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There1notonetypeofreadingbutseveralaccordingtoyourreasonsforreading.Toreadefficientlyyouhaveto2yourreadingspeedandtechnique3youraim4reading.Skimmingisatechniquenecessaryforquickandefficientreading. Whenskimmingyou5thereading6quicklyinordertogetthe7ofittoknowhowitisorganized8anideaofthetoneortheintentionofthewriter.Skimmingis9anactivitywhich10anoverallviewofthetextand11adefinitereadingcompetence. Skimmingdoesn’tneedreadingallthematerialbutitdoesn’tmeanthatitisan12skillforthelazybecauseitneedahighdegreeofalertnessandconcentration. Whenyoureadyouusuallystartwith13understandingandmovetowardsdetailedunderstandingratherthanworkingtheotherwayround.But14isalsousedafteryouhavealreadycarefullystudiedandyouneedto15themajorideasandconcepts. Inordertobeabletoskimquicklyand16throughatextyoushouldknowwheretoto6kforwhatyouwant.Inpreviewskimmingyoureadtheintroductoryinformationtheheadingsandsubheadingsandthesummaryifoneisprovided.17thisskimmingdecidewhethertoreadthematerialmorethoroughlyandselecttheappropriatespeed18toread. Thesameprocedure19forpreviewskimmingcouldalsobeusedtogetanoverview.Anothermethodwouldbetoreadonlykeywords.Thisisdonebyomittingtheunnecessarywordsphrasesandsentences. Inordertoskimefficientlyandfulfillyourpurpose20practiceisnecessary. 11
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 11
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 17
There1notonetypeofreadingbutseveralaccordingtoyourreasonsforreading.Toreadefficientlyyouhaveto2yourreadingspeedandtechnique3youraim4reading.Skimmingisatechniquenecessaryforquickandefficientreading. Whenskimmingyou5thereading6quicklyinordertogetthe7ofittoknowhowitisorganized8anideaofthetoneortheintentionofthewriter.Skimmingis9anactivitywhich10anoverallviewofthetextand11adefinitereadingcompetence. Skimmingdoesn’tneedreadingallthematerialbutitdoesn’tmeanthatitisan12skillforthelazybecauseitneedahighdegreeofalertnessandconcentration. Whenyoureadyouusuallystartwith13understandingandmovetowardsdetailedunderstandingratherthanworkingtheotherwayround.But14isalsousedafteryouhavealreadycarefullystudiedandyouneedto15themajorideasandconcepts. Inordertobeabletoskimquicklyand16throughatextyoushouldknowwheretoto6kforwhatyouwant.Inpreviewskimmingyoureadtheintroductoryinformationtheheadingsandsubheadingsandthesummaryifoneisprovided.17thisskimmingdecidewhethertoreadthematerialmorethoroughlyandselecttheappropriatespeed18toread. Thesameprocedure19forpreviewskimmingcouldalsobeusedtogetanoverview.Anothermethodwouldbetoreadonlykeywords.Thisisdonebyomittingtheunnecessarywordsphrasesandsentences. Inordertoskimefficientlyandfulfillyourpurpose20practiceisnecessary. 13
Text2 Emergingfromthe1950censusisthepictureofanationdevelopingmoreandmoreregionalcompetitionaspopulationgrowthintheNortheastandMidwestreachesanearstandstill. Thisdevelopment-anditsstrongimplicationsforUSpoliticsandeconomyinyearsahead-hasenthronedtheSouthasAmerica’smostdenselypopulatedregionforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofthenation’sheadcounting. AltogethertheUSpopulationroseinthe1970sby23.2millionpeople-numericallythethirdlargestgrowtheverrecordedinasingledecade.Evensothatgainaddsuptoonly11.4percentlowestinAmericanannualrecordsexceptfortheDepressionyears. AmericanshavebeenmigratingsouthandwestinlargernumbersinceWorldWarⅡandthepatternstillprevails. Threesunbeltstates--FloridaTexasandCalifornia--togetherhadnearly10millionmorepeoplein1980thanadecadeearlier.AmonglargecitiesSanDiegomovedfrom14thto8thandSanAntoniofrom15thto10th-withClevelandandWashingtonD.C.droppingoutofthetop10. Notallthatshiftcanbeattributedtothemovementoutofthesnowbeltcensusofficialssay"Nonstopwavesofimmigrantsplayedaroletoo--andsodidbiggercropsofbabiesasyesterday’s’babyboom’generationreacheditschildbearingyears." Moreoverdemographersseethecontinuingshiftsouthandwestasjoinedbyarelatedbutnewerphenomenon:MoreandmoreAmericansapparentlyarelookingnotjustforplaceswithmorejobsbutwithfewerpeopletoo.Someinstances. RegionallytheRockyMountainStatesreportedthemostrapidgrowthrate--37.1percentsince1970inavastareawithonly5percentoftheUSpopulation. AmongstatesNevadaandArizonagrewfastestofall:63.5and53.1percentrespectively.ExceptforFloridaandTexasthetop10inrateofgrowthiscomposedofWesternstateswith7.5millionpeople--about9persquaremile. Theflightfromovercrowdednessaffects’themigrationfromSnowBelttomorebearableclimates. Nowheredo1950censusstatisticsdramatizemoretheAmericansearchforspaciouslivingthanintheFarWest.ThereCaliforniaadded3.7milliontoitspopulationinthe1970smorethananyotherstate. InthatdecadehoweverlargenumbersalsomigratedfromCaliforniamostlytootherpartsoftheWest.Oftentheychose--andstillarechoosing--somewhatcolderclimatessuchasOregonIdahoandAlaskainordertoescapesmogcrimeandotherplaguesofurbanizationintheGoldenState. AsaresultCalifornia’sgrowthratedroppedduringthe1970sto18.5percent--littlemorethantwo-thirdsthe1960SgrowthfigureandconsiderablybelowthatofotherWesternstates. Wecanseefromtheavailablestatisticsthat
Text3 DuringthewholeofadulldarkandsoundlessdayintheautumnoftheyearwhenthecloudshungoppressivelylowintheheavenshadbeenpassingaloneonhorsebackthroughasingularlydrearytractofcountryandatlengthfoundmyselfastheshadesoftheeveningdrewonwithinviewofthemelancholyHouseofUsher.ThusEdgarAllanPoeopenedhisstoryofthefalloftheHouseofUsherin1839.Inthisbeautifullycraftedsentencehecapturedsomuchthatisessentialtothehorrorstory:darknessominoussolitudeforebodingcalmapprehensionanduncertaintyandadeepfeelingofmelancholythatcouldsoonturntofear. Manykindsoffictionareself–explanatory:mysteriesWesternslovestoriesspythrillersandsciencefictiondefinethemselvesbythetermsusedtonamethem.Thehorrorstoryislesseasilydefinedperhapsbecauseothertypesoffictionsooftenusethetrappingsofterrortoenhancetheirplots.CharlesDickensusedthevehicleofanold-fashionedghoststorytotellAChristmasCarolbutthatbookisnotahonorstory.NordoesaGrimmbrothersfairytalesuchasHansenandGratewithitschild-devouringwitchbelongtothegenre. Thenatureofthehorrorstoryis.bestindicatedbythetitleofthe1980stelevisionseriesTalesfromtheDarkSide.Humanbeingshavealwaysacknowledgedthatthereisevilintheworldandadarksidetohumannaturethatcannotbeexplainedexceptperhapsinreligiousterms.Thisevilmaybeimaginedashavinganalmostunlimitedpowertoinspireanxietyfeardreadandterrorinadditiontodoingactualphysicalandmentalharm. Inthetaleofhorrorquiteordinarypeopleareconfrontedbysomethingunknownandfearfulwhichcanbeneitherunderstoodnorexplainedinreasonableterms.Itistheemphasisontheunreasonablethatliesattheheartofhorrorstories.Thiskindofliteraturearoseinthe18thcenturyatthestartofamovementcalledRomanticism.Themovementwasareactionagainstarationalorderlyworldinwhichhumanitywasbasicallygoodandeverythingcouldbeexplainedscientifically.TheliterarytypethatinspiredthehorrorstoryisGothicfictiontalesofeviloftensetinsinistermedievalsurroundings.Thisoriginalkindofhorrorfictionhaspersistedtothepresent. Itisobviousthattheassumptionbehindhorrorstoriesisthat
YouShouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERRSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseWangLinginstead.10points
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 13
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 5
[A]Theninthe1970ssciencebegantoshowthatthenurture--onlyviewwasindeedtoosimplistic-whichtriggeredabacklashfromtheleft.WhenresearcherslikeRichardHerrnsteinandE.O.Wilsondemonstratedthatgenesdoplayasignificantroleinhumanintelligenceandbehaviorforexampletheywerevilifiedbymanyoftheircolleagues.Andjustafewyearsagoaconferencedesignedtoexplorethegeneticrootsofviolencehadtobecanceledinthefaceofwidespreadcondemnation. [B]Butifyouthinkthiscompromisehasstoppedtheargumentsthinkagain.Scientistsandphilosophersarestillgettingsteamedupovertheissuebutnowthey’refightingoverpercentagesoverhowmuchofhumancharacterisshapedbygenesandhowmuchbyenvironment.AndaccordingtoStevenPinkeraprofessorofpsychologyattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologywecontinuetogivefartoomuchcredittothelatter.InanewbookTheBlankSlate:TheModernDenialofHumanNatureVikingPinkerarguesthatignoranceprejudiceandpoliticalcorrectnesshavekeptscientistsandthepublicfromappreciatingthepowerofourgenes. [C]ThebacklashwasunderstandablesaysPinker.Onceyousuggestthathumannatureisinanywayhardwiredit’seasierfortheunscrupuloustowriteoffentiregroupsasgeneticallyinferior-astheNazisdidwithJewsPolesandGypsies.Ifhave-notsaregeneticallylackingindriveorintelligenceorambitionwhat’sthepointoffightingpoverty [D]Thatechoed20thcenturyliberalsocialtheory:violencecrimeandpovertywerenotthefaultoftheviolentthelawlessandthepoorbutofsociety.Improvelivingconditionsandyouwillcurdtheproblems.Thesenotionsofcourseflewinthefaceofeverythingconservativeshelddear--theideathatthelowerclasseswereinherentlystupidandlazyforexampleandthatrehabilitatinglawbreakerswasanexerciseinfutilitywhichmayhavebeenpartoftheirappeal. [E]AnyonewhohasreadPinker’searlierbookswillrightlyguessthathislatesteffortissimilarlysweepingeruditesharplyarguedrichlyfootnotedandfuntoread.It’salsohighlypersuasive.TheviewthatenvironmentisparamountbeganhesayswiththephilosophersoftheEnlightenment:JohnLockeJean-JacquesRousseauReneDescartesandJohnStuartMill.Anditwasreinforcedinthe1950sbyHarvardpsychologistB.F.Skinnerwhosaidthatallhumanbehaviorwassimplyasetofconditionedresponses. [F]Inoneimportantsensetheargumentovernatureandnurturehasbeenresolved.Forcenturiesthenaturecampsaidthatpersonalitiesarebornnotmadethatourcharacterisprettymuchformedbythetimewepopoutofthewomb.Thenurturepeoplecounteredwiththemetaphorofthetabularasa:ourmindstartsoutasablankslateandit’showwearerearedthatdetermineswhatgetswrittenonit.Modernsciencethough--especiallyourfast-growingunderstandingofthehumangenome--makesitclearthatbothsidesarepartlyright.Natureendowsuswithinbornabilitiesandpersonalitytraits;nurturetakestheserawmaterialsandmoldsthemaswelearnandmature. [G]PlentysaysPinker.Compassionandaltruismwhichhethinksalsoareatleastpartlyhardwiredaregoodreasonstomakelifebetterforthosewhostartoutatadisadvantage.AndwhilePinkeralsoadmitsalbeitinalessstridentvoicethatenvironmentplaysasignificantpartinhowweturnoutheinsistsit’sjustnotthewholestoryandourgeneswhichhaven’tgotenoughrespectdoplaysignificantroles. 41
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 15
Text1 ThesubjectofmystudyisawomanwhoisinitiatingsocialchangeinasmallregioninTexas.ThewomenareMexicanAmericanswhoareorweremigrantagriculturalworkers.ThereismorethanonekindofinnovationatworkintheregionofcoursebutIhavechosentofocusonthreerelatedpatternsoffamilybehavior. ThepatternIlifestylerepresentshowmigrantfarmworkersofallnationalitieslivedinthepastandhowmanycontinuetolive.ItreatthispatternasabaselinewithwhichtocomparethechangesrepresentedbypatternIIandIII.FamiliesinpatternIworkandtravelinextendedkinunitswiththeeldestmaleoccupyingthepositionofauthority.Familiesarelarge7EightorninechildrenarenotunusualAndallmembersareeconomiccontributorsinthisstrategyoffamilymigration.FamiliesinpatternIImanifestsomedifferencesinbehaviorwhilestillmaintainingaspectsofpatternI.Theycontinuetomigratebutonareducedscaleoftenmodifyingtheirschedulesofmigrationtoallowchildrentofinishtheschoolyear.Parentsinthispatternoftenfindtemporarylocaljobsascheckerstomakeupforlostfarmingincome.PatternⅡfamiliesusuallyhavefewerchildrenthandopatternⅠfamilies. ThegreatestamountofchangefrompatternIhoweverisinpatternIIIfamilieswhonolongermigrateatall.Bothparentsworkfulltimeintheareaandhaveanaverageofthreechildren.Childrenattendschoolfortheentireyear.InpatternⅢthewomeninparticularcreatenewrolesforthemselvesforwhichnolocalmodelsexist.Theynotonlyworkfulltimebutmayinadditionreturntoschool.Theyalsoassumeagreaterresponsibilityinfamilydecisionsthandowomenintheotherpatterns.Althoughthesewomenareintheminorityamongresidentsoftheregiontheyserveasrolemodelsforotherscausingmoderatechangestospreadintheircommunities. Nowopportunitieshavecontinuedtobedeterminedbypre-existingvalues.Whenfederaljobsbecameavailableintheregionmostinvolvedworkingunderthedirectionoffemaleprofessionalssuchasteachersornurses.Suchpositionswereunacceptedtomanymenintheareabecausetheywerenotaccustomedtobeingsubordinatetowomen.Womenthereforetookthejobsatfirstbecausetheincomewasdesperatelyneeded.Butsomeofthewomendecidedtostayattheirjobsatfirstafterthefamily’sdistress.wasover.Thesewomenenjoyedtheirworkitsresponsibilityandthecompanionshipoffellowwomenworkers.Thesteadyrelativelyhighincomeallowedtheirfamiliestostopmigrating.Andasthebenefitstothesewomenbecameincreasinglyapparenttheyandtheirfamiliesbecameevenmorewillingtoconsiderchangesintheirlivesthattheywouldnothaveconsideredbefore. haveanaverageofthreechildren.
There1notonetypeofreadingbutseveralaccordingtoyourreasonsforreading.Toreadefficientlyyouhaveto2yourreadingspeedandtechnique3youraim4reading.Skimmingisatechniquenecessaryforquickandefficientreading. Whenskimmingyou5thereading6quicklyinordertogetthe7ofittoknowhowitisorganized8anideaofthetoneortheintentionofthewriter.Skimmingis9anactivitywhich10anoverallviewofthetextand11adefinitereadingcompetence. Skimmingdoesn’tneedreadingallthematerialbutitdoesn’tmeanthatitisan12skillforthelazybecauseitneedahighdegreeofalertnessandconcentration. Whenyoureadyouusuallystartwith13understandingandmovetowardsdetailedunderstandingratherthanworkingtheotherwayround.But14isalsousedafteryouhavealreadycarefullystudiedandyouneedto15themajorideasandconcepts. Inordertobeabletoskimquicklyand16throughatextyoushouldknowwheretoto6kforwhatyouwant.Inpreviewskimmingyoureadtheintroductoryinformationtheheadingsandsubheadingsandthesummaryifoneisprovided.17thisskimmingdecidewhethertoreadthematerialmorethoroughlyandselecttheappropriatespeed18toread. Thesameprocedure19forpreviewskimmingcouldalsobeusedtogetanoverview.Anothermethodwouldbetoreadonlykeywords.Thisisdonebyomittingtheunnecessarywordsphrasesandsentences. Inordertoskimefficientlyandfulfillyourpurpose20practiceisnecessary. 17
Text3 DuringthewholeofadulldarkandsoundlessdayintheautumnoftheyearwhenthecloudshungoppressivelylowintheheavenshadbeenpassingaloneonhorsebackthroughasingularlydrearytractofcountryandatlengthfoundmyselfastheshadesoftheeveningdrewonwithinviewofthemelancholyHouseofUsher.ThusEdgarAllanPoeopenedhisstoryofthefalloftheHouseofUsherin1839.Inthisbeautifullycraftedsentencehecapturedsomuchthatisessentialtothehorrorstory:darknessominoussolitudeforebodingcalmapprehensionanduncertaintyandadeepfeelingofmelancholythatcouldsoonturntofear. Manykindsoffictionareself–explanatory:mysteriesWesternslovestoriesspythrillersandsciencefictiondefinethemselvesbythetermsusedtonamethem.Thehorrorstoryislesseasilydefinedperhapsbecauseothertypesoffictionsooftenusethetrappingsofterrortoenhancetheirplots.CharlesDickensusedthevehicleofanold-fashionedghoststorytotellAChristmasCarolbutthatbookisnotahonorstory.NordoesaGrimmbrothersfairytalesuchasHansenandGratewithitschild-devouringwitchbelongtothegenre. Thenatureofthehorrorstoryis.bestindicatedbythetitleofthe1980stelevisionseriesTalesfromtheDarkSide.Humanbeingshavealwaysacknowledgedthatthereisevilintheworldandadarksidetohumannaturethatcannotbeexplainedexceptperhapsinreligiousterms.Thisevilmaybeimaginedashavinganalmostunlimitedpowertoinspireanxietyfeardreadandterrorinadditiontodoingactualphysicalandmentalharm. Inthetaleofhorrorquiteordinarypeopleareconfrontedbysomethingunknownandfearfulwhichcanbeneitherunderstoodnorexplainedinreasonableterms.Itistheemphasisontheunreasonablethatliesattheheartofhorrorstories.Thiskindofliteraturearoseinthe18thcenturyatthestartofamovementcalledRomanticism.Themovementwasareactionagainstarationalorderlyworldinwhichhumanitywasbasicallygoodandeverythingcouldbeexplainedscientifically.TheliterarytypethatinspiredthehorrorstoryisGothicfictiontalesofeviloftensetinsinistermedievalsurroundings.Thisoriginalkindofhorrorfictionhaspersistedtothepresent. Thehorrorstoriesarebasedon
Text1 ThesubjectofmystudyisawomanwhoisinitiatingsocialchangeinasmallregioninTexas.ThewomenareMexicanAmericanswhoareorweremigrantagriculturalworkers.ThereismorethanonekindofinnovationatworkintheregionofcoursebutIhavechosentofocusonthreerelatedpatternsoffamilybehavior. ThepatternIlifestylerepresentshowmigrantfarmworkersofallnationalitieslivedinthepastandhowmanycontinuetolive.ItreatthispatternasabaselinewithwhichtocomparethechangesrepresentedbypatternIIandIII.FamiliesinpatternIworkandtravelinextendedkinunitswiththeeldestmaleoccupyingthepositionofauthority.Familiesarelarge7EightorninechildrenarenotunusualAndallmembersareeconomiccontributorsinthisstrategyoffamilymigration.FamiliesinpatternIImanifestsomedifferencesinbehaviorwhilestillmaintainingaspectsofpatternI.Theycontinuetomigratebutonareducedscaleoftenmodifyingtheirschedulesofmigrationtoallowchildrentofinishtheschoolyear.Parentsinthispatternoftenfindtemporarylocaljobsascheckerstomakeupforlostfarmingincome.PatternⅡfamiliesusuallyhavefewerchildrenthandopatternⅠfamilies. ThegreatestamountofchangefrompatternIhoweverisinpatternIIIfamilieswhonolongermigrateatall.Bothparentsworkfulltimeintheareaandhaveanaverageofthreechildren.Childrenattendschoolfortheentireyear.InpatternⅢthewomeninparticularcreatenewrolesforthemselvesforwhichnolocalmodelsexist.Theynotonlyworkfulltimebutmayinadditionreturntoschool.Theyalsoassumeagreaterresponsibilityinfamilydecisionsthandowomenintheotherpatterns.Althoughthesewomenareintheminorityamongresidentsoftheregiontheyserveasrolemodelsforotherscausingmoderatechangestospreadintheircommunities. Nowopportunitieshavecontinuedtobedeterminedbypre-existingvalues.Whenfederaljobsbecameavailableintheregionmostinvolvedworkingunderthedirectionoffemaleprofessionalssuchasteachersornurses.Suchpositionswereunacceptedtomanymenintheareabecausetheywerenotaccustomedtobeingsubordinatetowomen.Womenthereforetookthejobsatfirstbecausetheincomewasdesperatelyneeded.Butsomeofthewomendecidedtostayattheirjobsatfirstafterthefamily’sdistress.wasover.Thesewomenenjoyedtheirworkitsresponsibilityandthecompanionshipoffellowwomenworkers.Thesteadyrelativelyhighincomeallowedtheirfamiliestostopmigrating.Andasthebenefitstothesewomenbecameincreasinglyapparenttheyandtheirfamiliesbecameevenmorewillingtoconsiderchangesintheirlivesthattheywouldnothaveconsideredbefore. Whichofthefollowingtitlesbestreflectsthemainfocusofthepassage
TheReaderhaslongbeentheblacksheepoftheEFLclassroom.TeacherseitherignoreReadersorneglectandabusethemfailingtorecognizetheirlearningpotential~Thereasonforthiscannolongerbelaidatthedoorofthepublishers.Nowadaysavastrangeofmaterialisproducedsuitableforallinterestsagerangesandabilitylevels.Itismoreprobablytheattitudeoftheteacherandthusthestudentwhichisresponsible.AreanyofthefollowingclosetoyourownattitudeorfamiliartoyoufromconversationswithcolleaguesReadersareanexpensiveluxury.Theschoolcannotaffordthem.Otherthingsmustcomefirst. 46Iamtryingtogetthroughafairlydensesyllabustoequipmystudentsultimatelyforexaminations;Icannotsparethetimeforfrills.Readingforpleasureisaprivateandpersonalthing.!cannotseehowthiscanbeusedintheEFLclassroom.47IunderstandthatextensivereadingforpleasurecanonlyimprovelanguagebutIhavenowayofcheckingthatlearninghastakenplaceotherthancomprehensionquestions.Theseactivitiesreducethepleasure. TheaboveareexplanationsexcusesreasonsandjustificationsfromteacherstalkingaboutthescantuseofReadersintheclassroom.Theircommentsillustratethreeviewsprevalentatpresent.48FirstthatteachersfeelthattimesparedforReaderswillinsomewaydeprivetheirstudentsofcertainkeylanguageskillsandabilities.Secondthoseteachersarefosteringorevenpanderingtostudents’reluctancetoreadforpleasure.49FinallythoseteachersareunawareofhowtouseandexploitReadersintheirclassroomsandthereforeprovidealimitedrangeofactivitieswhichinturnlimitstheresponsesoftheirstudents.50IfteacherstakeReadersintoclassroomwithanyoneoracombinationoftheaboveattitudesthiswillbeimpartedtothestudentswhowillthenalsobelievethatReadersarepreventingthemfromdoingsomethingmoreimportantandareawasteofvaluablelearningtime.Theyreadonlytoenablethemtoansweracomprehensiontask. Itisuptotheteachertoconvincethereluctantreaderthatreadingeitherextensiveorintensiveispleasurable.Onlyoneofmanywaysofobtainingpleasureistobeabletoanswertheteachers’comprehensioncheckquestionsthefollowingday.Theworldofreadingwillremainandstillbeasinaccessibleasevertothestudent. 49
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 3
Text3 DuringthewholeofadulldarkandsoundlessdayintheautumnoftheyearwhenthecloudshungoppressivelylowintheheavenshadbeenpassingaloneonhorsebackthroughasingularlydrearytractofcountryandatlengthfoundmyselfastheshadesoftheeveningdrewonwithinviewofthemelancholyHouseofUsher.ThusEdgarAllanPoeopenedhisstoryofthefalloftheHouseofUsherin1839.Inthisbeautifullycraftedsentencehecapturedsomuchthatisessentialtothehorrorstory:darknessominoussolitudeforebodingcalmapprehensionanduncertaintyandadeepfeelingofmelancholythatcouldsoonturntofear. Manykindsoffictionareself–explanatory:mysteriesWesternslovestoriesspythrillersandsciencefictiondefinethemselvesbythetermsusedtonamethem.Thehorrorstoryislesseasilydefinedperhapsbecauseothertypesoffictionsooftenusethetrappingsofterrortoenhancetheirplots.CharlesDickensusedthevehicleofanold-fashionedghoststorytotellAChristmasCarolbutthatbookisnotahonorstory.NordoesaGrimmbrothersfairytalesuchasHansenandGratewithitschild-devouringwitchbelongtothegenre. Thenatureofthehorrorstoryis.bestindicatedbythetitleofthe1980stelevisionseriesTalesfromtheDarkSide.Humanbeingshavealwaysacknowledgedthatthereisevilintheworldandadarksidetohumannaturethatcannotbeexplainedexceptperhapsinreligiousterms.Thisevilmaybeimaginedashavinganalmostunlimitedpowertoinspireanxietyfeardreadandterrorinadditiontodoingactualphysicalandmentalharm. Inthetaleofhorrorquiteordinarypeopleareconfrontedbysomethingunknownandfearfulwhichcanbeneitherunderstoodnorexplainedinreasonableterms.Itistheemphasisontheunreasonablethatliesattheheartofhorrorstories.Thiskindofliteraturearoseinthe18thcenturyatthestartofamovementcalledRomanticism.Themovementwasareactionagainstarationalorderlyworldinwhichhumanitywasbasicallygoodandeverythingcouldbeexplainedscientifically.TheliterarytypethatinspiredthehorrorstoryisGothicfictiontalesofeviloftensetinsinistermedievalsurroundings.Thisoriginalkindofhorrorfictionhaspersistedtothepresent. InhisnovelEdgarAllenPoe
Text2 Emergingfromthe1950censusisthepictureofanationdevelopingmoreandmoreregionalcompetitionaspopulationgrowthintheNortheastandMidwestreachesanearstandstill. Thisdevelopment-anditsstrongimplicationsforUSpoliticsandeconomyinyearsahead-hasenthronedtheSouthasAmerica’smostdenselypopulatedregionforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofthenation’sheadcounting. AltogethertheUSpopulationroseinthe1970sby23.2millionpeople-numericallythethirdlargestgrowtheverrecordedinasingledecade.Evensothatgainaddsuptoonly11.4percentlowestinAmericanannualrecordsexceptfortheDepressionyears. AmericanshavebeenmigratingsouthandwestinlargernumbersinceWorldWarⅡandthepatternstillprevails. Threesunbeltstates--FloridaTexasandCalifornia--togetherhadnearly10millionmorepeoplein1980thanadecadeearlier.AmonglargecitiesSanDiegomovedfrom14thto8thandSanAntoniofrom15thto10th-withClevelandandWashingtonD.C.droppingoutofthetop10. Notallthatshiftcanbeattributedtothemovementoutofthesnowbeltcensusofficialssay"Nonstopwavesofimmigrantsplayedaroletoo--andsodidbiggercropsofbabiesasyesterday’s’babyboom’generationreacheditschildbearingyears." Moreoverdemographersseethecontinuingshiftsouthandwestasjoinedbyarelatedbutnewerphenomenon:MoreandmoreAmericansapparentlyarelookingnotjustforplaceswithmorejobsbutwithfewerpeopletoo.Someinstances. RegionallytheRockyMountainStatesreportedthemostrapidgrowthrate--37.1percentsince1970inavastareawithonly5percentoftheUSpopulation. AmongstatesNevadaandArizonagrewfastestofall:63.5and53.1percentrespectively.ExceptforFloridaandTexasthetop10inrateofgrowthiscomposedofWesternstateswith7.5millionpeople--about9persquaremile. Theflightfromovercrowdednessaffects’themigrationfromSnowBelttomorebearableclimates. Nowheredo1950censusstatisticsdramatizemoretheAmericansearchforspaciouslivingthanintheFarWest.ThereCaliforniaadded3.7milliontoitspopulationinthe1970smorethananyotherstate. InthatdecadehoweverlargenumbersalsomigratedfromCaliforniamostlytootherpartsoftheWest.Oftentheychose--andstillarechoosing--somewhatcolderclimatessuchasOregonIdahoandAlaskainordertoescapesmogcrimeandotherplaguesofurbanizationintheGoldenState. AsaresultCalifornia’sgrowthratedroppedduringthe1970sto18.5percent--littlemorethantwo-thirdsthe1960SgrowthfigureandconsiderablybelowthatofotherWesternstates. Thecensusdistinguisheditselffrompreviousstudiesonpopulationmovementinthat
Text4 Thetraditionaldistinctionbetweenproductsthatsatisfyneedsandthosethatsatisfywantsisnolongeradequatetodescribeclassesofproducts.Intoday’sprosperoussocietiesthedistinctionhasbecomeblurredbecausesomanywantshavebeenturnedintoneeds.Awriterforinstancecanworkwithpaperandpencils.Thesearelegitimateneedsforthetask.Buttheworkcanbedonemorequicklyandefficientlywithawordprocessor.Thusacomputerissoonviewedasaneedratherthanawant. Inthefieldofmarketingconsumergoodsareclassedaccordingtothewayinwhichtheyarepurchased.Thetwomaincategoriesareconveniencegoodsandshoppinggoods.Twolessertypesarespecialtygoodsandunsoughtgoods.Itmustbeemphasizedthatallofthesetypesarebasedonthewayshoppersthinkaboutproductsnotonthenatureoftheproductsthemselves.WhatisregardedasaconvenienceiteminFrancewineforexamplemaybeaspecialtygoodsintheUnitedStates. Peopledonotspendagreatdealoftimeshoppingforsuchconvenienceitemsasgroceriesnewspaperstoothpasterazorbladesaspirinandcandy.Thebuyingofconveniencegoodsmaybedoneroutinelyassomefamiliesbuygroceriesonceaweek.Suchregularlypurchaseditemsarecalledstaples.Sometimesconvenienceproductsareboughtonimpulse:someonehasasuddendesireforanicecreamonahotday.Ortheymaybepurchasedasemergencyitems. Shoppinggoodsareitemsforwhichcustomerssearch.Theycomparepricesqualityandstylesandmayvisitanumberofstoresbeforemakingadecision.Buyinganautomobileisoftendonethisway. Shoppinggoodsfallintotwoclasses:thosethatareperceivedasbasicallythesameandthosethatareregardedasdifferent.Itemsthatarelookeduponasbasicallythesameincludesuchthingsashomeappliancestelevisionsetsandautomobiles.Havingdecidedonthemodeldesiredthecustomerisprimarilyinterestedingettingtheitematthemostfavorableprice.Itemsregardedasinherentlydifferentincludeclothingfurnitureanddishes.Qualitystyleandfashionwilleithertakeprecedenceoverpriceortheywillnotmatteratall. Specialtygoodshavecharacteristicsthatimpelcustomerstomakespecialeffortstofindthem.Pricemaybenoconsiderationatall.Specialtygoodscanincludealmostanykindofproduct.Normallyspecialtygoodshaveabrandnameorotherdistinguishingcharacteristics. Unsoughtgoodsareitemsaconsumerdoesnotnecessarilywantorneedormaynotevenknowabout.Promotionoradvertisingbringssuchgoodstotheconsumer’sattention.TheproductcouldbesomethingnewonthemarketastheSonyWalkmanoncewasoritmaybeafairlystandardservicesuchaslifeinsuranceforwhichmostpeoplewillusuallynotbothershopping. Awordprocessorcanbelookedonassatisfyinganeedratherthanawantif
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 7
[A]Theninthe1970ssciencebegantoshowthatthenurture--onlyviewwasindeedtoosimplistic-whichtriggeredabacklashfromtheleft.WhenresearcherslikeRichardHerrnsteinandE.O.Wilsondemonstratedthatgenesdoplayasignificantroleinhumanintelligenceandbehaviorforexampletheywerevilifiedbymanyoftheircolleagues.Andjustafewyearsagoaconferencedesignedtoexplorethegeneticrootsofviolencehadtobecanceledinthefaceofwidespreadcondemnation. [B]Butifyouthinkthiscompromisehasstoppedtheargumentsthinkagain.Scientistsandphilosophersarestillgettingsteamedupovertheissuebutnowthey’refightingoverpercentagesoverhowmuchofhumancharacterisshapedbygenesandhowmuchbyenvironment.AndaccordingtoStevenPinkeraprofessorofpsychologyattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologywecontinuetogivefartoomuchcredittothelatter.InanewbookTheBlankSlate:TheModernDenialofHumanNatureVikingPinkerarguesthatignoranceprejudiceandpoliticalcorrectnesshavekeptscientistsandthepublicfromappreciatingthepowerofourgenes. [C]ThebacklashwasunderstandablesaysPinker.Onceyousuggestthathumannatureisinanywayhardwiredit’seasierfortheunscrupuloustowriteoffentiregroupsasgeneticallyinferior-astheNazisdidwithJewsPolesandGypsies.Ifhave-notsaregeneticallylackingindriveorintelligenceorambitionwhat’sthepointoffightingpoverty [D]Thatechoed20thcenturyliberalsocialtheory:violencecrimeandpovertywerenotthefaultoftheviolentthelawlessandthepoorbutofsociety.Improvelivingconditionsandyouwillcurdtheproblems.Thesenotionsofcourseflewinthefaceofeverythingconservativeshelddear--theideathatthelowerclasseswereinherentlystupidandlazyforexampleandthatrehabilitatinglawbreakerswasanexerciseinfutilitywhichmayhavebeenpartoftheirappeal. [E]AnyonewhohasreadPinker’searlierbookswillrightlyguessthathislatesteffortissimilarlysweepingeruditesharplyarguedrichlyfootnotedandfuntoread.It’salsohighlypersuasive.TheviewthatenvironmentisparamountbeganhesayswiththephilosophersoftheEnlightenment:JohnLockeJean-JacquesRousseauReneDescartesandJohnStuartMill.Anditwasreinforcedinthe1950sbyHarvardpsychologistB.F.Skinnerwhosaidthatallhumanbehaviorwassimplyasetofconditionedresponses. [F]Inoneimportantsensetheargumentovernatureandnurturehasbeenresolved.Forcenturiesthenaturecampsaidthatpersonalitiesarebornnotmadethatourcharacterisprettymuchformedbythetimewepopoutofthewomb.Thenurturepeoplecounteredwiththemetaphorofthetabularasa:ourmindstartsoutasablankslateandit’showwearerearedthatdetermineswhatgetswrittenonit.Modernsciencethough--especiallyourfast-growingunderstandingofthehumangenome--makesitclearthatbothsidesarepartlyright.Natureendowsuswithinbornabilitiesandpersonalitytraits;nurturetakestheserawmaterialsandmoldsthemaswelearnandmature. [G]PlentysaysPinker.Compassionandaltruismwhichhethinksalsoareatleastpartlyhardwiredaregoodreasonstomakelifebetterforthosewhostartoutatadisadvantage.AndwhilePinkeralsoadmitsalbeitinalessstridentvoicethatenvironmentplaysasignificantpartinhowweturnoutheinsistsit’sjustnotthewholestoryandourgeneswhichhaven’tgotenoughrespectdoplaysignificantroles. 43
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 9
TheReaderhaslongbeentheblacksheepoftheEFLclassroom.TeacherseitherignoreReadersorneglectandabusethemfailingtorecognizetheirlearningpotential~Thereasonforthiscannolongerbelaidatthedoorofthepublishers.Nowadaysavastrangeofmaterialisproducedsuitableforallinterestsagerangesandabilitylevels.Itismoreprobablytheattitudeoftheteacherandthusthestudentwhichisresponsible.AreanyofthefollowingclosetoyourownattitudeorfamiliartoyoufromconversationswithcolleaguesReadersareanexpensiveluxury.Theschoolcannotaffordthem.Otherthingsmustcomefirst. 46Iamtryingtogetthroughafairlydensesyllabustoequipmystudentsultimatelyforexaminations;Icannotsparethetimeforfrills.Readingforpleasureisaprivateandpersonalthing.!cannotseehowthiscanbeusedintheEFLclassroom.47IunderstandthatextensivereadingforpleasurecanonlyimprovelanguagebutIhavenowayofcheckingthatlearninghastakenplaceotherthancomprehensionquestions.Theseactivitiesreducethepleasure. TheaboveareexplanationsexcusesreasonsandjustificationsfromteacherstalkingaboutthescantuseofReadersintheclassroom.Theircommentsillustratethreeviewsprevalentatpresent.48FirstthatteachersfeelthattimesparedforReaderswillinsomewaydeprivetheirstudentsofcertainkeylanguageskillsandabilities.Secondthoseteachersarefosteringorevenpanderingtostudents’reluctancetoreadforpleasure.49FinallythoseteachersareunawareofhowtouseandexploitReadersintheirclassroomsandthereforeprovidealimitedrangeofactivitieswhichinturnlimitstheresponsesoftheirstudents.50IfteacherstakeReadersintoclassroomwithanyoneoracombinationoftheaboveattitudesthiswillbeimpartedtothestudentswhowillthenalsobelievethatReadersarepreventingthemfromdoingsomethingmoreimportantandareawasteofvaluablelearningtime.Theyreadonlytoenablethemtoansweracomprehensiontask. Itisuptotheteachertoconvincethereluctantreaderthatreadingeitherextensiveorintensiveispleasurable.Onlyoneofmanywaysofobtainingpleasureistobeabletoanswertheteachers’comprehensioncheckquestionsthefollowingday.Theworldofreadingwillremainandstillbeasinaccessibleasevertothestudent. 47
Text4 Thetraditionaldistinctionbetweenproductsthatsatisfyneedsandthosethatsatisfywantsisnolongeradequatetodescribeclassesofproducts.Intoday’sprosperoussocietiesthedistinctionhasbecomeblurredbecausesomanywantshavebeenturnedintoneeds.Awriterforinstancecanworkwithpaperandpencils.Thesearelegitimateneedsforthetask.Buttheworkcanbedonemorequicklyandefficientlywithawordprocessor.Thusacomputerissoonviewedasaneedratherthanawant. Inthefieldofmarketingconsumergoodsareclassedaccordingtothewayinwhichtheyarepurchased.Thetwomaincategoriesareconveniencegoodsandshoppinggoods.Twolessertypesarespecialtygoodsandunsoughtgoods.Itmustbeemphasizedthatallofthesetypesarebasedonthewayshoppersthinkaboutproductsnotonthenatureoftheproductsthemselves.WhatisregardedasaconvenienceiteminFrancewineforexamplemaybeaspecialtygoodsintheUnitedStates. Peopledonotspendagreatdealoftimeshoppingforsuchconvenienceitemsasgroceriesnewspaperstoothpasterazorbladesaspirinandcandy.Thebuyingofconveniencegoodsmaybedoneroutinelyassomefamiliesbuygroceriesonceaweek.Suchregularlypurchaseditemsarecalledstaples.Sometimesconvenienceproductsareboughtonimpulse:someonehasasuddendesireforanicecreamonahotday.Ortheymaybepurchasedasemergencyitems. Shoppinggoodsareitemsforwhichcustomerssearch.Theycomparepricesqualityandstylesandmayvisitanumberofstoresbeforemakingadecision.Buyinganautomobileisoftendonethisway. Shoppinggoodsfallintotwoclasses:thosethatareperceivedasbasicallythesameandthosethatareregardedasdifferent.Itemsthatarelookeduponasbasicallythesameincludesuchthingsashomeappliancestelevisionsetsandautomobiles.Havingdecidedonthemodeldesiredthecustomerisprimarilyinterestedingettingtheitematthemostfavorableprice.Itemsregardedasinherentlydifferentincludeclothingfurnitureanddishes.Qualitystyleandfashionwilleithertakeprecedenceoverpriceortheywillnotmatteratall. Specialtygoodshavecharacteristicsthatimpelcustomerstomakespecialeffortstofindthem.Pricemaybenoconsiderationatall.Specialtygoodscanincludealmostanykindofproduct.Normallyspecialtygoodshaveabrandnameorotherdistinguishingcharacteristics. Unsoughtgoodsareitemsaconsumerdoesnotnecessarilywantorneedormaynotevenknowabout.Promotionoradvertisingbringssuchgoodstotheconsumer’sattention.TheproductcouldbesomethingnewonthemarketastheSonyWalkmanoncewasoritmaybeafairlystandardservicesuchaslifeinsuranceforwhichmostpeoplewillusuallynotbothershopping. Unsoughtgoods
There1notonetypeofreadingbutseveralaccordingtoyourreasonsforreading.Toreadefficientlyyouhaveto2yourreadingspeedandtechnique3youraim4reading.Skimmingisatechniquenecessaryforquickandefficientreading. Whenskimmingyou5thereading6quicklyinordertogetthe7ofittoknowhowitisorganized8anideaofthetoneortheintentionofthewriter.Skimmingis9anactivitywhich10anoverallviewofthetextand11adefinitereadingcompetence. Skimmingdoesn’tneedreadingallthematerialbutitdoesn’tmeanthatitisan12skillforthelazybecauseitneedahighdegreeofalertnessandconcentration. Whenyoureadyouusuallystartwith13understandingandmovetowardsdetailedunderstandingratherthanworkingtheotherwayround.But14isalsousedafteryouhavealreadycarefullystudiedandyouneedto15themajorideasandconcepts. Inordertobeabletoskimquicklyand16throughatextyoushouldknowwheretoto6kforwhatyouwant.Inpreviewskimmingyoureadtheintroductoryinformationtheheadingsandsubheadingsandthesummaryifoneisprovided.17thisskimmingdecidewhethertoreadthematerialmorethoroughlyandselecttheappropriatespeed18toread. Thesameprocedure19forpreviewskimmingcouldalsobeusedtogetanoverview.Anothermethodwouldbetoreadonlykeywords.Thisisdonebyomittingtheunnecessarywordsphrasesandsentences. Inordertoskimefficientlyandfulfillyourpurpose20practiceisnecessary. 15
Text1 ThesubjectofmystudyisawomanwhoisinitiatingsocialchangeinasmallregioninTexas.ThewomenareMexicanAmericanswhoareorweremigrantagriculturalworkers.ThereismorethanonekindofinnovationatworkintheregionofcoursebutIhavechosentofocusonthreerelatedpatternsoffamilybehavior. ThepatternIlifestylerepresentshowmigrantfarmworkersofallnationalitieslivedinthepastandhowmanycontinuetolive.ItreatthispatternasabaselinewithwhichtocomparethechangesrepresentedbypatternIIandIII.FamiliesinpatternIworkandtravelinextendedkinunitswiththeeldestmaleoccupyingthepositionofauthority.Familiesarelarge7EightorninechildrenarenotunusualAndallmembersareeconomiccontributorsinthisstrategyoffamilymigration.FamiliesinpatternIImanifestsomedifferencesinbehaviorwhilestillmaintainingaspectsofpatternI.Theycontinuetomigratebutonareducedscaleoftenmodifyingtheirschedulesofmigrationtoallowchildrentofinishtheschoolyear.Parentsinthispatternoftenfindtemporarylocaljobsascheckerstomakeupforlostfarmingincome.PatternⅡfamiliesusuallyhavefewerchildrenthandopatternⅠfamilies. ThegreatestamountofchangefrompatternIhoweverisinpatternIIIfamilieswhonolongermigrateatall.Bothparentsworkfulltimeintheareaandhaveanaverageofthreechildren.Childrenattendschoolfortheentireyear.InpatternⅢthewomeninparticularcreatenewrolesforthemselvesforwhichnolocalmodelsexist.Theynotonlyworkfulltimebutmayinadditionreturntoschool.Theyalsoassumeagreaterresponsibilityinfamilydecisionsthandowomenintheotherpatterns.Althoughthesewomenareintheminorityamongresidentsoftheregiontheyserveasrolemodelsforotherscausingmoderatechangestospreadintheircommunities. Nowopportunitieshavecontinuedtobedeterminedbypre-existingvalues.Whenfederaljobsbecameavailableintheregionmostinvolvedworkingunderthedirectionoffemaleprofessionalssuchasteachersornurses.Suchpositionswereunacceptedtomanymenintheareabecausetheywerenotaccustomedtobeingsubordinatetowomen.Womenthereforetookthejobsatfirstbecausetheincomewasdesperatelyneeded.Butsomeofthewomendecidedtostayattheirjobsatfirstafterthefamily’sdistress.wasover.Thesewomenenjoyedtheirworkitsresponsibilityandthecompanionshipoffellowwomenworkers.Thesteadyrelativelyhighincomeallowedtheirfamiliestostopmigrating.Andasthebenefitstothesewomenbecameincreasinglyapparenttheyandtheirfamiliesbecameevenmorewillingtoconsiderchangesintheirlivesthattheywouldnothaveconsideredbefore. Theauthor'sattitudetowardsthethreepatternsofbehaviormentionedinthepassageisbestdescribedasoneof
There1notonetypeofreadingbutseveralaccordingtoyourreasonsforreading.Toreadefficientlyyouhaveto2yourreadingspeedandtechnique3youraim4reading.Skimmingisatechniquenecessaryforquickandefficientreading. Whenskimmingyou5thereading6quicklyinordertogetthe7ofittoknowhowitisorganized8anideaofthetoneortheintentionofthewriter.Skimmingis9anactivitywhich10anoverallviewofthetextand11adefinitereadingcompetence. Skimmingdoesn’tneedreadingallthematerialbutitdoesn’tmeanthatitisan12skillforthelazybecauseitneedahighdegreeofalertnessandconcentration. Whenyoureadyouusuallystartwith13understandingandmovetowardsdetailedunderstandingratherthanworkingtheotherwayround.But14isalsousedafteryouhavealreadycarefullystudiedandyouneedto15themajorideasandconcepts. Inordertobeabletoskimquicklyand16throughatextyoushouldknowwheretoto6kforwhatyouwant.Inpreviewskimmingyoureadtheintroductoryinformationtheheadingsandsubheadingsandthesummaryifoneisprovided.17thisskimmingdecidewhethertoreadthematerialmorethoroughlyandselecttheappropriatespeed18toread. Thesameprocedure19forpreviewskimmingcouldalsobeusedtogetanoverview.Anothermethodwouldbetoreadonlykeywords.Thisisdonebyomittingtheunnecessarywordsphrasesandsentences. Inordertoskimefficientlyandfulfillyourpurpose20practiceisnecessary. 19
[A]Theninthe1970ssciencebegantoshowthatthenurture--onlyviewwasindeedtoosimplistic-whichtriggeredabacklashfromtheleft.WhenresearcherslikeRichardHerrnsteinandE.O.Wilsondemonstratedthatgenesdoplayasignificantroleinhumanintelligenceandbehaviorforexampletheywerevilifiedbymanyoftheircolleagues.Andjustafewyearsagoaconferencedesignedtoexplorethegeneticrootsofviolencehadtobecanceledinthefaceofwidespreadcondemnation. [B]Butifyouthinkthiscompromisehasstoppedtheargumentsthinkagain.Scientistsandphilosophersarestillgettingsteamedupovertheissuebutnowthey’refightingoverpercentagesoverhowmuchofhumancharacterisshapedbygenesandhowmuchbyenvironment.AndaccordingtoStevenPinkeraprofessorofpsychologyattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologywecontinuetogivefartoomuchcredittothelatter.InanewbookTheBlankSlate:TheModernDenialofHumanNatureVikingPinkerarguesthatignoranceprejudiceandpoliticalcorrectnesshavekeptscientistsandthepublicfromappreciatingthepowerofourgenes. [C]ThebacklashwasunderstandablesaysPinker.Onceyousuggestthathumannatureisinanywayhardwiredit’seasierfortheunscrupuloustowriteoffentiregroupsasgeneticallyinferior-astheNazisdidwithJewsPolesandGypsies.Ifhave-notsaregeneticallylackingindriveorintelligenceorambitionwhat’sthepointoffightingpoverty [D]Thatechoed20thcenturyliberalsocialtheory:violencecrimeandpovertywerenotthefaultoftheviolentthelawlessandthepoorbutofsociety.Improvelivingconditionsandyouwillcurdtheproblems.Thesenotionsofcourseflewinthefaceofeverythingconservativeshelddear--theideathatthelowerclasseswereinherentlystupidandlazyforexampleandthatrehabilitatinglawbreakerswasanexerciseinfutilitywhichmayhavebeenpartoftheirappeal. [E]AnyonewhohasreadPinker’searlierbookswillrightlyguessthathislatesteffortissimilarlysweepingeruditesharplyarguedrichlyfootnotedandfuntoread.It’salsohighlypersuasive.TheviewthatenvironmentisparamountbeganhesayswiththephilosophersoftheEnlightenment:JohnLockeJean-JacquesRousseauReneDescartesandJohnStuartMill.Anditwasreinforcedinthe1950sbyHarvardpsychologistB.F.Skinnerwhosaidthatallhumanbehaviorwassimplyasetofconditionedresponses. [F]Inoneimportantsensetheargumentovernatureandnurturehasbeenresolved.Forcenturiesthenaturecampsaidthatpersonalitiesarebornnotmadethatourcharacterisprettymuchformedbythetimewepopoutofthewomb.Thenurturepeoplecounteredwiththemetaphorofthetabularasa:ourmindstartsoutasablankslateandit’showwearerearedthatdetermineswhatgetswrittenonit.Modernsciencethough--especiallyourfast-growingunderstandingofthehumangenome--makesitclearthatbothsidesarepartlyright.Natureendowsuswithinbornabilitiesandpersonalitytraits;nurturetakestheserawmaterialsandmoldsthemaswelearnandmature. [G]PlentysaysPinker.Compassionandaltruismwhichhethinksalsoareatleastpartlyhardwiredaregoodreasonstomakelifebetterforthosewhostartoutatadisadvantage.AndwhilePinkeralsoadmitsalbeitinalessstridentvoicethatenvironmentplaysasignificantpartinhowweturnoutheinsistsit’sjustnotthewholestoryandourgeneswhichhaven’tgotenoughrespectdoplaysignificantroles. 45
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmaniapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatday8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probably-picturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman.Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypracticed.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. 1
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