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Many countries have a tradition of inviting foreigners to rule them. The English called in Willia...
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The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 13
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 17
DiscussionoftheassimilationofPuertoRicans波多黎各人intheUnitedStateshasfocusedontwofactors:socialstandingandthelossofnationalculture.IngeneralexcessivestressisplacedononefactorortheotherdependingonwhetherthecommentatorisNorthAmericanorPuertoRican.ManyNorthAmericansocialscientistssuchasOscarHandlinJosephFitzpatrickandOscarLewisconsiderPuertoRicansasthemostrecentinalonglineofethnicentrantstooccupythelowestrungonthesocialladder.46Sucha"sociodemographic"approachtendstoregardassimilationasabenignprocesstakingforgrantedincreasedeconomicadvantageandinevitableculturalintegrationinasupposedlyegalitariancontext.HoweverthisapproachfailstotakeintoaccountthecolonialnatureofthePuertoRicancasewiththisgroupunliketheirEuropeanpredecessorscomingfromanationpoliticallysubordinatedtotheUnitedStates.47Eventhe"radical"critiquesofthismainstreamresearchmodelsuchasthecritiquedevelopedinDividedSocietyattachtheissueofethnicassimilationtoomechanicallytofactorsofeconomicandsocialmobilityandarethusunabletoilluminatetheculturalsubordinationofPuertoRicansasacolonialminority. Incontrastthe"colonialist"approachofislandbasedwriterssuchasEduardoSeda-BonillaManuelMaldonado-DenisandLuisNieves-Falcontendstoviewassimilationastheforcedlossofnationalcultureinanunequalcontestwithimposedforeignvalues.ThereisofcourseastrongtraditionofculturalaccommodationamongotherPuertoRicanthinkers.ThewritingsofEugenioFernandezMendezclearlyexemplifythistraditionandmanysupportersofPuertoRico’scommonwealthstatussharethesameuniversalizingorientation.48ButthePuertoRicanintellectualswhohavewrittenmostabouttheassimilationprocessintheUnitedStatesalladvanceculturalnationalistviewsadvocatingthepreservationofminorityculturaldistinctionsandrejectingwhattheyseeasthesubmissionofcolonialnationalities. ThisculturalandpoliticalemphasisisappropriatebutthecolonialistthinkersmisdirectitoverlookingtheclassrelationsatworkinbothPuertoRicanandNorthAmericanhistory.Theyposetheclashofnationalculturesasanabsolutepolaritywitheachcultureunderstoodasstaticandundifferentiated.49YetboththePuertoRicanandNorthAmericantraditionshavebeensubjecttoconstantchallengefromculturalforceswithintheirownsocietiesforcesthatmaymovetowardeachotherinwaysthatcannotbewrittenoffasmere"assimilation."ConsiderforexampletheindigenousandAfro-CaribbeantraditionsinPuertoRicancultureandhowtheyinfluenceandareinfluencedbyotherCaribbeanculturesandBlackculturesintheUnitedStates.50Theelementsofcompulsionandinequalitysocentraltoculturalcontactaccordingtothecolonialistframeworkplaynoroleinthiskindofconvergenceofraciallyandethnicallydifferentelementsofthesamesocialclass. 49YetboththePuertoRicanandNorthAmericantraditionshavebeensubjecttoconstantchallengefromculturalforceswithintheirownsocietiesforcesthatmaymovetowardeachotherinwaysthatcannotbewrittenoffasmereassimilation.
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Inwhatwayisethicssimilartolanguageuse
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 9
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 15
September11th2001drewthetransatlanticalliancetogether;butthemooddidnotlastandoverthefiveyearssinceithaspulledeverfurtherapart.ArecentpollfortheGermanMarshallFundshowsthat57%ofEuropeansregardAmericanleadershipinworldaffairsas"undesirable".TheIraqwarismainlytoblame.Butthereisanotherandmoreintractablereasonforthegrowingdivision:God. EuropeansworrythatAmericanforeignpolicyunderGeorgeBushistooinfluencedbyreligion.The"holywarriors"whohijackedtheplanesonSeptember11threintroducedGodintointernationalaffairsinthemostdramaticofways.ItseemsthatGeorgeBushisreplyinginkindencouragingaclashofreligionsthatcouldspellglobalcatastrophe. DominiqueMoisiaspecialadviserattheFrenchInstituteforInternationalRelationsarguesthat"thecombinationofreligionandnationalisminAmericaisfrightening.WefeelbetrayedbyGodandbynationalismwhichiswhywearebuildingtheEuropeanUnionasabarriertoreligiouswarfare."JosefBramloftheGermanInstituteforInternationalandSecurityAffairscomplainsthatinAmerica"religiousattitudeshavemoreofaninfluenceonpoliticalchoicesthaninanyotherwesterndemocracy." ThenotionthatAmericaistooinfluencedbyreligionisnotconfinedtotheelites. ThreeinfiveFrenchpeopleandnearlyasmanyDutchthinkthatAmericansaretooreligious—andthatreligionskewswhatshouldbeseculardecisions.EuropeanswhothinkthatAmericais"tooreligious"aremoreinclinedtoanti-Americanismthantheirfellowcountrymen.38%ofBritonshaveanunfavourableviewofAmericabutthatnumberrisesto50%amongpeoplewhoarewaryofAmericanreligiosity. IsAmericaengagedinafaith-basedforeignpolicyReligioncertainlyexertsagrowinginfluenceonitsactionsintheworldbutinwaysmoresubtleandcomplicatedthanEuropeansimagine.ItistruethatAmericaisundergoingareligiousrevival"Hot"religionssuchasevangelicalProtestantismandhardlineCatholicismaregrowingrapidlywhile"cool"mainlineversionsofChristianityaredeclining.ItisalsotruethattheRepublicanPartyisbeingreshapedbythisrevival.Self-identifiedevangelicalsprovidedalmost40%ofMr.Bush’svotein2004;ifyouaddinothertheologicalconservativessuchasMormonsandtraditionalCatholicsthatnumberrisescloserto60%.AllsixtopRepublicanleadersintheSenatehaveearned100%ratingsfromtheChristianCoalition. ItisalsotruethatMr.Bushfrequentlyusesreligiousrhetoricwhentalkingofforeignaffairs.OnSeptember12thhewasatitagaintellingagroupofconservativejournaliststhatheseesthewaronterroras"aconfrontationbetweengoodandevil"andremarking"Itseemstomethatthere’saThirdAwakening"inotherwordsanoutbreakofChristianevangelicalfervourofthesortthathassweptacrossAmericaatleasttwicebefore.AndChristianAmericaoverallistakingabiggerinterestinforeignpolicy.NewvoicesarebeingheardSuchasSamBrownbackaconservativesenatorfromKansaswhohasledthefightagainstgenocideinDarfurandRickWarrentheauthorofabestsellercalledThePurpose-DrivenLifewhoissending2000missionariestoRwanda. Finallyitistruethatreligiousfigureshavedonesomeprettyoutrageousthings.PatRobertsoncalledfortheassassinationofHugoChavezthepresidentofVenezuela.Lieu-tenant-GeneralWilliam"Jerry"Boykindeputyunder-secretaryofdefenceforintelligencetouredthecountrytellingChristiangroupsthatradicalMuslimshateAmerica"becausewe’reaChristiannationandtheenemyisaguynamedSatan".Heoftenworeuniform. Theviewmentionedinthethirdparagraphatleastprevailamong
WhenDr.JohnW.GofmanprofessorofmedicalphysicsattheUniversityofCaliforniaandaleadingnuclearcriticspeaksof"ecocide"inhisadversaryviewofnucleartechnologyhemeansthefollowing:AlargenuclearplantlikethatinKalkartheNetherlandswouldproduceabout200poundsofplutoniumeachyear.Onepoundreleasedintotheatmospherecouldcause9billioncasesoflungcancer.Thiswasteproductmustbestoredfor500000yearsbeforeitisofnofurtherdangertoman.Intheanticipatedreactoreconomyitisestimatedthattherewillbe10000tonsofthismaterialinWesternEuropeofwhichonetable-spoonfulofplutonium-239representstheofficialmaximumpermissiblebodyburdenfor200000people.Ratherthanbeingbiodegradableplutoniumdestroysbiologicalproperties. In1972theU.S.OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministrationruledthattheasbestoslevelintheworkplaceshouldbeloweredto2fiberspercubiccentimeterofairbuttheeffectivedateoftherulinghasbeendelayeduntilnow.TheInternationalFederationofChemicalandGeneralWorkers’Unionsreportthatthe2-fiberstandardwasbasedprimarilyononestudyof290menataBritishasbestosfactory.ButwhentheworkersattheBritishfactoryhadbeenreexaminedbyanotherphysician40--70percenthadX-rayevidenceoflungabnormalities.Accordingtopresentmedicalinformationatthefactoryinquestionoutofatotalof29deathsthusfarsevenwerecausedbylungcancer.AnaverageEuropeanorAmericanworkercomesintocontactwithsixmillionfibersaday."Wearenowinfactfindingcancerdeathswithinthefamilyoftheasbestosworker"statesDr.IrvingSelikoffoftheMountSinaiMedicalSchoolinNewYork. Itisnowalsoclearthatvinylchlorideagasfromwhichthemostwidelyusedplasticsaremadecausesafatalcanceroftheblood-vesselcellsoftheliver.Howeverthehistoryoftheresearchonvinylchlorideisinsomewaysmoredisturbingthanthe"Watergatecover-up.""Therehasbeenevidenceofpotentiallyseriousdiseaseamongpolyvinylchlorideworkersfor25yearsthathasbeenincompletelyappreciatedandinadequatelyapproachedbymedicalscientistsandbyregulatoryauthorities"summedupDr.SelikoffintheNewScientist.Atleast17workershavebeenkilledbyvinylchloridebecauseresearchoverthepast25yearswasnotfollowedup.Andforover10yearsworkershavebeenexposedtoconcentrationsofvinylchloride10timesthe"safelimit"imposedbyDowChemicalCompany.422words Notes:plutonium钚asbestos石棉polyvinylchloride聚氯乙烯 Thestyleofthesecondparagraphismainly
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 5
Thedaywasstar-crossed:Fridaythe13thinthemonthofOctoberontheeveofthesecondloominganniversaryofadevastatingmarketcrash."I’mtellingyoupsychologyisreallyfunny.Peoplegetcrazyinsituationslikethat"saidportfoliostrategistElaineGarzarelli.LastweekFridaythe13thliveduptoitsfrightfulreputation.AfterdriftingloweratasleepypaceformostofthedaytheDowJonesindustrialaverageabruptlylurchedintoahair-raisingskydiveinthefinalhouroftrading. TheBushAdministrationmovedswiftlytoavertanysenseofcrisisafterthemarketclosed.DeclaredTreasurySecretaryNicholasBrady:"It’simportanttorecognizethattoday’sstockmarketdeclinedoesn’tsignalanyfundamentalchangeintheconditionoftheeconomy.Theeconomyremainswellbalancedandtheoutlookisforcontinuedmoderategrowth."ButMassachusettsDemocratEdwardMarkeywhochairsaHousesubcommitteeontelecommunicationsandfinancevowedtoholdhearingsthisweekonthestockmarketslide.Saidhe:"Thisisthesecondheartattack.Myhopeisthatbeforewehavetheinevitablethirdheartattackwepayattentiontotheseproblems." Expertsfoundnoshortageofculpritstoblameforthelatestshipwreck.AseriesofdownbeatrealizationsconvergedonFridayrangingfromsignsofanewburstofinflationtosaggingcorporateprofitstotroublesinthejunk-bondmarketthathasfueledmajortakeovers.Thesingulareventthatshookinvestorswasthefalteringofa$6.75billionlabormanagementbuyoutofUALtheparentcompanyofUnitedAirlinesthesecondlargestU.S.carrier. OnonepointmostthoughtfulWallStreetersagreed:themarkethadreachedsuchdizzyingheightsthatacorrectionofsomesortseemedalmostinevitable.Propelledbyfavorableeconomicnewsandawaveofmultibillion-dollartakeoversstockshadsoaredmorethan1000pointssincethe1987crash.ButbylastAugustsomeWallstreeterswereclearlyworried. TheheaviestblowtothemarketcameFridayafternoon.Inathree-paragraphstatementUALsaidalabor-managementgroupheadedbyChairmanStephenWolfhadfailedtogetenoughfinancingtoacquireUnited.Severalbankshadapparentlybalkedatthedealwhichwastobepartlyfinancedthroughjunkbonds.Thetake-overgroupsaiditwouldsubmitarevisedbid"inthenearterm’buttheannouncementstunnedinvestorswhohadcometoviewtheUniteddealasthelatestsurethinginthe1980sbuyoutbinge.SaidJohnDowneyatraderattheChicagoBoardOptionsExchange:"Theairlinestockshavelookedlikeattractivetakeovertargets.ButwiththeUniteddealintroubleeveryonestartedtowonderwhatotherdealsmightnotgothrough. Whatdoesthewritersayofthestockmarketdecline
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas. Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.“Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequity”Wendyexplains.It’sgreatif“corpsmembers”asTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks. Butthe“alums”asshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.“Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.” AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.Ithasitsownlanguage“corpsmembers”“alums”recruitsareinstilled“Wetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccess”gothroughanordeal“Everyonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroom”emergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledge“Onceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthings”andcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.Butcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccess ChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopena“green”charterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey. Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.“Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybad”onetellsme.“Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.” WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutTFA’scorpsmembersandalums
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 7
Agreatmanyarticlesandbooksdiscussingenvironmentalandresourceproblemsbeginwiththepropositionthatthereisanenvironmentalandresourcecrisis.Ifthismeansthatthesituationofhumanityisworsenowthaninthepastthentheideaofacrisis-andallthatfollowsfromit-isdeadwrong.Inalmosteveryrespectimportanttohumanitythetrendshavebeenimprovingnotdeteriorating. Ourworldnowsupports5.6billionpeople.Inthenineteenthcenturytheearthcouldsustainonly1billion.And10000yearsagoonly1millionpeoplecouldkeepthemselvesalive.Peoplearenowlivingmorehealthilythaneverbefore. Onewouldexpectloversofhumanity-peoplewhohatewarandworryaboutfamineinAfrica-tojumpwithjoyatthisextraordinarytriumphofthehumanmindandhumanorganizationovertherawforcesofnature.41．______ Itisamazingbuttruethataresourceshortageresultingfrompopulationorincomegrowthusuallyleavesusbetteroffthaniftheshortagehadneverarisen.42．______ Thepricesoffoodmetalsandotherrawmaterialshavebeendecliningbyeverymeasuresincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyandasfarbackasweknow;thatisrawmaterialshavebeengettinglessscarcethroughouthistorydefyingthecommonsensenotionthatifonebeginswithaninventoryofaresourceandusessomeuptherewillbelessleft.Thisisdespiteandindirectlybecauseofincreasingpopulation.43．______ Alsowedonotsaythatabetterfuturehappensautomaticallyorwithouteffort.44．______ Weareconfidentthatthenatureofthephysicalworldpermitscontinuedimprovementinhumankind’seconomiclotinthelongrunindefinitely.Ofcoursetherearealwaysnewlyarisinglocalproblemsshortagesandpollutionresultingfromclimateorincreasedpopulationandincomeandnewtechnologies.Sometimestemporarylarge-scaleproblemsarise.45．______Thatisthegreatlessontobelearnedfromhumanhistory. [A]Iffirewoodhadnotbecomescarceinseventeenth-centuryEnglandcoalwouldnothavebeendeveloped.Ifcoalandwhaleoilshortageshadn’tloomedoilwellswouldnothavebeendug. [B]Buttheworld’sphysicalconditionsandtheresiliencepowerofrecoveringquicklyofawell-functioningeconomicandsocialsystemenableustoovercomesuchproblemsandthesolutionsusuallyleaveusbetteroffthaniftheproblemhadneverarisen. [C]Therecentextraordinarydecreaseinthedeathrate-tomymindthegreatestmiracleinhistory-accountsforthebumpercropofhumanity.Inthelast200yearslifeexpectancyintheadvancedcountriesjumpedfromthemid-30’sto70’s. [D]Insteadtheylamentfeelsorrowforthattherearesomanyhumanbeingsandwringtheirhandsindicatedespairabouttheproblemsthatmorepeopleinevitablybringandtheproblemthatresourceswillbefurtherdiminished. [E]Itwillhappenbecausemenandwomen--sometimesasindividualssometimesasenterprisesworkingforprofitsometimesasvoluntarynonprofitgroupsandsometimesasgovernmentalagencies-willaddressproblemswithmuscleandmindandwillprobablyovercomeashasbeenusualthroughhistory. [F]Statisticstudiesshowthatpopulationgrowthdoesn’tleadtoslowereconomicgrowththoughthisdefiescommonsense.Norishighpopulationdensityadragoneconomicdevelopment. [G]Wedon’tsaythatalliswelleverywhereandwedon’tpredictthatallwillberosyinthefuture.Childrenarehungryandsick;peopleliveoutlivesofphysicalorintellectualpovertyandlackofopportunity;warorsomeotherpollutionmaydousin. 41
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Itisimpliedinthepassagethatarelativisticviewofethnics
Agreatmanyarticlesandbooksdiscussingenvironmentalandresourceproblemsbeginwiththepropositionthatthereisanenvironmentalandresourcecrisis.Ifthismeansthatthesituationofhumanityisworsenowthaninthepastthentheideaofacrisis-andallthatfollowsfromit-isdeadwrong.Inalmosteveryrespectimportanttohumanitythetrendshavebeenimprovingnotdeteriorating. Ourworldnowsupports5.6billionpeople.Inthenineteenthcenturytheearthcouldsustainonly1billion.And10000yearsagoonly1millionpeoplecouldkeepthemselvesalive.Peoplearenowlivingmorehealthilythaneverbefore. Onewouldexpectloversofhumanity-peoplewhohatewarandworryaboutfamineinAfrica-tojumpwithjoyatthisextraordinarytriumphofthehumanmindandhumanorganizationovertherawforcesofnature.41．______ Itisamazingbuttruethataresourceshortageresultingfrompopulationorincomegrowthusuallyleavesusbetteroffthaniftheshortagehadneverarisen.42．______ Thepricesoffoodmetalsandotherrawmaterialshavebeendecliningbyeverymeasuresincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyandasfarbackasweknow;thatisrawmaterialshavebeengettinglessscarcethroughouthistorydefyingthecommonsensenotionthatifonebeginswithaninventoryofaresourceandusessomeuptherewillbelessleft.Thisisdespiteandindirectlybecauseofincreasingpopulation.43．______ Alsowedonotsaythatabetterfuturehappensautomaticallyorwithouteffort.44．______ Weareconfidentthatthenatureofthephysicalworldpermitscontinuedimprovementinhumankind’seconomiclotinthelongrunindefinitely.Ofcoursetherearealwaysnewlyarisinglocalproblemsshortagesandpollutionresultingfromclimateorincreasedpopulationandincomeandnewtechnologies.Sometimestemporarylarge-scaleproblemsarise.45．______Thatisthegreatlessontobelearnedfromhumanhistory. [A]Iffirewoodhadnotbecomescarceinseventeenth-centuryEnglandcoalwouldnothavebeendeveloped.Ifcoalandwhaleoilshortageshadn’tloomedoilwellswouldnothavebeendug. [B]Buttheworld’sphysicalconditionsandtheresiliencepowerofrecoveringquicklyofawell-functioningeconomicandsocialsystemenableustoovercomesuchproblemsandthesolutionsusuallyleaveusbetteroffthaniftheproblemhadneverarisen. [C]Therecentextraordinarydecreaseinthedeathrate-tomymindthegreatestmiracleinhistory-accountsforthebumpercropofhumanity.Inthelast200yearslifeexpectancyintheadvancedcountriesjumpedfromthemid-30’sto70’s. [D]Insteadtheylamentfeelsorrowforthattherearesomanyhumanbeingsandwringtheirhandsindicatedespairabouttheproblemsthatmorepeopleinevitablybringandtheproblemthatresourceswillbefurtherdiminished. [E]Itwillhappenbecausemenandwomen--sometimesasindividualssometimesasenterprisesworkingforprofitsometimesasvoluntarynonprofitgroupsandsometimesasgovernmentalagencies-willaddressproblemswithmuscleandmindandwillprobablyovercomeashasbeenusualthroughhistory. [F]Statisticstudiesshowthatpopulationgrowthdoesn’tleadtoslowereconomicgrowththoughthisdefiescommonsense.Norishighpopulationdensityadragoneconomicdevelopment. [G]Wedon’tsaythatalliswelleverywhereandwedon’tpredictthatallwillberosyinthefuture.Childrenarehungryandsick;peopleliveoutlivesofphysicalorintellectualpovertyandlackofopportunity;warorsomeotherpollutionmaydousin. 43
WhenDr.JohnW.GofmanprofessorofmedicalphysicsattheUniversityofCaliforniaandaleadingnuclearcriticspeaksof"ecocide"inhisadversaryviewofnucleartechnologyhemeansthefollowing:AlargenuclearplantlikethatinKalkartheNetherlandswouldproduceabout200poundsofplutoniumeachyear.Onepoundreleasedintotheatmospherecouldcause9billioncasesoflungcancer.Thiswasteproductmustbestoredfor500000yearsbeforeitisofnofurtherdangertoman.Intheanticipatedreactoreconomyitisestimatedthattherewillbe10000tonsofthismaterialinWesternEuropeofwhichonetable-spoonfulofplutonium-239representstheofficialmaximumpermissiblebodyburdenfor200000people.Ratherthanbeingbiodegradableplutoniumdestroysbiologicalproperties. In1972theU.S.OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministrationruledthattheasbestoslevelintheworkplaceshouldbeloweredto2fiberspercubiccentimeterofairbuttheeffectivedateoftherulinghasbeendelayeduntilnow.TheInternationalFederationofChemicalandGeneralWorkers’Unionsreportthatthe2-fiberstandardwasbasedprimarilyononestudyof290menataBritishasbestosfactory.ButwhentheworkersattheBritishfactoryhadbeenreexaminedbyanotherphysician40--70percenthadX-rayevidenceoflungabnormalities.Accordingtopresentmedicalinformationatthefactoryinquestionoutofatotalof29deathsthusfarsevenwerecausedbylungcancer.AnaverageEuropeanorAmericanworkercomesintocontactwithsixmillionfibersaday."Wearenowinfactfindingcancerdeathswithinthefamilyoftheasbestosworker"statesDr.IrvingSelikoffoftheMountSinaiMedicalSchoolinNewYork. Itisnowalsoclearthatvinylchlorideagasfromwhichthemostwidelyusedplasticsaremadecausesafatalcanceroftheblood-vesselcellsoftheliver.Howeverthehistoryoftheresearchonvinylchlorideisinsomewaysmoredisturbingthanthe"Watergatecover-up.""Therehasbeenevidenceofpotentiallyseriousdiseaseamongpolyvinylchlorideworkersfor25yearsthathasbeenincompletelyappreciatedandinadequatelyapproachedbymedicalscientistsandbyregulatoryauthorities"summedupDr.SelikoffintheNewScientist.Atleast17workershavebeenkilledbyvinylchloridebecauseresearchoverthepast25yearswasnotfollowedup.Andforover10yearsworkershavebeenexposedtoconcentrationsofvinylchloride10timesthe"safelimit"imposedbyDowChemicalCompany.422words Notes:plutonium钚asbestos石棉polyvinylchloride聚氯乙烯 Itcanbeinferredfromthetextthattheauthorbelievesthat
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas. Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.“Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequity”Wendyexplains.It’sgreatif“corpsmembers”asTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks. Butthe“alums”asshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.“Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.” AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.Ithasitsownlanguage“corpsmembers”“alums”recruitsareinstilled“Wetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccess”gothroughanordeal“Everyonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroom”emergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledge“Onceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthings”andcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.Butcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccess ChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopena“green”charterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey. Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.“Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybad”onetellsme.“Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.” TFAteachers
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 1
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFictioninattemptingtoapplyliteraryratherthansociopoliticalcriteriatoitssubjectsuccessfullyalterstheapproachtakenbymostpreviousstudies.AsRosenblattnotescriticismofBlackwritinghasoftenservedasapretextforexpoundingonBlackhistory.AddisonGayle’srecentworkforexamplejudgesthevalueofBlackFictionbyovertlypoliticalstandardsratingeachworkaccordingtothenotionsofBlackidentitywhichitpropounds. Althoughfictionassuredlyspringsfrompoliticalcircumstancesitsauthorsreacttothosecircumstancesinwaysotherthanideologicalandtalkingaboutnovelsandstoriesprimarilyasinstrumentsofideologycircumventsmuchofthefictionalenterprise.Rosenblatt’sliteraryanalysisdisclosesaffinitiesandconnectionsamongworksofBlackFictionwhichsolelypoliticalstudieshaveoverlookedorignored. WritingacceptablecriticismofBlackFictionhoweverpresupposesgivingsatisfactoryanswerstoanumberofquestions.FirstofallisthereasufficientreasonotherthantheracialidentityoftheauthorstogrouptogetherworksbyBlackauthorsSecondhowdoesBlackFictionmakeitselfdistinctfromothermodemfictionwithwhichitislargelycontemporaneousRosenblattshowsthatBlackFictionconstitutesadistinctbodyofwritingthathasanidentifiablecoherentliterarytradition.LookingatnovelswrittenbyBlackoverthelasteightyyearshediscoversrecurringconcernsanddesignsindependentofchronology.ThesestructuresarethematicandtheyspringnotsurprisinglyfromthecentralfactthattheBlackcharactersinthesenovelsexistinapredominantlywhiteculturewhethertheytrytoconformtothatcultureorrebelagainstit. BlackFictiondoesleavesomeaestheticquestionsopen.Rosenblatt’sthematicanalysispermitsconsiderableobjectivity;heevenexplicitlystatesthatitisnothisintentiontojudgethemeritofthevariousworks--yethisreluctanceseemsmisplacedespeciallysinceanattempttoappraisemighthaveledtointerestingresults.Forinstancesomeofthenovelsappeartobestructurallydiffuse.IsthisadefectoraretheauthorsworkingoutofortryingtoforgeadifferentkindofaestheticInadditionthestyleofsomeBlacknovelslikeJeanToomer’sCanevergesonexpressionismorsurrealism;doesthistechniqueprovideacounterpointtotheprevalentthemethatportraysthefateagainstwhichBlackheroesarepittedathemeusuallyconveyedbymorenaturalisticmodesofexpression InspiteofsuchomissionswhatRosenblattdoesincludeinhisdiscussionmakesforanastuteandworthwhilestudy.BlackFictionsurveysawidevarietyofnovelsbringingtoourattentionintheprocesssomefascinatingandlittle-knownworkslikeJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredMan.Itsargumentistightlyconstructedanditsforthrightlucidstyleexemplifieslevelheadedandpenetratingcriticism. TheauthorofthetextbelievesthatBlackFictionwouldhavebeenimprovedhadRosenblatt
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 11
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 3
Directions: ZhangLiisaclassmateofyours.Hesufferedfromaseriousillness.Writealetterto 1callonthestudentstohelpZhangLiand 2tellthemhowtohelpZhangLi. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdon’thavetowritetheaddress.
DiscussionoftheassimilationofPuertoRicans波多黎各人intheUnitedStateshasfocusedontwofactors:socialstandingandthelossofnationalculture.IngeneralexcessivestressisplacedononefactorortheotherdependingonwhetherthecommentatorisNorthAmericanorPuertoRican.ManyNorthAmericansocialscientistssuchasOscarHandlinJosephFitzpatrickandOscarLewisconsiderPuertoRicansasthemostrecentinalonglineofethnicentrantstooccupythelowestrungonthesocialladder.46Sucha"sociodemographic"approachtendstoregardassimilationasabenignprocesstakingforgrantedincreasedeconomicadvantageandinevitableculturalintegrationinasupposedlyegalitariancontext.HoweverthisapproachfailstotakeintoaccountthecolonialnatureofthePuertoRicancasewiththisgroupunliketheirEuropeanpredecessorscomingfromanationpoliticallysubordinatedtotheUnitedStates.47Eventhe"radical"critiquesofthismainstreamresearchmodelsuchasthecritiquedevelopedinDividedSocietyattachtheissueofethnicassimilationtoomechanicallytofactorsofeconomicandsocialmobilityandarethusunabletoilluminatetheculturalsubordinationofPuertoRicansasacolonialminority. Incontrastthe"colonialist"approachofislandbasedwriterssuchasEduardoSeda-BonillaManuelMaldonado-DenisandLuisNieves-Falcontendstoviewassimilationastheforcedlossofnationalcultureinanunequalcontestwithimposedforeignvalues.ThereisofcourseastrongtraditionofculturalaccommodationamongotherPuertoRicanthinkers.ThewritingsofEugenioFernandezMendezclearlyexemplifythistraditionandmanysupportersofPuertoRico’scommonwealthstatussharethesameuniversalizingorientation.48ButthePuertoRicanintellectualswhohavewrittenmostabouttheassimilationprocessintheUnitedStatesalladvanceculturalnationalistviewsadvocatingthepreservationofminorityculturaldistinctionsandrejectingwhattheyseeasthesubmissionofcolonialnationalities. ThisculturalandpoliticalemphasisisappropriatebutthecolonialistthinkersmisdirectitoverlookingtheclassrelationsatworkinbothPuertoRicanandNorthAmericanhistory.Theyposetheclashofnationalculturesasanabsolutepolaritywitheachcultureunderstoodasstaticandundifferentiated.49YetboththePuertoRicanandNorthAmericantraditionshavebeensubjecttoconstantchallengefromculturalforceswithintheirownsocietiesforcesthatmaymovetowardeachotherinwaysthatcannotbewrittenoffasmere"assimilation."ConsiderforexampletheindigenousandAfro-CaribbeantraditionsinPuertoRicancultureandhowtheyinfluenceandareinfluencedbyotherCaribbeanculturesandBlackculturesintheUnitedStates.50Theelementsofcompulsionandinequalitysocentraltoculturalcontactaccordingtothecolonialistframeworkplaynoroleinthiskindofconvergenceofraciallyandethnicallydifferentelementsofthesamesocialclass. 47EventheradicalcritiquesofthismainstreamresearchmodelsuchasthecritiquedevelopedinDividedSocietyattachtheissueofethnicassimilationtoomechanicallytofactorsofeconomicandsocialmobilityandarethusunabletoilluminatetheculturalsubordinationofPuertoRicansasacolonialminority.
Thedaywasstar-crossed:Fridaythe13thinthemonthofOctoberontheeveofthesecondloominganniversaryofadevastatingmarketcrash."I’mtellingyoupsychologyisreallyfunny.Peoplegetcrazyinsituationslikethat"saidportfoliostrategistElaineGarzarelli.LastweekFridaythe13thliveduptoitsfrightfulreputation.AfterdriftingloweratasleepypaceformostofthedaytheDowJonesindustrialaverageabruptlylurchedintoahair-raisingskydiveinthefinalhouroftrading. TheBushAdministrationmovedswiftlytoavertanysenseofcrisisafterthemarketclosed.DeclaredTreasurySecretaryNicholasBrady:"It’simportanttorecognizethattoday’sstockmarketdeclinedoesn’tsignalanyfundamentalchangeintheconditionoftheeconomy.Theeconomyremainswellbalancedandtheoutlookisforcontinuedmoderategrowth."ButMassachusettsDemocratEdwardMarkeywhochairsaHousesubcommitteeontelecommunicationsandfinancevowedtoholdhearingsthisweekonthestockmarketslide.Saidhe:"Thisisthesecondheartattack.Myhopeisthatbeforewehavetheinevitablethirdheartattackwepayattentiontotheseproblems." Expertsfoundnoshortageofculpritstoblameforthelatestshipwreck.AseriesofdownbeatrealizationsconvergedonFridayrangingfromsignsofanewburstofinflationtosaggingcorporateprofitstotroublesinthejunk-bondmarketthathasfueledmajortakeovers.Thesingulareventthatshookinvestorswasthefalteringofa$6.75billionlabormanagementbuyoutofUALtheparentcompanyofUnitedAirlinesthesecondlargestU.S.carrier. OnonepointmostthoughtfulWallStreetersagreed:themarkethadreachedsuchdizzyingheightsthatacorrectionofsomesortseemedalmostinevitable.Propelledbyfavorableeconomicnewsandawaveofmultibillion-dollartakeoversstockshadsoaredmorethan1000pointssincethe1987crash.ButbylastAugustsomeWallstreeterswereclearlyworried. TheheaviestblowtothemarketcameFridayafternoon.Inathree-paragraphstatementUALsaidalabor-managementgroupheadedbyChairmanStephenWolfhadfailedtogetenoughfinancingtoacquireUnited.Severalbankshadapparentlybalkedatthedealwhichwastobepartlyfinancedthroughjunkbonds.Thetake-overgroupsaiditwouldsubmitarevisedbid"inthenearterm’buttheannouncementstunnedinvestorswhohadcometoviewtheUniteddealasthelatestsurethinginthe1980sbuyoutbinge.SaidJohnDowneyatraderattheChicagoBoardOptionsExchange:"Theairlinestockshavelookedlikeattractivetakeovertargets.ButwiththeUniteddealintroubleeveryonestartedtowonderwhatotherdealsmightnotgothrough. WhenmentioningthelatestshipwreckPara.3theauthoristalkingabout
Thedaywasstar-crossed:Fridaythe13thinthemonthofOctoberontheeveofthesecondloominganniversaryofadevastatingmarketcrash."I’mtellingyoupsychologyisreallyfunny.Peoplegetcrazyinsituationslikethat"saidportfoliostrategistElaineGarzarelli.LastweekFridaythe13thliveduptoitsfrightfulreputation.AfterdriftingloweratasleepypaceformostofthedaytheDowJonesindustrialaverageabruptlylurchedintoahair-raisingskydiveinthefinalhouroftrading. TheBushAdministrationmovedswiftlytoavertanysenseofcrisisafterthemarketclosed.DeclaredTreasurySecretaryNicholasBrady:"It’simportanttorecognizethattoday’sstockmarketdeclinedoesn’tsignalanyfundamentalchangeintheconditionoftheeconomy.Theeconomyremainswellbalancedandtheoutlookisforcontinuedmoderategrowth."ButMassachusettsDemocratEdwardMarkeywhochairsaHousesubcommitteeontelecommunicationsandfinancevowedtoholdhearingsthisweekonthestockmarketslide.Saidhe:"Thisisthesecondheartattack.Myhopeisthatbeforewehavetheinevitablethirdheartattackwepayattentiontotheseproblems." Expertsfoundnoshortageofculpritstoblameforthelatestshipwreck.AseriesofdownbeatrealizationsconvergedonFridayrangingfromsignsofanewburstofinflationtosaggingcorporateprofitstotroublesinthejunk-bondmarketthathasfueledmajortakeovers.Thesingulareventthatshookinvestorswasthefalteringofa$6.75billionlabormanagementbuyoutofUALtheparentcompanyofUnitedAirlinesthesecondlargestU.S.carrier. OnonepointmostthoughtfulWallStreetersagreed:themarkethadreachedsuchdizzyingheightsthatacorrectionofsomesortseemedalmostinevitable.Propelledbyfavorableeconomicnewsandawaveofmultibillion-dollartakeoversstockshadsoaredmorethan1000pointssincethe1987crash.ButbylastAugustsomeWallstreeterswereclearlyworried. TheheaviestblowtothemarketcameFridayafternoon.Inathree-paragraphstatementUALsaidalabor-managementgroupheadedbyChairmanStephenWolfhadfailedtogetenoughfinancingtoacquireUnited.Severalbankshadapparentlybalkedatthedealwhichwastobepartlyfinancedthroughjunkbonds.Thetake-overgroupsaiditwouldsubmitarevisedbid"inthenearterm’buttheannouncementstunnedinvestorswhohadcometoviewtheUniteddealasthelatestsurethinginthe1980sbuyoutbinge.SaidJohnDowneyatraderattheChicagoBoardOptionsExchange:"Theairlinestockshavelookedlikeattractivetakeovertargets.ButwiththeUniteddealintroubleeveryonestartedtowonderwhatotherdealsmightnotgothrough./ Thetoneofthewriterasreflectedinthefirstsentenceis
WhenDr.JohnW.GofmanprofessorofmedicalphysicsattheUniversityofCaliforniaandaleadingnuclearcriticspeaksof"ecocide"inhisadversaryviewofnucleartechnologyhemeansthefollowing:AlargenuclearplantlikethatinKalkartheNetherlandswouldproduceabout200poundsofplutoniumeachyear.Onepoundreleasedintotheatmospherecouldcause9billioncasesoflungcancer.Thiswasteproductmustbestoredfor500000yearsbeforeitisofnofurtherdangertoman.Intheanticipatedreactoreconomyitisestimatedthattherewillbe10000tonsofthismaterialinWesternEuropeofwhichonetable-spoonfulofplutonium-239representstheofficialmaximumpermissiblebodyburdenfor200000people.Ratherthanbeingbiodegradableplutoniumdestroysbiologicalproperties. In1972theU.S.OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministrationruledthattheasbestoslevelintheworkplaceshouldbeloweredto2fiberspercubiccentimeterofairbuttheeffectivedateoftherulinghasbeendelayeduntilnow.TheInternationalFederationofChemicalandGeneralWorkers’Unionsreportthatthe2-fiberstandardwasbasedprimarilyononestudyof290menataBritishasbestosfactory.ButwhentheworkersattheBritishfactoryhadbeenreexaminedbyanotherphysician40--70percenthadX-rayevidenceoflungabnormalities.Accordingtopresentmedicalinformationatthefactoryinquestionoutofatotalof29deathsthusfarsevenwerecausedbylungcancer.AnaverageEuropeanorAmericanworkercomesintocontactwithsixmillionfibersaday."Wearenowinfactfindingcancerdeathswithinthefamilyoftheasbestosworker"statesDr.IrvingSelikoffoftheMountSinaiMedicalSchoolinNewYork. Itisnowalsoclearthatvinylchlorideagasfromwhichthemostwidelyusedplasticsaremadecausesafatalcanceroftheblood-vesselcellsoftheliver.Howeverthehistoryoftheresearchonvinylchlorideisinsomewaysmoredisturbingthanthe"Watergatecover-up.""Therehasbeenevidenceofpotentiallyseriousdiseaseamongpolyvinylchlorideworkersfor25yearsthathasbeenincompletelyappreciatedandinadequatelyapproachedbymedicalscientistsandbyregulatoryauthorities"summedupDr.SelikoffintheNewScientist.Atleast17workershavebeenkilledbyvinylchloridebecauseresearchoverthepast25yearswasnotfollowedup.Andforover10yearsworkershavebeenexposedtoconcentrationsofvinylchloride10timesthe"safelimit"imposedbyDowChemicalCompany.422words Notes:plutonium钚asbestos石棉polyvinylchloride聚氯乙烯 Byecocidetheauthormostprobablymeans
September11th2001drewthetransatlanticalliancetogether;butthemooddidnotlastandoverthefiveyearssinceithaspulledeverfurtherapart.ArecentpollfortheGermanMarshallFundshowsthat57%ofEuropeansregardAmericanleadershipinworldaffairsas"undesirable".TheIraqwarismainlytoblame.Butthereisanotherandmoreintractablereasonforthegrowingdivision:God. EuropeansworrythatAmericanforeignpolicyunderGeorgeBushistooinfluencedbyreligion.The"holywarriors"whohijackedtheplanesonSeptember11threintroducedGodintointernationalaffairsinthemostdramaticofways.ItseemsthatGeorgeBushisreplyinginkindencouragingaclashofreligionsthatcouldspellglobalcatastrophe. DominiqueMoisiaspecialadviserattheFrenchInstituteforInternationalRelationsarguesthat"thecombinationofreligionandnationalisminAmericaisfrightening.WefeelbetrayedbyGodandbynationalismwhichiswhywearebuildingtheEuropeanUnionasabarriertoreligiouswarfare."JosefBramloftheGermanInstituteforInternationalandSecurityAffairscomplainsthatinAmerica"religiousattitudeshavemoreofaninfluenceonpoliticalchoicesthaninanyotherwesterndemocracy." ThenotionthatAmericaistooinfluencedbyreligionisnotconfinedtotheelites. ThreeinfiveFrenchpeopleandnearlyasmanyDutchthinkthatAmericansaretooreligious—andthatreligionskewswhatshouldbeseculardecisions.EuropeanswhothinkthatAmericais"tooreligious"aremoreinclinedtoanti-Americanismthantheirfellowcountrymen.38%ofBritonshaveanunfavourableviewofAmericabutthatnumberrisesto50%amongpeoplewhoarewaryofAmericanreligiosity. IsAmericaengagedinafaith-basedforeignpolicyReligioncertainlyexertsagrowinginfluenceonitsactionsintheworldbutinwaysmoresubtleandcomplicatedthanEuropeansimagine.ItistruethatAmericaisundergoingareligiousrevival"Hot"religionssuchasevangelicalProtestantismandhardlineCatholicismaregrowingrapidlywhile"cool"mainlineversionsofChristianityaredeclining.ItisalsotruethattheRepublicanPartyisbeingreshapedbythisrevival.Self-identifiedevangelicalsprovidedalmost40%ofMr.Bush’svotein2004;ifyouaddinothertheologicalconservativessuchasMormonsandtraditionalCatholicsthatnumberrisescloserto60%.AllsixtopRepublicanleadersintheSenatehaveearned100%ratingsfromtheChristianCoalition. ItisalsotruethatMr.Bushfrequentlyusesreligiousrhetoricwhentalkingofforeignaffairs.OnSeptember12thhewasatitagaintellingagroupofconservativejournaliststhatheseesthewaronterroras"aconfrontationbetweengoodandevil"andremarking"Itseemstomethatthere’saThirdAwakening"inotherwordsanoutbreakofChristianevangelicalfervourofthesortthathassweptacrossAmericaatleasttwicebefore.AndChristianAmericaoverallistakingabiggerinterestinforeignpolicy.NewvoicesarebeingheardSuchasSamBrownbackaconservativesenatorfromKansaswhohasledthefightagainstgenocideinDarfurandRickWarrentheauthorofabestsellercalledThePurpose-DrivenLifewhoissending2000missionariestoRwanda. Finallyitistruethatreligiousfigureshavedonesomeprettyoutrageousthings.PatRobertsoncalledfortheassassinationofHugoChavezthepresidentofVenezuela.Lieu-tenant-GeneralWilliam"Jerry"Boykindeputyunder-secretaryofdefenceforintelligencetouredthecountrytellingChristiangroupsthatradicalMuslimshateAmerica"becausewe’reaChristiannationandtheenemyisaguynamedSatan".Heoftenworeuniform. Theauthorevidenceshisownnotionbyadvancing
Agreatmanyarticlesandbooksdiscussingenvironmentalandresourceproblemsbeginwiththepropositionthatthereisanenvironmentalandresourcecrisis.Ifthismeansthatthesituationofhumanityisworsenowthaninthepastthentheideaofacrisis-andallthatfollowsfromit-isdeadwrong.Inalmosteveryrespectimportanttohumanitythetrendshavebeenimprovingnotdeteriorating. Ourworldnowsupports5.6billionpeople.Inthenineteenthcenturytheearthcouldsustainonly1billion.And10000yearsagoonly1millionpeoplecouldkeepthemselvesalive.Peoplearenowlivingmorehealthilythaneverbefore. Onewouldexpectloversofhumanity-peoplewhohatewarandworryaboutfamineinAfrica-tojumpwithjoyatthisextraordinarytriumphofthehumanmindandhumanorganizationovertherawforcesofnature.41．______ Itisamazingbuttruethataresourceshortageresultingfrompopulationorincomegrowthusuallyleavesusbetteroffthaniftheshortagehadneverarisen.42．______ Thepricesoffoodmetalsandotherrawmaterialshavebeendecliningbyeverymeasuresincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyandasfarbackasweknow;thatisrawmaterialshavebeengettinglessscarcethroughouthistorydefyingthecommonsensenotionthatifonebeginswithaninventoryofaresourceandusessomeuptherewillbelessleft.Thisisdespiteandindirectlybecauseofincreasingpopulation.43．______ Alsowedonotsaythatabetterfuturehappensautomaticallyorwithouteffort.44．______ Weareconfidentthatthenatureofthephysicalworldpermitscontinuedimprovementinhumankind’seconomiclotinthelongrunindefinitely.Ofcoursetherearealwaysnewlyarisinglocalproblemsshortagesandpollutionresultingfromclimateorincreasedpopulationandincomeandnewtechnologies.Sometimestemporarylarge-scaleproblemsarise.45．______Thatisthegreatlessontobelearnedfromhumanhistory. [A]Iffirewoodhadnotbecomescarceinseventeenth-centuryEnglandcoalwouldnothavebeendeveloped.Ifcoalandwhaleoilshortageshadn’tloomedoilwellswouldnothavebeendug. [B]Buttheworld’sphysicalconditionsandtheresiliencepowerofrecoveringquicklyofawell-functioningeconomicandsocialsystemenableustoovercomesuchproblemsandthesolutionsusuallyleaveusbetteroffthaniftheproblemhadneverarisen. [C]Therecentextraordinarydecreaseinthedeathrate-tomymindthegreatestmiracleinhistory-accountsforthebumpercropofhumanity.Inthelast200yearslifeexpectancyintheadvancedcountriesjumpedfromthemid-30’sto70’s. [D]Insteadtheylamentfeelsorrowforthattherearesomanyhumanbeingsandwringtheirhandsindicatedespairabouttheproblemsthatmorepeopleinevitablybringandtheproblemthatresourceswillbefurtherdiminished. [E]Itwillhappenbecausemenandwomen--sometimesasindividualssometimesasenterprisesworkingforprofitsometimesasvoluntarynonprofitgroupsandsometimesasgovernmentalagencies-willaddressproblemswithmuscleandmindandwillprobablyovercomeashasbeenusualthroughhistory. [F]Statisticstudiesshowthatpopulationgrowthdoesn’tleadtoslowereconomicgrowththoughthisdefiescommonsense.Norishighpopulationdensityadragoneconomicdevelopment. [G]Wedon’tsaythatalliswelleverywhereandwedon’tpredictthatallwillberosyinthefuture.Childrenarehungryandsick;peopleliveoutlivesofphysicalorintellectualpovertyandlackofopportunity;warorsomeotherpollutionmaydousin. 45
The"standardofliving"ofanycountrymeanstheaverageperson’sshareofthegoodsandserviceswhichthecountryproduces.Acountry’sstandardofliving1dependsfirstand2onitscapacitytoproducewealth."Wealth"inthissenseisnotmoneyforwedonotliveonmoney3onthingsthatmoneycanbuy."Goods"suchasfoodandclothingand"services"suchastransportand"4".Acountry’scapacitytoproducewealthdependsuponmanyfactorsmostof5haveaneffectononeanother.Wealthdepends6agreatextentuponacountry’snaturalresources.Someregionsoftheworldarewellsuppliedwithcoalandmineralsandhaveafertilesoilanda7climate;otherregionspossessnoneofthem. Nexttonaturalresources8theabilitytoturnthemtouse.Chinaisperhapsaswell9astheUSAinnaturalresourcesbutsufferedformanyyearsfromciviland10warsand11thisandotherreasonswas12todevelopherresources.13andstablepoliticalconditionsand14fromforeigninvasionenableacountrytodevelopitsnaturalresourcespeacefullyandsteadilyandtoproducemorewealththananothercountryequallywell15bynaturebutlesswellordered. Acountry’sstandardoflivingdoesnotonlydependuponthewealththatisproducedandconsumed16itsownbordersbutalsouponwhatisindirectlyproducedthroughinternationaltrade.17Britain’swealthinfoodstuffsandotheragriculturalproductswouldbemuchlessifshehadtodependonlyon18grownathome.Trademakesitpossibleforhersurplusmanufacturedgoodstobetradedabroadfortheagriculturalproductsthatwould19belacking.Acountry’swealthisthereforemuchinfluencedbyitsmanufacturingcapacity20thatothercountriescanbefoundreadytoacceptitsmanufactures. 19
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFictioninattemptingtoapplyliteraryratherthansociopoliticalcriteriatoitssubjectsuccessfullyalterstheapproachtakenbymostpreviousstudies.AsRosenblattnotescriticismofBlackwritinghasoftenservedasapretextforexpoundingonBlackhistory.AddisonGayle’srecentworkforexamplejudgesthevalueofBlackFictionbyovertlypoliticalstandardsratingeachworkaccordingtothenotionsofBlackidentitywhichitpropounds. Althoughfictionassuredlyspringsfrompoliticalcircumstancesitsauthorsreacttothosecircumstancesinwaysotherthanideologicalandtalkingaboutnovelsandstoriesprimarilyasinstrumentsofideologycircumventsmuchofthefictionalenterprise.Rosenblatt’sliteraryanalysisdisclosesaffinitiesandconnectionsamongworksofBlackFictionwhichsolelypoliticalstudieshaveoverlookedorignored. WritingacceptablecriticismofBlackFictionhoweverpresupposesgivingsatisfactoryanswerstoanumberofquestions.FirstofallisthereasufficientreasonotherthantheracialidentityoftheauthorstogrouptogetherworksbyBlackauthorsSecondhowdoesBlackFictionmakeitselfdistinctfromothermodemfictionwithwhichitislargelycontemporaneousRosenblattshowsthatBlackFictionconstitutesadistinctbodyofwritingthathasanidentifiablecoherentliterarytradition.LookingatnovelswrittenbyBlackoverthelasteightyyearshediscoversrecurringconcernsanddesignsindependentofchronology.ThesestructuresarethematicandtheyspringnotsurprisinglyfromthecentralfactthattheBlackcharactersinthesenovelsexistinapredominantlywhiteculturewhethertheytrytoconformtothatcultureorrebelagainstit. BlackFictiondoesleavesomeaestheticquestionsopen.Rosenblatt’sthematicanalysispermitsconsiderableobjectivity;heevenexplicitlystatesthatitisnothisintentiontojudgethemeritofthevariousworks--yethisreluctanceseemsmisplacedespeciallysinceanattempttoappraisemighthaveledtointerestingresults.Forinstancesomeofthenovelsappeartobestructurallydiffuse.IsthisadefectoraretheauthorsworkingoutofortryingtoforgeadifferentkindofaestheticInadditionthestyleofsomeBlacknovelslikeJeanToomer’sCanevergesonexpressionismorsurrealism;doesthistechniqueprovideacounterpointtotheprevalentthemethatportraysthefateagainstwhichBlackheroesarepittedathemeusuallyconveyedbymorenaturalisticmodesofexpression InspiteofsuchomissionswhatRosenblattdoesincludeinhisdiscussionmakesforanastuteandworthwhilestudy.BlackFictionsurveysawidevarietyofnovelsbringingtoourattentionintheprocesssomefascinatingandlittle-knownworkslikeJamesWeldonJohnson’sAutobiographyofanEx-ColoredMan.Itsargumentistightlyconstructedanditsforthrightlucidstyleexemplifieslevelheadedandpenetratingcriticism. TheauthorofthetextemploysallofthefollowinginthediscussionofRosenblatt’sbookEXCEPT
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