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WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 12
Exactlywherewewillstandinthelongwaragainstdiseasebytheyear2050isimpossibletosay.46Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease. Fromaneconomicstandpointthebestnewsmaybethattheseaccomplishmentscouldbeaccompaniedbyadropinhealth-carecosts.47Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.By2050therewillbefewerhospitalsandsurgicalprocedureswillbelargelyrestrictedtothetreatmentofaccidentsandotherformsoftrauma.Spendingonnonacutecarebothinnursingfacilitiesandinhomeswillalsofallsharplyasmoreelderlypeopleleadhealthylivesuntilclosetodeath. Oneresultofmedicine’ssuccessincontrollingdiseasewillbeadramaticincreaseinlifeexpectancy.48Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.Between1960and1995theU.S.populationasawholeincreasedbyabout45%whilethesegmentover85yearsofagegrewbyalmost300%.49Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.U.S.CensusBureauprojectionsalreadyforecastdramaticincreaseinthenumberofcentenariansinthenext50years:4millionin2050comparedwith37000in1990. 50AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.Withcontinuingadvancesinmolecularmedicineandagrowingunderstandingoftheagingprocessthatlimitcouldriseto130yearsormore. Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.
HowefficientisoursystemofcriminaltrialDoesitreallydothebasicjobweaskofit—convictingtheguiltyandacquiringtheinnocentItisoftensaidthattheBritishtrailsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Thelawyersoneachsidearesoengrossedinplayinghardtowinchallengingeachotherandthejudgeontechnicalpointsthattheobjectoffindingoutthetruthisalmostforgotten.Alltheeffortisconcentratedonthebigdayonthedramaticcrossexaminationofthekeywitnessesinfrontofthejury.Criticsliketocompareouradversarialsystemresemblingtwoadversariesengagedinacontestwiththecontinentalinquisitorialsystemunderwhichthejudgeplaysamoreimportantinquiringrole.InearlytimesintheMiddleAgesthesystemsoftrialacrossEuropeweresimilar.Atthattimetrialbyordeal—especiallyareligiousevent—wasthemainwayoftestingguiltorinnocence.Whenthiswayeventuallyabandonedthetwosystemspartedcompany.Onthecontinentchurch-trainedlegalofficialstookoverthefunctionofbothprosecutingandjudgingwhileinEnglandthesewerelargelylefttolaypeopletheJusticeofthePeaceandthismeantthatalltheevidencehadtobeputtothemorally.Thishistoricalaccidentdominatesprocedureeventodaywithallevidencebeinggiveninopencourtbywordofmouthonthecrucialday.OntheotherhandinFranceforinstancealltheevidenceiswrittenbeforethetrialundersupervisionbyaninvestigatingjudge.Thisexhaustivepretriallooksveryundramatic;muchofitisjustapubliccheckingofthewrittenrecordsalreadygathered.TheAmericansadoptedtheBritishsystemlockstockandbarrelandenshrineditintheirconstitution.Butwhilethebasicfeaturesofoursystemsarecommontherearenowsignificantdifferencesinthewayseriouscasesarehandled.FirstbecausetheU.S.A.hasvirtuallynocontemptofcourtlawstopreventpretrialpublicityinthenewspaperandontelevisionAmericanslawyersareallowedtoquestionjurorsaboutknowledgeandbeliefs.InBritainthisisvirtuallyneverallowedandarandomselectionofjurorswhoarepresumednottobeprejudicedareempanelled.SecondlythereisnoseparateprofessionofbarristerintheUnitedStatesandbothprosecutionanddefenselawyerswhoaretopresentcasesincourtpreparethemselves.Theygooutandvisitthescenetrackdownandinterviewwitnessesandfamiliarizethemselvespersonallywiththebackground.InBritainitisthesolicitorwhopreparesthecaseandthebarristerwhoappearsincourtisnotevenallowedtomeetwitnessbeforehand.Britishbarristersalsoalternatedoingbothprosecutionanddefensework.Beingkeptdistantfromthepreparationandregularlyappearingforbothsidesbarristersaresaidtoavoidbecomingtoopersonallyinvolvedandcanapproachcasesmoredispassionately.Americanlawyershoweveroftenknowtheircasesbetter.Reformersrightlywanttolearnfromothercountries’mistakesandsuccesses.Butwhatisclearisthatjusticesystemslargelybecausetheyaretheresultoflonghistoricalgrowtharepeculiarlydifficulttoadaptpiecemeal.WhichofthefollowingsentencesisNOTtrue
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 20
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 4
C.P.Snowoncesaid:"Asenseofthefutureisbehindallgoodpolicies.Unlesswehaveitwecangivenothingeitherwiseordecenttotheworld."Thinkingcarefullyaboutanoutcomeisanintelligentfirststepinmanyprocessesespeciallywhenthestakesarehighpossiblyevendangerous.DoyouhaveanyexperienceingettingoutofhazardoussituationsInthemostexceptionalcircumstancesafewgoodrulesofthumbmaysaveyou.Herearefivethingstokeepinmind. 41.Staycalm Ifacatastrophethreatensyourlifepanicwillonlymakemattersworse.Nothingbutcalmnesscanhelpyouadequatelytakestockofthesituationandtakeappropriatemeasures. 42.Remainconfident Desperationcanparalyzeyouorsapyourenergywhileconfidenceisthekeytosavingyourself. 43.Helpeachother Youshouldorganizeformutualassistanceincaseofanearthquakefloodfireetc.Peopleworkingtogethercanalwayscopemoresuccessfullywithanyadversesituation.Solidaritymeansstrength;solidaritymeansvictory. 44.Beobedienttosuperiors Thebeststrategywhenfacingacatastropheistoobeycommandsandkeeporder.Moreoftenthannotleadersareexpertsorsomeonefamiliarwiththesituationorwithrichexperience.Beingtooindividualisticandgoingyourownwaywillusuallymakethesituationworseforyouandothers.Sothebestthingtodoistolistentoauthoritiesandremainorderly. 45.Communicate Whenindangeritisbesttoseekhelpimmediatelysothosewithmoreresourcescancometoyouraid.Ifyouareatriskusewhatevermeansavailableassoonaspossibletocontactothersforhelpandtakeeffortstomaintaincommunicationonceitisestablished. Whileeverycatastropheisdifferentinitsownwayallcanbemetandhopefullyovercomewiththeabove-mentionedpiecesofadvice.Bycarefullyconsideringwhatneedstobedoneevenundertheworstofsituationsonecanfindsolutionsorendureuntilaidedbyothers. [A]Apersontrappedinruinsinanearthquakedidn’tlosehope.Thevictimovercamehispainanddespairandkeptbangingoutsignalsonthefallenwallaroundhimforhelp.Becauseofhiseffortsarescueteamwasabletofindhimandsavehislife. [B]Forexampleifnumerouspeopleareinvolvedinadangeroussituationsomeoutoffearorinclinationmaynotfollowdirectionorheedsoundadvice.Asaresultofthedisorderrescueeffortsarehinderedorworsemorecasualtiesareincurred. [C]NinefishermenfromPeruwerehitbyaseverestormbuttheydidn’tpaniceventhoughtheirboatwasdamagedsobadlythattheycouldn’tsailhome.Theymaintainedfaiththattheywouldsurelytobesavedandtheirbeliefgavethemstrength.Whenthereishopethereisaway!Theysurvivedatseafor40daysbeforetheywerefinallyrescued.Theirstoryisagoodsampleforfuturepeoplelostatsea.Itisbesttoremembertheproverb:Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves. [D]Historyshowsthatwhenpeopleareindangermutualassistancepromotesconfidenceandreassuringothersnotonlyhelpsthembutcancalmyouaswell.Helpingothersisbeneficialespeciallyinthedirestcircumstances.DuringtheSept.11attacksinAmericapeoplepulledtogetherandsupportedeachother.Thisnotonlyreducedcasualtiesbutalsoleftadeepimpressiononpeoplearoundworld.Rememberhelpingothersishelpingyourself! [E]TheApollo13spacemissionsufferedcatastrophicmechanicalproblemsenroutetotheMoon.ItsmalfunctionwascausedbyanexplosionandruptureofoxygentankNo.2intheservicemodule.TheNASAMissionControlCenterimmediatelyissuedtwoorders.Thesecondorderwasconcerningnavigation.ButcanyouguesswhatthefirstorderwasUnbelievablytheastronautsweretoldtotaketwotranquillizerpillseach!Asaresultcalmnesshelpedtheastronautsovercomeaseriesofdifficultiesandreturntoearth.Calmnesscanworkmiraclesintimesofemergency. [F]Thebestwaytopreventacatastrophefromhappeningisplanningahead.Youshouldoftencheckyourcircuitsstoveselectricalappliancesandgaspipelines.Beforesleepinginahotelyoushouldbeawareofthenearestexitincaseofanemergency."Preparationaversperil." 44
46Theclimaticphenomenonthatisbeingblamedforfloodshurricanesandearlysnowstormsalsodeservescreditforencouragingplantgrowthandhelpingtocontrolthepollutantlinkedtoglobalwarminganewstudyshows. E1Nino—theperiodicwarmingofeasternPacificOceanwaters—causesaburstofplantgrowththroughouttheworldandthisremovescarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereresearchershavefound. 47ThenewstudyshowsthatnaturalweathereventssuchasthebriefwarmingcausedbyE1Ninohaveamuchmoredramaticeffectthanpreviouslybelievedonhowmuchcarbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandhowmuchofthegasisexpelledbythesoil. AtmosphericcarbondioxideorCO2hasbeenincreasingsteadilyfordecades.Thisisthoughttobecausedbyanexpandeduseoffossilfuelsandbytopplingoftropicalforests.ScientistshavelinkedtheCO2risetoglobalwarmingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect.48Alarmednationsoftheworldnowaredrawingupnewconservationpoliciestoreducefossilfuelburninginhopesofreducinggreenhousegasesintheatmosphere. ButDavidSchimeloftheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearchaco-authorofthenewstudysaysthatbeforedetermininghowmuchtoreducefossilfuelburningweshouldconsidertheeffectsofnaturalclimatevariationsontheabilityofplantstoabsorbCO2. SchimelsaidsatellitemeasurementsofCO2plantgrowthandtemperatureshowthatnaturalwarmingeventssuchasE1NinoatfirstcausemoreCO2tobereleasedintotheatmosphereprobablyastheresultofaccelerateddecayofdeadplantmatterinthesoil.Butlaterwithintwoyearsthereisanexplosionofgrowthinforestsandgrasslandswhichmeansplantssuckmorecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere. "WethinkthatthereisadelayedresponseinvegetationandsoiltothewarmingeffectsofsuchphenomenaasE1Ninoandthisleadstoincreasedplantgrowth"saidSchimel. 49HoweverhesaiditisnotclearwhetherthewarmingbyE1NinocausesanetdecreaseinthebuildupofCO2overthelonghaul."Wedon’treallyknowthatyet"saidSchimel.WhatthestudydoesshowhoweveristhattheriseandfallofCO2intheatmosphereisstronglyinfluencedbynaturalchangesinglobaltemperaturesaidB.H.BraswelloftheUniversityofNewHampshireanotherco-authorofthestudy. Braswellsaidthatinyearswhentheglobalweatheriscoolerthannormalthereisadecreaseinboththedecayofdeadplantsandinnewplantgrowth.ThiscausesaneffectthatistheoppositeofE1Ninowarming:CO2atmospherelevelsfirstdeclineandlaterincrease. 50"Ithinkwehavedemonstratedthattheecosystemhasalotmoretodowithclimatechangethanwaspreviouslybelieved"saidBraswell"Focusingontheroleofhumanactivityinclimatechangeisimportantbutmanmadefactorsarenottheonlyfactors./ 46
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 6
Thequestionofwhetherwarisinevitableisonewhichhasconcernedmanyoftheworld’sgreatwriters.Beforeconsideringthisquestionitwillbeusefultointroducesomerelatedconcepts.Conflictdefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesdirectedagainstoneanotherisdistinguishedfromcompetitiondefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesindependentlystrivingforsomethingwhichisininadequatesupply.Competitorsmaynotbeawareofoneanotherwhilethepartiestoaconflictare.Conflictandcompetitionarebothcategoriesofoppositionwhichhasbeendefinedasaprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctioninthedisserviceofoneanother.Oppositionisthuscontrastedwithcooperationtheprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctionintheserviceofoneanother.Thesedefinitionsarenecessarybecauseitisimportanttoemphasizethatcompetitionbetweenindividualsorgroupsisinevitableinaworldoflimitedresourcesbutconflictisnot.Conflictneverthelessisverylikelytooccurandisprobablyanessentialanddesirableelementofhumansocieties.Manyauthorshavearguedfortheinevitabilityofwarfromthepremisethatinthestruggleforexistenceamonganimalspeciesonlythefittestsurvive.Ingeneralhoweverthisstruggleinnatureiscompetitionnotconflict.Socialanimalssuchasmonkeysandcattlefighttowinormaintainleadershipofthegroup.Thestruggleforexistenceoccursnotinsuchfightsbutinthecompetitionforlimitedfeedingareasandforoccupancyofareasfreefrommeat-eatinganimals.Thosewhofailinthiscompetitionstarvetodeathorbecomevictimstootherspecies.Thisstruggleforexistencedoesnotresemblehumanwarbutratherthecompetitionofindividualsforjobsmarketsandmaterials.Theessenceofthestruggleisthecompetitionforthenecessitiesoflifethatareinsufficienttosatisfyall.Amongnationsthereiscompetitionindevelopingresourcestradesskillsandasatisfactorywayoflife.Thesuccessfulnationsgrowandprosper;theunsuccessfuldecline.Whileitistruethatthiscompetitionmayinduceeffortstoexpandterritoryattheexpenseofothersandthusleadtoconflictitcannotbesaidthatwar-likeconflictamongnationsisinevitablealthoughcompetitionis.ThephrasefunctioninthedisserviceofoneanotherPara.1mostprobablymeans______.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 16
[A]Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedthemorboughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutility:itaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproductionwhichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporationsaswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingapore.Anothertypeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarkettheymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservicessuchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblem.Thusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketingbuttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproductorwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleorspecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshipofbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelsasbulkfreightbutfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationorcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruckthismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiredquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgood.Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct.Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced. Order: 41.______→D→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→A 42
Manyparentscomplainthattheirteenagechildrenarerebelling.Theygreettheirchildren’steenagewithneedlessdread.Whileteenagersmayassaultuswithheavy-metalmusicwearstrangeclotheshavestrangehairstylesandspendalltheirtimedatingormeetingfriendssuchbehaviorscarcelyaddsuptofull-scalerevolt.Takeagoodlookatthepresentrebellion.Itseemsthatteenagersarealltakingthesamewayofshowingthattheydisagreewiththeirparents.Insteadofstrikingoutboldlyontheirwingsmostofthemareclutchingatoneanother’shandsforreassurance.Theirreasonforthinkingoractinginthus-and-suchawayisthatthecrowdisdoingit.Ithasbecomeharderandharderforateenagertostandupagainstthepopularitywaveandtogohisorherownway.Theyhavecomeoutoftheircocoon—intoalargercocoon.TeenagerebellionaccordingtopsychologistLaurenceSteinbergcoauthorofYouandYourAdolescenthasbeengreatlyoverstated.Manyotherpsychologistsagree.Theideathatteenagersinevitablyrebelisamyththathasthepotentialforgreatfamilyharm.Thisnotioncandamagecommunicationduringthiscriticaltimeforparentstoinfluenceyoungsters.Stilladolescenceisoftenatryingtimeoftransitionforchildandparent.Teenagersneedtoestablishthemselvesasindividuals—intheirownmindsandintheeyesofothers.Thissearchisn’taboutrebellion:it’saboutbecomingapersonofone’sown.TeenagersoughttobegrowingawayfromtheirparentsandlearningtostandontheirowntwofeetsaysSteinberg.Hereisonewayparentscanhelp:don’tstereotype.ParentswhoexpectteenagerebellionmayactuallystiritupsaysKennethI.Howardamemberofaresearchteamthatcollectedsurveydataonmorethan20000teenagersovera28-yearperiod.Howardcautionsparentsnottoresorttosuppressionatthefirstsightofadolescentindependencefearfulthatgivinginevenslightlynowmeansdrugscannotbefarbehind.Whenparentsoverreactteenagersassertthemselvesmoreparentsclampdownharderandafull-scaleblowupresults.Infactpsychologistssaythatthereisnoinevitablepatterntoteenagebehaviorandnosuchcreatureasatypicalteenager.Yourteenagerisnowlargerstrongerolderandsmarterthanbeforewithanadditionalsupplyofhormoneragingthroughthebloodstream.Butheorsheisstillthesamehumanbeingyouhavelivedwithsincebirth.Givenachanceyoursonordaughterwillcontinuetobehaveinwaysyouhaveestablished.Accordingtothepsychologistsitisbeneficialforparentsto______.
TodayAmericanshavedifferenteatinghabitsthaninthepast.Thereisawideselectionoffoodavailable.Theyhaveabroaderknowledgeofnutritionsotheybuymorefleshfruitandvegetablesthaneverbefore.AtthesametimeAmericanspurchaseincreasingquantitiesofsweetssnacksandsodas.Statisticsshowthatthewaypeoplelivedeterminesthewaytheyeat.Americanlifestyleshavechanged.Theynowincludegrowingnumbersofpeoplewholivealonesingleparentsandchildrenanddouble-incomefamilies.Thesechanginglifestylesareresponsiblefortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhomustrashmealsorsometimesskipthemaltogether.ManyAmericanshavelesstimethaneverbeforetospendpreparingfood.Partlyasaconsequenceofthislimitedtime60percentofallAmericanhomesnowhavemicrowaveovens.MoreoverAmericanseatoutnearlyfourtimesaweekontheaverage.Itiseasytostudytheamountsandkindsoffoodthatpeopleconsume.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSDAandthefoodindustry-growersprocessorsmarketersandrestaurantmanagerscompilesalesstatisticsandkeepaccuraterecords.Thisinformationnotonlytellsuswhatpeopleareeatingbutalsotellsusaboutthechangesinattitudesandtastes.RedmeatwhichusedtobethemostpopularchoicefordinnerisnolongeranAmericanfavorite.Insteadchickensturkeyandfishhavebecomemorepopular.Salesofthesefoodshavegreatlyincreasedinrecentyears.Thisisprobablyaresultoftheawarenessofthedangersofeatingfoodwhichcontainshighlevelsofcholesteroloranimalfat.Doctorsbelievethatcholesterolisathreattohumanhealth.AccordingtoarecentsurveyAmericansalsochangetheireatingpatternstomeettheneedsofdifferentsituations.Theyhavecertainideasaboutwhichfoodswillincreasetheirathleticabilityhelpthemloseweightmakethemalertforbusinessmeetingsorputtheminthemoodforromance.ForexampleAmericanschoosepastafruitandvegetableswhichsupplythemwithcarbohydratestogivethemstrengthforphysicalactivitysuchassports.Adultschoosefoodrichinfibersuchasbreadandcerealforbreakfastandsaladsforlunchtopreparethemforbusinessappointment.ForromanticdinnershoweverAmericanschooseshrimpandlobster.Whilemanyoftheseideasarebasedonnutritionalfactssomearenot.Americans’awarenessofnutritionalongwiththeirchangingtastesandneedsleadsthemtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoods—foodsforhealthforfunandsimplyforgoodtaste.Itisbelievedthateatingsalads______.
TodayAmericanshavedifferenteatinghabitsthaninthepast.Thereisawideselectionoffoodavailable.Theyhaveabroaderknowledgeofnutritionsotheybuymorefleshfruitandvegetablesthaneverbefore.AtthesametimeAmericanspurchaseincreasingquantitiesofsweetssnacksandsodas.Statisticsshowthatthewaypeoplelivedeterminesthewaytheyeat.Americanlifestyleshavechanged.Theynowincludegrowingnumbersofpeoplewholivealonesingleparentsandchildrenanddouble-incomefamilies.Thesechanginglifestylesareresponsiblefortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhomustrashmealsorsometimesskipthemaltogether.ManyAmericanshavelesstimethaneverbeforetospendpreparingfood.Partlyasaconsequenceofthislimitedtime60percentofallAmericanhomesnowhavemicrowaveovens.MoreoverAmericanseatoutnearlyfourtimesaweekontheaverage.Itiseasytostudytheamountsandkindsoffoodthatpeopleconsume.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSDAandthefoodindustry-growersprocessorsmarketersandrestaurantmanagerscompilesalesstatisticsandkeepaccuraterecords.Thisinformationnotonlytellsuswhatpeopleareeatingbutalsotellsusaboutthechangesinattitudesandtastes.RedmeatwhichusedtobethemostpopularchoicefordinnerisnolongeranAmericanfavorite.Insteadchickensturkeyandfishhavebecomemorepopular.Salesofthesefoodshavegreatlyincreasedinrecentyears.Thisisprobablyaresultoftheawarenessofthedangersofeatingfoodwhichcontainshighlevelsofcholesteroloranimalfat.Doctorsbelievethatcholesterolisathreattohumanhealth.AccordingtoarecentsurveyAmericansalsochangetheireatingpatternstomeettheneedsofdifferentsituations.Theyhavecertainideasaboutwhichfoodswillincreasetheirathleticabilityhelpthemloseweightmakethemalertforbusinessmeetingsorputtheminthemoodforromance.ForexampleAmericanschoosepastafruitandvegetableswhichsupplythemwithcarbohydratestogivethemstrengthforphysicalactivitysuchassports.Adultschoosefoodrichinfibersuchasbreadandcerealforbreakfastandsaladsforlunchtopreparethemforbusinessappointment.ForromanticdinnershoweverAmericanschooseshrimpandlobster.Whilemanyoftheseideasarebasedonnutritionalfactssomearenot.Americans’awarenessofnutritionalongwiththeirchangingtastesandneedsleadsthemtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoods—foodsforhealthforfunandsimplyforgoodtaste.Whichofthefollowingdoestheauthorprimarilydiscuss
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 18
Directions: Therehasbeenadiscussionrecentlyontheissueofchallengeinanewspaper.Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethepicturebriefly. 2explaintheintendedmeaninggiveaspecificexampleand 3giveyoursuggestionastothebestwaytotreatchallenge. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2. 挑战如同大风可能是阻力但是对于风车便是动力
Exactlywherewewillstandinthelongwaragainstdiseasebytheyear2050isimpossibletosay.46Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease. Fromaneconomicstandpointthebestnewsmaybethattheseaccomplishmentscouldbeaccompaniedbyadropinhealth-carecosts.47Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.By2050therewillbefewerhospitalsandsurgicalprocedureswillbelargelyrestrictedtothetreatmentofaccidentsandotherformsoftrauma.Spendingonnonacutecarebothinnursingfacilitiesandinhomeswillalsofallsharplyasmoreelderlypeopleleadhealthylivesuntilclosetodeath. Oneresultofmedicine’ssuccessincontrollingdiseasewillbeadramaticincreaseinlifeexpectancy.48Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.Between1960and1995theU.S.populationasawholeincreasedbyabout45%whilethesegmentover85yearsofagegrewbyalmost300%.49Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.U.S.CensusBureauprojectionsalreadyforecastdramaticincreaseinthenumberofcentenariansinthenext50years:4millionin2050comparedwith37000in1990. 50AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.Withcontinuingadvancesinmolecularmedicineandagrowingunderstandingoftheagingprocessthatlimitcouldriseto130yearsormore. AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 8
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 14
46Theclimaticphenomenonthatisbeingblamedforfloodshurricanesandearlysnowstormsalsodeservescreditforencouragingplantgrowthandhelpingtocontrolthepollutantlinkedtoglobalwarminganewstudyshows. E1Nino—theperiodicwarmingofeasternPacificOceanwaters—causesaburstofplantgrowththroughouttheworldandthisremovescarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereresearchershavefound. 47ThenewstudyshowsthatnaturalweathereventssuchasthebriefwarmingcausedbyE1Ninohaveamuchmoredramaticeffectthanpreviouslybelievedonhowmuchcarbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandhowmuchofthegasisexpelledbythesoil. AtmosphericcarbondioxideorCO2hasbeenincreasingsteadilyfordecades.Thisisthoughttobecausedbyanexpandeduseoffossilfuelsandbytopplingoftropicalforests.ScientistshavelinkedtheCO2risetoglobalwarmingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect.48Alarmednationsoftheworldnowaredrawingupnewconservationpoliciestoreducefossilfuelburninginhopesofreducinggreenhousegasesintheatmosphere. ButDavidSchimeloftheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearchaco-authorofthenewstudysaysthatbeforedetermininghowmuchtoreducefossilfuelburningweshouldconsidertheeffectsofnaturalclimatevariationsontheabilityofplantstoabsorbCO2. SchimelsaidsatellitemeasurementsofCO2plantgrowthandtemperatureshowthatnaturalwarmingeventssuchasE1NinoatfirstcausemoreCO2tobereleasedintotheatmosphereprobablyastheresultofaccelerateddecayofdeadplantmatterinthesoil.Butlaterwithintwoyearsthereisanexplosionofgrowthinforestsandgrasslandswhichmeansplantssuckmorecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere. "WethinkthatthereisadelayedresponseinvegetationandsoiltothewarmingeffectsofsuchphenomenaasE1Ninoandthisleadstoincreasedplantgrowth"saidSchimel. 49HoweverhesaiditisnotclearwhetherthewarmingbyE1NinocausesanetdecreaseinthebuildupofCO2overthelonghaul."Wedon’treallyknowthatyet"saidSchimel.WhatthestudydoesshowhoweveristhattheriseandfallofCO2intheatmosphereisstronglyinfluencedbynaturalchangesinglobaltemperaturesaidB.H.BraswelloftheUniversityofNewHampshireanotherco-authorofthestudy. Braswellsaidthatinyearswhentheglobalweatheriscoolerthannormalthereisadecreaseinboththedecayofdeadplantsandinnewplantgrowth.ThiscausesaneffectthatistheoppositeofE1Ninowarming:CO2atmospherelevelsfirstdeclineandlaterincrease. 50"Ithinkwehavedemonstratedthattheecosystemhasalotmoretodowithclimatechangethanwaspreviouslybelieved"saidBraswell"Focusingontheroleofhumanactivityinclimatechangeisimportantbutmanmadefactorsarenottheonlyfactors./ 48
Exactlywherewewillstandinthelongwaragainstdiseasebytheyear2050isimpossibletosay.46Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease. Fromaneconomicstandpointthebestnewsmaybethattheseaccomplishmentscouldbeaccompaniedbyadropinhealth-carecosts.47Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.By2050therewillbefewerhospitalsandsurgicalprocedureswillbelargelyrestrictedtothetreatmentofaccidentsandotherformsoftrauma.Spendingonnonacutecarebothinnursingfacilitiesandinhomeswillalsofallsharplyasmoreelderlypeopleleadhealthylivesuntilclosetodeath. Oneresultofmedicine’ssuccessincontrollingdiseasewillbeadramaticincreaseinlifeexpectancy.48Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.Between1960and1995theU.S.populationasawholeincreasedbyabout45%whilethesegmentover85yearsofagegrewbyalmost300%.49Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.U.S.CensusBureauprojectionsalreadyforecastdramaticincreaseinthenumberofcentenariansinthenext50years:4millionin2050comparedwith37000in1990. 50AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.Withcontinuingadvancesinmolecularmedicineandagrowingunderstandingoftheagingprocessthatlimitcouldriseto130yearsormore. Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 2
TodayAmericanshavedifferenteatinghabitsthaninthepast.Thereisawideselectionoffoodavailable.Theyhaveabroaderknowledgeofnutritionsotheybuymorefleshfruitandvegetablesthaneverbefore.AtthesametimeAmericanspurchaseincreasingquantitiesofsweetssnacksandsodas.Statisticsshowthatthewaypeoplelivedeterminesthewaytheyeat.Americanlifestyleshavechanged.Theynowincludegrowingnumbersofpeoplewholivealonesingleparentsandchildrenanddouble-incomefamilies.Thesechanginglifestylesareresponsiblefortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhomustrashmealsorsometimesskipthemaltogether.ManyAmericanshavelesstimethaneverbeforetospendpreparingfood.Partlyasaconsequenceofthislimitedtime60percentofallAmericanhomesnowhavemicrowaveovens.MoreoverAmericanseatoutnearlyfourtimesaweekontheaverage.Itiseasytostudytheamountsandkindsoffoodthatpeopleconsume.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSDAandthefoodindustry-growersprocessorsmarketersandrestaurantmanagerscompilesalesstatisticsandkeepaccuraterecords.Thisinformationnotonlytellsuswhatpeopleareeatingbutalsotellsusaboutthechangesinattitudesandtastes.RedmeatwhichusedtobethemostpopularchoicefordinnerisnolongeranAmericanfavorite.Insteadchickensturkeyandfishhavebecomemorepopular.Salesofthesefoodshavegreatlyincreasedinrecentyears.Thisisprobablyaresultoftheawarenessofthedangersofeatingfoodwhichcontainshighlevelsofcholesteroloranimalfat.Doctorsbelievethatcholesterolisathreattohumanhealth.AccordingtoarecentsurveyAmericansalsochangetheireatingpatternstomeettheneedsofdifferentsituations.Theyhavecertainideasaboutwhichfoodswillincreasetheirathleticabilityhelpthemloseweightmakethemalertforbusinessmeetingsorputtheminthemoodforromance.ForexampleAmericanschoosepastafruitandvegetableswhichsupplythemwithcarbohydratestogivethemstrengthforphysicalactivitysuchassports.Adultschoosefoodrichinfibersuchasbreadandcerealforbreakfastandsaladsforlunchtopreparethemforbusinessappointment.ForromanticdinnershoweverAmericanschooseshrimpandlobster.Whilemanyoftheseideasarebasedonnutritionalfactssomearenot.Americans’awarenessofnutritionalongwiththeirchangingtastesandneedsleadsthemtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoods—foodsforhealthforfunandsimplyforgoodtaste.Americanschangetheireatinghabitsmainlybecause______.
Manyparentscomplainthattheirteenagechildrenarerebelling.Theygreettheirchildren’steenagewithneedlessdread.Whileteenagersmayassaultuswithheavy-metalmusicwearstrangeclotheshavestrangehairstylesandspendalltheirtimedatingormeetingfriendssuchbehaviorscarcelyaddsuptofull-scalerevolt.Takeagoodlookatthepresentrebellion.Itseemsthatteenagersarealltakingthesamewayofshowingthattheydisagreewiththeirparents.Insteadofstrikingoutboldlyontheirwingsmostofthemareclutchingatoneanother’shandsforreassurance.Theirreasonforthinkingoractinginthus-and-suchawayisthatthecrowdisdoingit.Ithasbecomeharderandharderforateenagertostandupagainstthepopularitywaveandtogohisorherownway.Theyhavecomeoutoftheircocoon—intoalargercocoon.TeenagerebellionaccordingtopsychologistLaurenceSteinbergcoauthorofYouandYourAdolescenthasbeengreatlyoverstated.Manyotherpsychologistsagree.Theideathatteenagersinevitablyrebelisamyththathasthepotentialforgreatfamilyharm.Thisnotioncandamagecommunicationduringthiscriticaltimeforparentstoinfluenceyoungsters.Stilladolescenceisoftenatryingtimeoftransitionforchildandparent.Teenagersneedtoestablishthemselvesasindividuals—intheirownmindsandintheeyesofothers.Thissearchisn’taboutrebellion:it’saboutbecomingapersonofone’sown.TeenagersoughttobegrowingawayfromtheirparentsandlearningtostandontheirowntwofeetsaysSteinberg.Hereisonewayparentscanhelp:don’tstereotype.ParentswhoexpectteenagerebellionmayactuallystiritupsaysKennethI.Howardamemberofaresearchteamthatcollectedsurveydataonmorethan20000teenagersovera28-yearperiod.Howardcautionsparentsnottoresorttosuppressionatthefirstsightofadolescentindependencefearfulthatgivinginevenslightlynowmeansdrugscannotbefarbehind.Whenparentsoverreactteenagersassertthemselvesmoreparentsclampdownharderandafull-scaleblowupresults.Infactpsychologistssaythatthereisnoinevitablepatterntoteenagebehaviorandnosuchcreatureasatypicalteenager.Yourteenagerisnowlargerstrongerolderandsmarterthanbeforewithanadditionalsupplyofhormoneragingthroughthebloodstream.Butheorsheisstillthesamehumanbeingyouhavelivedwithsincebirth.Givenachanceyoursonordaughterwillcontinuetobehaveinwaysyouhaveestablished.Alargercocoonasmentionedinparagraph2referstothesituationthat______.
Thequestionofwhetherwarisinevitableisonewhichhasconcernedmanyoftheworld’sgreatwriters.Beforeconsideringthisquestionitwillbeusefultointroducesomerelatedconcepts.Conflictdefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesdirectedagainstoneanotherisdistinguishedfromcompetitiondefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesindependentlystrivingforsomethingwhichisininadequatesupply.Competitorsmaynotbeawareofoneanotherwhilethepartiestoaconflictare.Conflictandcompetitionarebothcategoriesofoppositionwhichhasbeendefinedasaprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctioninthedisserviceofoneanother.Oppositionisthuscontrastedwithcooperationtheprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctionintheserviceofoneanother.Thesedefinitionsarenecessarybecauseitisimportanttoemphasizethatcompetitionbetweenindividualsorgroupsisinevitableinaworldoflimitedresourcesbutconflictisnot.Conflictneverthelessisverylikelytooccurandisprobablyanessentialanddesirableelementofhumansocieties.Manyauthorshavearguedfortheinevitabilityofwarfromthepremisethatinthestruggleforexistenceamonganimalspeciesonlythefittestsurvive.Ingeneralhoweverthisstruggleinnatureiscompetitionnotconflict.Socialanimalssuchasmonkeysandcattlefighttowinormaintainleadershipofthegroup.Thestruggleforexistenceoccursnotinsuchfightsbutinthecompetitionforlimitedfeedingareasandforoccupancyofareasfreefrommeat-eatinganimals.Thosewhofailinthiscompetitionstarvetodeathorbecomevictimstootherspecies.Thisstruggleforexistencedoesnotresemblehumanwarbutratherthecompetitionofindividualsforjobsmarketsandmaterials.Theessenceofthestruggleisthecompetitionforthenecessitiesoflifethatareinsufficienttosatisfyall.Amongnationsthereiscompetitionindevelopingresourcestradesskillsandasatisfactorywayoflife.Thesuccessfulnationsgrowandprosper;theunsuccessfuldecline.Whileitistruethatthiscompetitionmayinduceeffortstoexpandterritoryattheexpenseofothersandthusleadtoconflictitcannotbesaidthatwar-likeconflictamongnationsisinevitablealthoughcompetitionis.Thepassageisprobablyintendedtoanswerthequestion______.
[A]Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedthemorboughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutility:itaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproductionwhichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporationsaswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingapore.Anothertypeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarkettheymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservicessuchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblem.Thusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketingbuttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproductorwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleorspecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshipofbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelsasbulkfreightbutfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationorcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruckthismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiredquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgood.Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct.Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced. Order: 41.______→D→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→A 44
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 10
Thequestionofwhetherwarisinevitableisonewhichhasconcernedmanyoftheworld’sgreatwriters.Beforeconsideringthisquestionitwillbeusefultointroducesomerelatedconcepts.Conflictdefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesdirectedagainstoneanotherisdistinguishedfromcompetitiondefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesindependentlystrivingforsomethingwhichisininadequatesupply.Competitorsmaynotbeawareofoneanotherwhilethepartiestoaconflictare.Conflictandcompetitionarebothcategoriesofoppositionwhichhasbeendefinedasaprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctioninthedisserviceofoneanother.Oppositionisthuscontrastedwithcooperationtheprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctionintheserviceofoneanother.Thesedefinitionsarenecessarybecauseitisimportanttoemphasizethatcompetitionbetweenindividualsorgroupsisinevitableinaworldoflimitedresourcesbutconflictisnot.Conflictneverthelessisverylikelytooccurandisprobablyanessentialanddesirableelementofhumansocieties.Manyauthorshavearguedfortheinevitabilityofwarfromthepremisethatinthestruggleforexistenceamonganimalspeciesonlythefittestsurvive.Ingeneralhoweverthisstruggleinnatureiscompetitionnotconflict.Socialanimalssuchasmonkeysandcattlefighttowinormaintainleadershipofthegroup.Thestruggleforexistenceoccursnotinsuchfightsbutinthecompetitionforlimitedfeedingareasandforoccupancyofareasfreefrommeat-eatinganimals.Thosewhofailinthiscompetitionstarvetodeathorbecomevictimstootherspecies.Thisstruggleforexistencedoesnotresemblehumanwarbutratherthecompetitionofindividualsforjobsmarketsandmaterials.Theessenceofthestruggleisthecompetitionforthenecessitiesoflifethatareinsufficienttosatisfyall.Amongnationsthereiscompetitionindevelopingresourcestradesskillsandasatisfactorywayoflife.Thesuccessfulnationsgrowandprosper;theunsuccessfuldecline.Whileitistruethatthiscompetitionmayinduceeffortstoexpandterritoryattheexpenseofothersandthusleadtoconflictitcannotbesaidthatwar-likeconflictamongnationsisinevitablealthoughcompetitionis.Inthefirstparagraphtheauthorgivesthedefinitionsofsometermsinorderto______.
C.P.Snowoncesaid:"Asenseofthefutureisbehindallgoodpolicies.Unlesswehaveitwecangivenothingeitherwiseordecenttotheworld."Thinkingcarefullyaboutanoutcomeisanintelligentfirststepinmanyprocessesespeciallywhenthestakesarehighpossiblyevendangerous.DoyouhaveanyexperienceingettingoutofhazardoussituationsInthemostexceptionalcircumstancesafewgoodrulesofthumbmaysaveyou.Herearefivethingstokeepinmind. 41.Staycalm Ifacatastrophethreatensyourlifepanicwillonlymakemattersworse.Nothingbutcalmnesscanhelpyouadequatelytakestockofthesituationandtakeappropriatemeasures. 42.Remainconfident Desperationcanparalyzeyouorsapyourenergywhileconfidenceisthekeytosavingyourself. 43.Helpeachother Youshouldorganizeformutualassistanceincaseofanearthquakefloodfireetc.Peopleworkingtogethercanalwayscopemoresuccessfullywithanyadversesituation.Solidaritymeansstrength;solidaritymeansvictory. 44.Beobedienttosuperiors Thebeststrategywhenfacingacatastropheistoobeycommandsandkeeporder.Moreoftenthannotleadersareexpertsorsomeonefamiliarwiththesituationorwithrichexperience.Beingtooindividualisticandgoingyourownwaywillusuallymakethesituationworseforyouandothers.Sothebestthingtodoistolistentoauthoritiesandremainorderly. 45.Communicate Whenindangeritisbesttoseekhelpimmediatelysothosewithmoreresourcescancometoyouraid.Ifyouareatriskusewhatevermeansavailableassoonaspossibletocontactothersforhelpandtakeeffortstomaintaincommunicationonceitisestablished. Whileeverycatastropheisdifferentinitsownwayallcanbemetandhopefullyovercomewiththeabove-mentionedpiecesofadvice.Bycarefullyconsideringwhatneedstobedoneevenundertheworstofsituationsonecanfindsolutionsorendureuntilaidedbyothers. [A]Apersontrappedinruinsinanearthquakedidn’tlosehope.Thevictimovercamehispainanddespairandkeptbangingoutsignalsonthefallenwallaroundhimforhelp.Becauseofhiseffortsarescueteamwasabletofindhimandsavehislife. [B]Forexampleifnumerouspeopleareinvolvedinadangeroussituationsomeoutoffearorinclinationmaynotfollowdirectionorheedsoundadvice.Asaresultofthedisorderrescueeffortsarehinderedorworsemorecasualtiesareincurred. [C]NinefishermenfromPeruwerehitbyaseverestormbuttheydidn’tpaniceventhoughtheirboatwasdamagedsobadlythattheycouldn’tsailhome.Theymaintainedfaiththattheywouldsurelytobesavedandtheirbeliefgavethemstrength.Whenthereishopethereisaway!Theysurvivedatseafor40daysbeforetheywerefinallyrescued.Theirstoryisagoodsampleforfuturepeoplelostatsea.Itisbesttoremembertheproverb:Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves. [D]Historyshowsthatwhenpeopleareindangermutualassistancepromotesconfidenceandreassuringothersnotonlyhelpsthembutcancalmyouaswell.Helpingothersisbeneficialespeciallyinthedirestcircumstances.DuringtheSept.11attacksinAmericapeoplepulledtogetherandsupportedeachother.Thisnotonlyreducedcasualtiesbutalsoleftadeepimpressiononpeoplearoundworld.Rememberhelpingothersishelpingyourself! [E]TheApollo13spacemissionsufferedcatastrophicmechanicalproblemsenroutetotheMoon.ItsmalfunctionwascausedbyanexplosionandruptureofoxygentankNo.2intheservicemodule.TheNASAMissionControlCenterimmediatelyissuedtwoorders.Thesecondorderwasconcerningnavigation.ButcanyouguesswhatthefirstorderwasUnbelievablytheastronautsweretoldtotaketwotranquillizerpillseach!Asaresultcalmnesshelpedtheastronautsovercomeaseriesofdifficultiesandreturntoearth.Calmnesscanworkmiraclesintimesofemergency. [F]Thebestwaytopreventacatastrophefromhappeningisplanningahead.Youshouldoftencheckyourcircuitsstoveselectricalappliancesandgaspipelines.Beforesleepinginahotelyoushouldbeawareofthenearestexitincaseofanemergency."Preparationaversperil." 42
HowefficientisoursystemofcriminaltrialDoesitreallydothebasicjobweaskofit—convictingtheguiltyandacquiringtheinnocentItisoftensaidthattheBritishtrailsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Thelawyersoneachsidearesoengrossedinplayinghardtowinchallengingeachotherandthejudgeontechnicalpointsthattheobjectoffindingoutthetruthisalmostforgotten.Alltheeffortisconcentratedonthebigdayonthedramaticcrossexaminationofthekeywitnessesinfrontofthejury.Criticsliketocompareouradversarialsystemresemblingtwoadversariesengagedinacontestwiththecontinentalinquisitorialsystemunderwhichthejudgeplaysamoreimportantinquiringrole.InearlytimesintheMiddleAgesthesystemsoftrialacrossEuropeweresimilar.Atthattimetrialbyordeal—especiallyareligiousevent—wasthemainwayoftestingguiltorinnocence.Whenthiswayeventuallyabandonedthetwosystemspartedcompany.Onthecontinentchurch-trainedlegalofficialstookoverthefunctionofbothprosecutingandjudgingwhileinEnglandthesewerelargelylefttolaypeopletheJusticeofthePeaceandthismeantthatalltheevidencehadtobeputtothemorally.Thishistoricalaccidentdominatesprocedureeventodaywithallevidencebeinggiveninopencourtbywordofmouthonthecrucialday.OntheotherhandinFranceforinstancealltheevidenceiswrittenbeforethetrialundersupervisionbyaninvestigatingjudge.Thisexhaustivepretriallooksveryundramatic;muchofitisjustapubliccheckingofthewrittenrecordsalreadygathered.TheAmericansadoptedtheBritishsystemlockstockandbarrelandenshrineditintheirconstitution.Butwhilethebasicfeaturesofoursystemsarecommontherearenowsignificantdifferencesinthewayseriouscasesarehandled.FirstbecausetheU.S.A.hasvirtuallynocontemptofcourtlawstopreventpretrialpublicityinthenewspaperandontelevisionAmericanslawyersareallowedtoquestionjurorsaboutknowledgeandbeliefs.InBritainthisisvirtuallyneverallowedandarandomselectionofjurorswhoarepresumednottobeprejudicedareempanelled.SecondlythereisnoseparateprofessionofbarristerintheUnitedStatesandbothprosecutionanddefenselawyerswhoaretopresentcasesincourtpreparethemselves.Theygooutandvisitthescenetrackdownandinterviewwitnessesandfamiliarizethemselvespersonallywiththebackground.InBritainitisthesolicitorwhopreparesthecaseandthebarristerwhoappearsincourtisnotevenallowedtomeetwitnessbeforehand.Britishbarristersalsoalternatedoingbothprosecutionanddefensework.Beingkeptdistantfromthepreparationandregularlyappearingforbothsidesbarristersaresaidtoavoidbecomingtoopersonallyinvolvedandcanapproachcasesmoredispassionately.Americanlawyershoweveroftenknowtheircasesbetter.Reformersrightlywanttolearnfromothercountries’mistakesandsuccesses.Butwhatisclearisthatjusticesystemslargelybecausetheyaretheresultoflonghistoricalgrowtharepeculiarlydifficulttoadaptpiecemeal.WecaninferthatAmericanlawyers______.
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