisofparticularconcernbecauseitisepidemicinthedogpopulation.Atfirstblushvaccinatingthewolvesagainstrabiesseemsasimplesolution.Itwouldbeambitiousbecausetheprevailingthinking--thatallindividualsmatterandthereforealloutbreaksofdiseaseshouldbecompletelyhalted--impliesthatalargeproportionofwolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.DanHaydonoftheUniversityofGlasgowandhiscolleaguesbelievethatconservationbiologistsshouldthinkdifferently.Withtheexceptionofhumansspeciesareimportantbutindividualsarenot.Someoutbreaksofdiseasecanbetolerated.InapaperpublishedthisweekinNaturetheyrecastthemathematicsofvaccinationwiththisinmind.Onepidemiologists’standardassumptionthateveryindividualcountsvaccinationprogrammesareintendedtopreventepidemicsbyensuringthateachinfectedanimalonaveragepassesthediseaseontolessthanonehealthyanimal.Thisimpliesthataroundtwo-thirdsofallthewolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.Aprogrammethatsoughttosaveaspeciesratherthanindividualswouldalloweachinfectedwolftopassthediseaseontomorethanonehealthyanimalandhencerequirefewervaccinations.DrHaydonandhiscolleagueshavecalculatedusingdatafromarabiesoutbreakin2003thatvaccinatingbetween10%and25%wouldsufficeprovidedveterinariansgavejabstothosewolveslivinginthenarrowvalleysthatconnectthesubpopulations.Ifthethreatofrabiesaroseeveryfiveyearstargetingallthewolvesinthecorridorswouldcuttheriskofextinctionovera20-yearperiodbyfourfold.Ifthiswerebackedupbyvaccinatingamere10%ofthewolvesinthethreeconnectedmeadowsthechanceofextinctionwoulddroptolessthanonein1000.Savingafewseemstobeanefficientwayofprotectingthemany.Themainpurposeofthetextisto
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 5
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 13
Prudentinvestorslearnedlongagothatputtingyoureggsintolotsofbasketsreducesrisk.Conservationistshavenowhitonasimilaridea:apopulationofendangeredanimalswillhaveabetterchanceofsurvivalifitisdividedintointerconnectedgroups.Theprospectsofthespecieswillbebetterbecausethechancethatalltheconstituentsubpopulationswilldieoutatthesametimeislow.Andinthelongtermitmatterslittleifoneortwogroupsdodisappearbecauseimmigrantsfrombetter-faringpatcheswilleventuallyre-establishthespecies’oldhaunts.Oneendangeredspeciesdividedinjustthiswayistheworld’srarestcarnivoretheEthiopianwolfwhichliveshighinthemeadowsoftheBaleMountains.Just350existinthreepocketsofmeadowconnectedbynarrow’valleysintheBaleMountainsNationalParkwithafurther150outsidethisarea.TwoofthemainthreatstotheEthiopianwolfcomefromdiseasescarriedbydomesticdogs.Oneoftheserabiesisofparticularconcernbecauseitisepidemicinthedogpopulation.Atfirstblushvaccinatingthewolvesagainstrabiesseemsasimplesolution.Itwouldbeambitiousbecausetheprevailingthinking--thatallindividualsmatterandthereforealloutbreaksofdiseaseshouldbecompletelyhalted--impliesthatalargeproportionofwolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.DanHaydonoftheUniversityofGlasgowandhiscolleaguesbelievethatconservationbiologistsshouldthinkdifferently.Withtheexceptionofhumansspeciesareimportantbutindividualsarenot.Someoutbreaksofdiseasecanbetolerated.InapaperpublishedthisweekinNaturetheyrecastthemathematicsofvaccinationwiththisinmind.Onepidemiologists’standardassumptionthateveryindividualcountsvaccinationprogrammesareintendedtopreventepidemicsbyensuringthateachinfectedanimalonaveragepassesthediseaseontolessthanonehealthyanimal.Thisimpliesthataroundtwo-thirdsofallthewolveswouldneedtobevaccinated.Aprogrammethatsoughttosaveaspeciesratherthanindividualswouldalloweachinfectedwolftopassthediseaseontomorethanonehealthyanimalandhencerequirefewervaccinations.DrHaydonandhiscolleagueshavecalculatedusingdatafromarabiesoutbreakin2003thatvaccinatingbetween10%and25%wouldsufficeprovidedveterinariansgavejabstothosewolveslivinginthenarrowvalleysthatconnectthesubpopulations.Ifthethreatofrabiesaroseeveryfiveyearstargetingallthewolvesinthecorridorswouldcuttheriskofextinctionovera20-yearperiodbyfourfold.Ifthiswerebackedupbyvaccinatingamere10%ofthewolvesinthethreeconnectedmeadowsthechanceofextinctionwoulddroptolessthanonein1000.Savingafewseemstobeanefficientwayofprotectingthemany.Bycitingprudentinvestors’ideatheauthorwantstoillustratethat
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 3
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 17
Therearestillsignificantgapsbetweenwomenandmenintermsoftheirinvolvementinfamilylifethetaskstheyperformandtheresponsibilitiestheytake.YetatleastindevelopedWesterncountriesbothwomenandmenexpressadesireforgreaterequalityinfamilylife.Itisevidentthatintermsofattitudesandbeliefstheproblemcannotsimplybethoughtofintermsofwomenwantingmentosharemoreequallyandmenbeingreluctanttodoso.Thechallengenowistodeveloppoliciesandpracticesbasedonapresumptionofsharedresponsibilitybetweenmenandwomenandapresumptionthattherearepotentialbenefitsformenandwomenaswellasforfamiliesandthecommunityifthereisgreatergenderequalityintheresponsibilitiesandpleasuresoffamilylife.Thesearebecomingkeyconcernsofresearcherspolicymakerscommunityworkersandmoreimportantlyfamilymembersthemselves. 41.______ DespitethesignificantincreaseinthenumberofwomenwithdependentchildrenwhoareinthepaidworkforceAustralianresearchstudiesoverthelast15yearsareconsistentinshowingthatdivisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareveryrigidindeedWatson1991.Intermsoftimewomenperformapproximately90percentofchildcaretasksand70percentofallfamilyworkandonly14percentoffathersarehighlyparticipantintermsoftimespentonfamilyworkRussell1983.DemoandAcock1993inarecentUSstudyalsofoundthatwomencontinuetoperformaConstantandmajorproportionofhouseholdlabour68percentto95percentacrossallfamilytypesfirstmarriagedivorcedstep-familyornevermarriedregardlessofwhethertheyareemployedornon-employedinpaidwork. 42.______ Divisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareparticularlyproblematicinfamiliesinwhichbothparentsareemployedoutsidethehomedual-workerfamilies.Employedmothersadjusttheirjobsandpersonallivestoaccommodatefamilycommitmentsmorethanemployedfathersdo.Mothersarelesslikelytoworkovertimeandaremorelikelytotaketimeoffworktoattendtochildren’sneedsVandenHeuvel1993.MothersspendlesstimeonpersonalleisureactivitiesthantheirpartnersafactorthatoftenleadstoresentmentDemoandAcock1993. 43.______ Theparentalroleiscentraltothestress-relatedanxietyreportedbyemployedmothersandamajorcontributortosuchstressistheirtakingagreaterroleinchildcareVandenHenvel1993.EdgarandGiezer1992foundthatcloseto90percentofbothhusbandsandwivesagreedthatthemanshouldshareequallyinchildcareyet55percentofhusbandsandwivesclaimedthatthemenactuallydidthis.Theseclaimsaredespitethefindingsmentionedearlierthatpointtoamuchlowerparticipationratebyfathers.Amother’swantingherpartnertodomorehouseworkandchildcareisabetterpredictorofpoorfamilyadjustmentthanisactualtimespentbyfathersinthesetasksDemoandAcock1993.Itisthisdesiretogetherwithitslackoffulfillmentinmostfamiliesthatbringaboutstressinthefemaleparent. 44.______ FamilytherapistsandsocialworkresearchersareincreasinglydefiningfamilyproblemsintermsofalackofinvolvementandsupportfromfathersandareconcernedwithdifficultiesinvolvedinhavingfatherstakeresponsibilityforthesolutionoffamilyandchildbehaviourproblemsEdgarandGlezer1986.Yetafatheracceptingresponsibilityforbehaviourproblemsislinkedwithpositiveoutcomes. 45.______ Researchstudieslendstrongsupporttotheargumentthattherearebenefitsforfamiliesconsideringachangetoafairerormoreequitabledivisionofthepleasuresandpainsoffamilylife.Greaterequalityintheperformanceoffamilyworkisassociatedwithlowerlevelsoffamilystressandhigherself-esteembetterhealthandhighermaritalsatisfactionformothers.Thereisalsohighermaritalsatisfactionoffathersespeciallywhentheytakemoreresponsibilityfortheneedsoftheirchildren--fathersarehappierwhentheyaremoreinvolvedRussell1984. [A]Originsofanxietyinworkingmothers [B]Thepresumptionsofpolicymakers [C]Theexperts’viewofthemaleparent’srole [D]Comparisonofemployedandnon-employedmothers [E]Thebenefitsofbalancedresponsibility [F]Theunchangedroleofthefemaleparent [G]Theimpactofdualemployment 43
Conventionalwisdomsaystreesaregoodfortheenvironment.Theyabsorbcarbondioxide--agreenhousegas--fromtheatmosphereandstoreitascarbonwhilereleasingoxygen.Therootsoftreeshavebeenthoughttotrapsedimentsandnutrientsinthesoilkeepingnearbyriversfreeflowing.Treeshavealsobeencreditedwithsteadyingtheflowoftheseriverskeepingitrelativelyconstantthroughwetanddryseasonsthuspreventingbothdroughtandflooding.Perniciousnonsenseconcludetwopiecesofresearchpublishedthisweek.Thefirstafour-yearinternationalstudyledbyresearchersattheUniversityofNewcastleinBritainandtheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamidentifiesseveralmythsaboutthelinkbetweenforestsandwater.Forexampleinaridandsemi-aridareastreesconsumefarmorewaterthantheytrap.Anditisnotthetreesthatcatchsedimentandnutrientsandsteadytheflowoftheriversbutthefactthatthesoilhasnotbeencompressed.TheWorldCommissiononWaterestimatesthatthedemandforwaterwillincreasebyaround50%inthenext30years.Moreoveraround4billionpeople--onehalfoftheworld’spopulation--willliveinconditionsofseverewaterstressmeaningtheywillnothaveenoughwaterfordrinkingandwashingtostayhealthyby2025.ThegovernmentofSouthAfricahasbeentakingatoughapproachtotreessinceitbecamethefirsttotreatwaterasabasichumanrightin1998.Inaschemepraisedbythehydrologiststhestatepenalizesforestrycompaniesforpreventingthiswaterreachingriversandundergroundaquifers.InIndialargetree-plantingschemesnotonlylosevaluablewaterbutdimthetrueproblemidentifiedbythehydrologists:theunregulatedremovalofwaterfromaquiferstoirrigatecrops.Farmersneednopermittodrillaboreholeandasmostfarmersreceivefreeelectricitythereislittleeconomiccontrolonthevolumeofwaterpumped.SoareportofBritain’sDepartmentforInternationalDevelopmentconcludesthatthereisnoscientificevidencethatforestsincreaseorstabilizewaterflowinaridorsemi-aridareas.Itrecommendsthatifwatershortagesareaproblemgovernmentsshouldimposelimitsonforestplantation.ThesecondpieceofresearchlookedathowlongtheforestsoftheAmazonbasinclingontocarbon.Growingtreesconsumecarbondioxideanditwasthoughtthatonlywhenthetreediedperhapshundredsofyearslaterwouldthecarbonbereturnedtotheatmosphere.Nosuchluck.InapaperpublishedinNaturethisweekateamofAmericanandBrazilianscientistsfoundthattreesweresilentlyreturningthecarbonafterjustfiveyears.Beforetakinganaxetotreeshoweverconsiderthemeritsofthetropicalrainforests.Thesecondresearchprovedthat
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 1
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.Theauthorappearstoviewfablesas
1timeandplaceoftheacademicconference2thereasonswhytheprofessorisexpectedtoattendthemeeting3thescheduleoftheprofessorintheacademicconference.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 7
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.Paragraph3mainlydiscusses
Whatadifferenceawordmakes.Theissueofsemanticshasbeenanongoingcomplainagainstthemediawhichhasbeencharacterizedbyanincreasinglevelofsensationalismandirresponsiblereportingovertheyearsfosteredbyincreasinglyfiercecompetitionandstruggleforwiderdistributionsandreaderships.Afocalpointforthecriticismisthecoverageofhigh-profilecriminalcases.WithsuchheadlinesasMr.XArrestforFirst-DegreeMurderprominentlydisplayedacrossthefrontpageithasbeenarguedthatsuchprovocativelanguageinfluencespublicopinioncausingprematureassumptionsofguiltbeforethemattercanbeproperlyandlegallydecidedinacourtoflaw.Thepowerofthemediatoinfluencepublicopinionandbyextensionlegalandpoliticalperceptionshaslongbeenestablishedandrecognizedspurringoutcrieswheninaccurateoroverlyembellishedstoriesresultinunwarranteddestructionofpublicimageorintrusionintoprivacyofunwillingindividuals.Reportersandeditorstaketheutmostcareintheirchoiceofwordsforuseintheirarticlesbutwithconstantpressuretocreateprovocativeheadlinesinordertoselltheirpapersthedistinctionbetweenrespectableperiodicalsandtrashytabloidsisbecomingthinnereveryday.Thedilemmaisexacerbatedbythepublic’sseemingshortattentionspanputtingthepapersunderpressuretomaketheirstoriesasattention-grabbingastheyareaccurate.Furtherobfuscatingthesituationisthefactthatthesamephrasecanbeinterpretedinamyriadofdifferentwaysdependingonwhoreadsitmakingithardforonetojudgewhetheralineisexcessiveornot.WhateverthecausesandeffectshoweverthefreedomofpreslawsintheUnitedStatesmeanthatanychangetothestyleemployedbythemediamustbeself-imposed.Inthatrespectitappearsthatnothingwillbechanginginthenearfuturesincethepublic’sinsatiablehungerforcontroversyandscandalcontinuestodominateandsetthepaceformarketablereporting.Asthesensationalismanditsrelatedeffectscontinueintothelongertermhowevertherewillnodoubtbemoreoutcryasthetrendcontinues.Thiswillpossiblyresultinanupheavalofthesystem;favoringmoreaccurateunembellishedreportingconsistingofhardfactswithaminimumofsuppositionorcommentaryanddevoidofrumorsandotherquestionablesourcesofinformation.Ifandwhenthatoccurswecantrulystatewithpridethatourmediaindustryisonlyafreeonebataresponsibleandreliableone.Fromparagraph4wecaninferthat
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown. Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently. Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse. Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit. 47
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 19
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 15
Untilaboutfourdecadesagocropyieldsinagriculturalsystemsdependedon1resourcesrecyclingorganicmatterbuilt-inbiologicalcontrolmechanismsandrainfallpatterns.Agriculturalyieldswere2butstable.Productionwas3bygrowingmorethanonecroporvarietyinspaceandtimeinafieldasinsuranceagainstpest4orsevereweather.Inputsofnitrogenwere5byrotatingmajorfieldcropswithlegumes.Inturnrotationssuppressedinsectsweedsanddiseasesbyeffectively6thelifecyclesofthesepests.Atypicalcornbeltfarmergrewcorn7withseveralcropsincludingsoybeansandsmallgrainproductionwasintrinsictomaintainlivestock.Mostofthelaborwasdonebythefamilywithoccasionalhiredhelpandno8equipmentorserviceswerepurchasedfromoff4armsources.Inthesetypeoffarmingsystemsthelinkbetweenagricultureandecologywasquite9andsignsofenvironmentdegradationwereseldomevident. Butasagriculturemodernization10theecology-farminglinkagewasoftenbrokenasecologicalprincipleswere11.Infactseveralagriculturalscientistshavearrivedata12consensusthatmodemagricultureconfrontsanenvironmentcrisis.Agrowingnumberofpeoplehavebecomeconcernedaboutthelong-term13ofexistingfoodproductionsystems.Evidencehasshownthat14thepresentcapital-and-technology-intensivefanningsystemshavebeenextremelyproductiveandcompetitivetheyalsobringa15ofeconomicenvironmentalandsocialproblems. Evidencealsoshowsthattheverynatureoftheagriculturalstructureandprevailingpoliceshaveledtothisenvironmental16byfavoringlargefarmsizespecializedproductioncropmonoculturesandmechanization.Todayasmoreandmorefarmersareintegrated17internationaleconomiesimperativesto18disappearandmonoculturesarerewardedbyeconomiesofscale.Inturnlackofrotationsanddiversification19keyself-regulatingmechanismsturningmonoculturesintohighly20agro-ecosystemsdependentonhighchemicalinputs. 9
Whatadifferenceawordmakes.Theissueofsemanticshasbeenanongoingcomplainagainstthemediawhichhasbeencharacterizedbyanincreasinglevelofsensationalismandirresponsiblereportingovertheyearsfosteredbyincreasinglyfiercecompetitionandstruggleforwiderdistributionsandreaderships.Afocalpointforthecriticismisthecoverageofhigh-profilecriminalcases.WithsuchheadlinesasMr.XArrestforFirst-DegreeMurderprominentlydisplayedacrossthefrontpageithasbeenarguedthatsuchprovocativelanguageinfluencespublicopinioncausingprematureassumptionsofguiltbeforethemattercanbeproperlyandlegallydecidedinacourtoflaw.Thepowerofthemediatoinfluencepublicopinionandbyextensionlegalandpoliticalperceptionshaslongbeenestablishedandrecognizedspurringoutcrieswheninaccurateoroverlyembellishedstoriesresultinunwarranteddestructionofpublicimageorintrusionintoprivacyofunwillingindividuals.Reportersandeditorstaketheutmostcareintheirchoiceofwordsforuseintheirarticlesbutwithconstantpressuretocreateprovocativeheadlinesinordertoselltheirpapersthedistinctionbetweenrespectableperiodicalsandtrashytabloidsisbecomingthinnereveryday.Thedilemmaisexacerbatedbythepublic’sseemingshortattentionspanputtingthepapersunderpressuretomaketheirstoriesasattention-grabbingastheyareaccurate.Furtherobfuscatingthesituationisthefactthatthesamephrasecanbeinterpretedinamyriadofdifferentwaysdependingonwhoreadsitmakingithardforonetojudgewhetheralineisexcessiveornot.WhateverthecausesandeffectshoweverthefreedomofpreslawsintheUnitedStatesmeanthatanychangetothestyleemployedbythemediamustbeself-imposed.Inthatrespectitappearsthatnothingwillbechanginginthenearfuturesincethepublic’sinsatiablehungerforcontroversyandscandalcontinuestodominateandsetthepaceformarketablereporting.Asthesensationalismanditsrelatedeffectscontinueintothelongertermhowevertherewillnodoubtbemoreoutcryasthetrendcontinues.Thiswillpossiblyresultinanupheavalofthesystem;favoringmoreaccurateunembellishedreportingconsistingofhardfactswithaminimumofsuppositionorcommentaryanddevoidofrumorsandotherquestionablesourcesofinformation.Ifandwhenthatoccurswecantrulystatewithpridethatourmediaindustryisonlyafreeonebataresponsibleandreliableone.Thecomplainagainstmediainthereportingofcriminalcasesisthat
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