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ThesuccessofAugustusowedmuchtothecharacterofRomantheorizingaboutthestate.TheRomansdidnotproduceambitiousblueprints1theconstructionofidealstatessuchas2totheGreeks.WithveryfewexceptionsRomantheoristsignoredorrejected3valuelessintellectualexerciseslikePlato’sRepublicin4therelationshipoftheindividualtothestatewas5outpainstakinglywithoutreferenceto6statesorindividuals.TheclosesttheRomancametotheGreekmodelwasCicero’sDeRePublieaandevenhereCicerohadRomeclearlyin7.Romanthoughtaboutthestatewasconcreteevenwhenit8religiousandmoralconcepts.ThefirstrulerofRomeRomuluswas9tohavereceivedauthorityfromthegodsspecificallyfromJupiterthe"guarantor"ofRome.Allconstitutional10wasamethodofconferringandadministeringthe11.Veryclearlyitwasbelievedthatonlytheassemblyofthe12thefamilyheadswhoformedtheoriginalsenate13thereligiouscharacternecessarytoexerciseauthoritybecauseitsoriginalfunctionwasto14thegods.Beingpracticalaswellasexclusivethesenatorsmoved15todividetheauthorityholdingthattheirconsulsorchiefofficialswouldpossessiton16monthsandlaterextendingitspossessiontolowerofficials.17theimportantachievementwastocreatetheideaofcontinuing18authorityembodiedonlytemporarilyincertainupper-classindividualsandconferredonly19themassofthepeopleconcurred.Thesystemgrewwithenormous20asnewofficesandassemblieswerecreatedandalmostnonediscarded. 20
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 14
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 10
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyofthinginitofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe.Whichofthefollowingdoesnotbelongtomaterialculture
OnemeaningoftheGreekworddranistoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful.Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement.Accordingtothefirstparagraphofthetextadramatist
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismandgetanicesteadyjobsomewhere.
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyofthinginitofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe.Themainideaofthefirstparagraphis
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 6
VintonCerfknownasthefatheroftheInternetsaidonWednesdaythattheWebwasoutgrowingtheplanetEarthandthetimehadcometotaketheinformationsuperhighwaytoouterspace.TheInternetisgrowingquicklyandwestillhavealotofworktodotocovertheplanetCerftoldthefirstdayoftheannualconferenceoftheInternetSocietyinGenevawheremorethan1500cyberspacefanshavegatheredtoseekanswerstoquestionsaboutthetangledweboftheInternetCedbelievedthatitwouldsoonbepossibletosendreal-timesciencedataontheInternetfromaspacemissionorbitinganotherplanetsuchasMars.ThereisnowaneffortunderwaytodesignandbuildaninterplanetaryInternet.Thespaceresearchcommunityiscomingcloserandcloserandmerging.WethinkthatwewillseeinterplanetaryInternetnetworksthatlookverymuchliketheonesweusetoday.WewillneedinterplanetarygatewaysandtherewillbeprotocolstotransmitdatabetweenthesegatewaysCerfsaid.FrancoisFluekigerascientistattendingtheconferencefromtheEuropeanParticlePhysicsLaboratorynearGenevawasnotentirelyconvincedsaying..Weneeddreamslikethis.ButIdon’tknowanyMartianwhomI’dliketocommunicatewiththroughtheInternet.’CerfhasbeenworkingwithNASA’sPasadenaJetPropulsionLaboratory--thepeoplebehindtherecentMarsexpedition--todesignwhathecallsaninterplanetaryInternetprotocolHebelievesthatastronautswillwanttousetheInternetalthoughspecialproblemsremainwithinterferenceanddelay.ThisisquiterealTheeffortisbecomingextraordinarilyconcreteoverthenextfewmonthsbecausethenextMarsmissionisinplanningstagesnowCerftoldtheconference.IfweusedomainnameslikeEarthorMarsjetpropulsionlaboratorypeoplewouldbecomingtogetherwithpeoplefromtheInternetcommunity.’Headded.TheideaistotaketheinterplanetaryInternetdesignandmakeitapartoftheinfrastructureoftheMarsmission.Helatertoldanewsconferencethatdesigningthissystemnowwouldpreparemankindoffuturetechnologicaladvances.Thewholeidesistocreateanarchitecturesothedesignworksanywhere.Idon’tknowwherewe’regoingtohavetoputitbutmyguessisthatwe’llbegoingouttheresometimeCerfsaid.Ifyouthink100yearsfromnowitisentirelypossiblethatwhatwillbepurelyresearch50yearsfromnowwillbecomecommercialized./WeknowfromthetextthatMarsmissionis
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.
TheextensionofdemocraticrightsintilefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachthemnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthejourneymanapprenticeforupwardmobility.Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnonAnglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectswastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation.Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.FortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardworkTherequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprenticeAndwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising.Thedifferencebetweengentleman-in-waitingandjourneymanisthat
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 16
Directions: Enormouschangestookplaceinthelasttwodecadesofthe20thcenturywhichisrevealedinthechangesondinertables.Herearetwopairsofpictures.Youarerequiredto 1describethepictures 2interpretthepicturesand 3makeacommentuponit. Youshouldwriteabout200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 8
Whatoursocietysuffersfrommosttodayistheabsenceofconsensusaboutwhatitandlifeinitoughttobe;suchconsensuscannotbegainedfromsociety’spresentstageorfromfantasiesaboutwhatitoughttobe.Forthatthepresentistoocloseandtoodiversifiedandthefuturetoouncertaintomakebelievableclaimsaboutit.AconsensusinthepresenthencecanbeachievedonlythroughasharedunderstandingofthepastasHomer’sepicsinformedthosewholivedcenturieslaterWhatitmeanttobeGreekandbywhatimagesandidealstheyweretolivetheirlivesandorganizetheirsocieties.Mostsocietiesderiveconsensusfromalonghistoryalanguagealltheirownacommonreligioncommonancestry.Themythsbywhichtheylivearebasedonallofthese.ButtheUnitedStatesisacountryofimmigrantscomingfromagreatvarietyofnations.LatelyithasbeenemphasizedthatanasocialnarcissisticpersonalityhasbecomecharacteristicofAmericansandthatitisthistypeofpersonalitythatmakesforthelackofwell-beingbecauseitpreventsusfromachievingconsensusthatwouldcounteractatendencytowithdrawintoprivateworlds.InthisstudyofnarcissismChristopherLashsaysthatmodernmantorturedbyself-consciousnessturnstonewtherapiesnottofreehimselfofhispersonalworrieshuttofindmeaningandpurposeinlifetofindsomethingtolivefor.Thereiswidespreaddistressbecausenationalmoralehasdeclinedandwehavelostanearliersenseofnationalvisionandpurpose.Contrarytorigidreligionsorpoliticalbeliefsasarefoundintotalitariansocietiesourcultureisoneofthegreatindividualdifferencesatleastinprincipleandintheory;butthisleadstodisunityevenchaos.Americansbelieveinthevalueofdiversitybutjustbecauseoursisasocietybasedonindividualdiversityitneedsconsensusaboutsomedominatingideasmorethansocietiesbasedonuniformoriginoftheircitizens.Henceifwearetohaveconsensusitmustbebasedonamyth--avisionaboutacommonexperienceaconquestthatmadeusAmericansasthemythabouttheconquestofTroyformedtheGreeks.Onlyacommonmythcanofferrelieffromthefearthatlifeiswithoutmeaningorpurpose.Mythspermitustoexamineourplaceintheworldbycomparingittoasharedidea.Mythsaresharedfantasiesthatformthetiethatbindstheindividualtoothermembersofhisgroup.Suchmythshelptowardofffeelingsofisolationsguiltanxietyandpurposelessness--inshorttheycombatisolationandthebreakdownofsocialstandardsandvalues.FromthetextwelearnthatChristopherLashismostprobably
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 20
Whatoursocietysuffersfrommosttodayistheabsenceofconsensusaboutwhatitandlifeinitoughttobe;suchconsensuscannotbegainedfromsociety’spresentstageorfromfantasiesaboutwhatitoughttobe.Forthatthepresentistoocloseandtoodiversifiedandthefuturetoouncertaintomakebelievableclaimsaboutit.AconsensusinthepresenthencecanbeachievedonlythroughasharedunderstandingofthepastasHomer’sepicsinformedthosewholivedcenturieslaterWhatitmeanttobeGreekandbywhatimagesandidealstheyweretolivetheirlivesandorganizetheirsocieties.Mostsocietiesderiveconsensusfromalonghistoryalanguagealltheirownacommonreligioncommonancestry.Themythsbywhichtheylivearebasedonallofthese.ButtheUnitedStatesisacountryofimmigrantscomingfromagreatvarietyofnations.LatelyithasbeenemphasizedthatanasocialnarcissisticpersonalityhasbecomecharacteristicofAmericansandthatitisthistypeofpersonalitythatmakesforthelackofwell-beingbecauseitpreventsusfromachievingconsensusthatwouldcounteractatendencytowithdrawintoprivateworlds.InthisstudyofnarcissismChristopherLashsaysthatmodernmantorturedbyself-consciousnessturnstonewtherapiesnottofreehimselfofhispersonalworrieshuttofindmeaningandpurposeinlifetofindsomethingtolivefor.Thereiswidespreaddistressbecausenationalmoralehasdeclinedandwehavelostanearliersenseofnationalvisionandpurpose.Contrarytorigidreligionsorpoliticalbeliefsasarefoundintotalitariansocietiesourcultureisoneofthegreatindividualdifferencesatleastinprincipleandintheory;butthisleadstodisunityevenchaos.Americansbelieveinthevalueofdiversitybutjustbecauseoursisasocietybasedonindividualdiversityitneedsconsensusaboutsomedominatingideasmorethansocietiesbasedonuniformoriginoftheircitizens.Henceifwearetohaveconsensusitmustbebasedonamyth--avisionaboutacommonexperienceaconquestthatmadeusAmericansasthemythabouttheconquestofTroyformedtheGreeks.Onlyacommonmythcanofferrelieffromthefearthatlifeiswithoutmeaningorpurpose.Mythspermitustoexamineourplaceintheworldbycomparingittoasharedidea.Mythsaresharedfantasiesthatformthetiethatbindstheindividualtoothermembersofhisgroup.Suchmythshelptowardofffeelingsofisolationsguiltanxietyandpurposelessness--inshorttheycombatisolationandthebreakdownofsocialstandardsandvalues.Homer’sepicsismentionedinParagraph1inorderto
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 4
VintonCerfknownasthefatheroftheInternetsaidonWednesdaythattheWebwasoutgrowingtheplanetEarthandthetimehadcometotaketheinformationsuperhighwaytoouterspace.TheInternetisgrowingquicklyandwestillhavealotofworktodotocovertheplanetCerftoldthefirstdayoftheannualconferenceoftheInternetSocietyinGenevawheremorethan1500cyberspacefanshavegatheredtoseekanswerstoquestionsaboutthetangledweboftheInternetCedbelievedthatitwouldsoonbepossibletosendreal-timesciencedataontheInternetfromaspacemissionorbitinganotherplanetsuchasMars.ThereisnowaneffortunderwaytodesignandbuildaninterplanetaryInternet.Thespaceresearchcommunityiscomingcloserandcloserandmerging.WethinkthatwewillseeinterplanetaryInternetnetworksthatlookverymuchliketheonesweusetoday.WewillneedinterplanetarygatewaysandtherewillbeprotocolstotransmitdatabetweenthesegatewaysCerfsaid.FrancoisFluekigerascientistattendingtheconferencefromtheEuropeanParticlePhysicsLaboratorynearGenevawasnotentirelyconvincedsaying..Weneeddreamslikethis.ButIdon’tknowanyMartianwhomI’dliketocommunicatewiththroughtheInternet.’CerfhasbeenworkingwithNASA’sPasadenaJetPropulsionLaboratory--thepeoplebehindtherecentMarsexpedition--todesignwhathecallsaninterplanetaryInternetprotocolHebelievesthatastronautswillwanttousetheInternetalthoughspecialproblemsremainwithinterferenceanddelay.ThisisquiterealTheeffortisbecomingextraordinarilyconcreteoverthenextfewmonthsbecausethenextMarsmissionisinplanningstagesnowCerftoldtheconference.IfweusedomainnameslikeEarthorMarsjetpropulsionlaboratorypeoplewouldbecomingtogetherwithpeoplefromtheInternetcommunity.’Headded.TheideaistotaketheinterplanetaryInternetdesignandmakeitapartoftheinfrastructureoftheMarsmission.Helatertoldanewsconferencethatdesigningthissystemnowwouldpreparemankindoffuturetechnologicaladvances.Thewholeidesistocreateanarchitecturesothedesignworksanywhere.Idon’tknowwherewe’regoingtohavetoputitbutmyguessisthatwe’llbegoingouttheresometimeCerfsaid.Ifyouthink100yearsfromnowitisentirelypossiblethatwhatwillbepurelyresearch50yearsfromnowwillbecomecommercialized./FromthetextwelearnthatVintonCerfis
TheextensionofdemocraticrightsintilefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachthemnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthejourneymanapprenticeforupwardmobility.Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnonAnglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectswastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation.Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.FortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardworkTherequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprenticeAndwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising.Whichofthefollowingwasthemostimportantforagentleman-in-waiting
AsmoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________[ A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages.[E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods.[F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 42
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 18
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork
AsmoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________[ A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages.[E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods.[F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 44
Inthenextcenturywe’llbeabletoalterourDNAradicallyencodingourvisionsandvanitieswhileconcoctingnewlife-forms.WhenDr.FrankensteinmadehismonsterhewrestledwiththemoralissueofwhetherheshouldallowittoreproduceHadItherightformyownbenefittoinflictthecurseuponeverlastinggenerationsWillsuchquestionsrequireustodevelopnewmoralphilosophiesProbablynot.Insteadwe’llreachagainforatime-testedmoralconcept;onesometimescalledtheGoldenRuleandwhichKantthemillennium’smostprudentmoralistconjuredupintoacategoricalimperativeDountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou;treateachpersonasanindividualratherthanasameanstosomeend.Underthismoralpreceptweshouldrecoilathumancloningbecauseitinevitablyentailsusinghumansasmeanstootherhumans’endsandvaluingthemascopiesofotherswelovedorascollectionsofbodypartsnotasindividualsintheirownright.WeshouldalsodrawalinehoweverfuzzythatwouldpermitusinggeneticengineeringtocurediseasesanddisabilitiesbutnottochangethepersonalattributesthatmakesomeoneanindividualIQphysicalappearancegenderandsexuality.Thebiotechagewillalsogiveusmorereasontoguardourpersonalprivacy.AldousHuxleyinBraveNewWorldgotitwrong:ratherthancentralizingpowerinthehandsofthestateDNAtechnologyhasempoweredindividualsandfamilies.Butthestatewillhaveanimportantrolemakingsurethatnooneincludinginsurancecompaniescanlookatourgeneticdatawithoutourpermissionoruseittodiscriminateagainstus.Thenwecangetreadyforthebreakthroughsthatcouldcomeattheendofthenextcenturyandthetechnologyiscomparabletomappingourgenes:plottingthe10billionormoreneuronsofourbrain.Withthatinformationwemightsomedaybeabletocreateartificialintelligencesthatthinkandexperienceconsciousnessinwaysthatareindistinguishablefromahumanbrain.Eventuallywemightbeabletoreplicateourownmindsinadry-waremachinesothatwecouldliveonwithoutthewet-wareofabiologicalbrainandbody.The20thcentury’srevolutionininfotechnologywilltherebymergewiththe21stcentury’srevolutioninbiotechnology.Butthisissciencefiction.Let’sturnthepagenowandgetbacktorealscience.Dr.Frankenstein’sremarksarementionedinthetext
OnemeaningoftheGreekworddranistoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful.Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement.Inthetexttheauthormainlydealswith
OnemeaningoftheGreekworddranistoaccomplishandinthismeaningliesafurtherkeytothestructureofdrama.Aplayconcernsahumanagentattemptingtoaccomplishsomepurpose.Intragedyhisattemptisinpersonaltermsatleastunsuccessful;incomedyitissuccessful;intheproblemplayfinalaccomplishmentisofteneitherambiguousordoubtful.Thisactionfromthebeginningtotheendofamovementtowardapurposedgoalmustalsohaveamiddle;itmustproceedthroughanumberofstepsthesuccessionofincidentswhichmakeuptheplot.Becausethedramatistisconcernedwiththemeaningandlogicofeventsratherthanwiththeircasualrelationshipintimehewillprobablyselecthismaterialandorderitonabasisoftheoperationinhumanaffairsoflawsofcauseandeffect.Itisinthiscausalrelationshipofincidentsthattheelementofconflictpresentinvirtuallyallplaysappears.Thecentralfigureoftheplay--theprotagonist---encountersdifficulties;hispurposeorpurposesconflictwitheventsorcircumstanceswithpurposesofothercharactersintheplayorwithcross-purposeswhichexistwithinhisownthoughtsanddesires.Thesedifficultiesthreatentheprotagonist’saccomplishment;inotherwordstheypresentcomplicationsandhissuccessorfailureindealingwiththesecomplicationsdeterminestheoutcome.Normallycomplicationsbuildthroughtheplayinorderofincreasingdifficulty;onecomplicationmaybeaddedtoanotheroronemaygrowoutofthesolutionofaprecedingone.Atsomepointinthischainofcomplicationandsolutionachievedorattemptedtheprotagonistperformsanactormakesadecisionwhichirrevocablycommitshimtoafurthercoursepointstowardcertaingeneralconsequences.Thispointisusuallycalledthecrisis;thecomplicationsandsolutionswhichfollowworkoutthelogicalstepsfromcrisistofindresolutionordenouement.Adramatistusually
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyofthinginitofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe.Fromthethirdparagraphwemayinferthat
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 12
Asoneworkswithcolorinapracticalorexperimentalwayoneisimpressedbytwoapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Colorasseenisamobilechangeablething1toalargeextentontherelationshipofthecolor2othercolors3simultaneously.Itisnot4initsrelationtothedirectstimuluswhich5it.Ontheotherhandthepropertiesofsurfacesthatgive6tocolordonotseemtochangegreatlyunderawidevarietyofilluminationcolorusuallybutnotalwayslookingmuchthesameinartificiallightasindaylight.Bothoftheseeffectsseemtobe7inlargeparttothemechanismofcolor8. Whentheeyeis9toacoloredareathereisanimmediatereadjustmentofthe10oftheeyetocolorinandaroundthearea11.Thisreadjustmentdoesnotpromptlyaffectthecolorseenbutusuallydoesaffectthenextareatowhichthe12isshifted.Thelongerthetimeofviewingthehigherthe13andthelargertheareathegreatertheeffectwillbe14itspersistenceinthe15viewingsituation.AsindicatedbytheworkofWrightandSchoutenitappearsthatat16forafirstapproximationfulladaptationtakesplaceover17timeiftheadaptingsourceismoderatelybrightandtheeyehasbeenin18darknessjustpreviously.Also19ofthepersistenceoftheeffectiftheeyeisshiftedaroundfromoneobjecttoanotherallofwhichareatsimilarbrightnessorhavesimilarcolorstheadaptationwilltendtobecome20overthewholeeye. 2
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