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男，12岁，咽痛，咳嗽乏力2周。胸片见左下肺多形态浸润影，呈节段性分布。选择用药为
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男性16岁学生2周来感乏力咽痛咳嗽咳少量黏痰自觉发热食欲减退服磺胺6天无明显疗效X线胸片示左下肺多形
红霉素
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男性16岁学生2周来感乏力咽痛咳嗽咳少量粘痰自觉发热食欲减退服磺胺6天无明显疗效X线胸片示左下肺多形
青霉素
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雷米封+链霉素
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17岁学生2周来感乏力咽痛咳嗽咳少量粘痰自觉发热食欲减退服磺胺药6天无明显疗效胸片示左下肺多形态的浸
青霉素
庆大霉素
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雷米封+链霉素
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17岁学生2周来感乏力咽痛咳嗽咳少量粘痰自觉发热食欲减退服磺胺药6天无明显疗效胸片示左下肺多形态的浸
庆大霉素
红霉素
青霉素
雷米封+链霉素
氟哌酸
男性15岁咽痛咳嗽乏力肌痛1周伴有食欲下降胸片示左下肺多形性浸润影呈节段性分布临床选择用药为
青霉素
诺氟沙星
红霉素
庆大霉素
头孢菌素
男性15岁嗓子痛咳嗽乏力2周食欲下降胸片左下肺多形态性浸润影呈节段性分布选择用药是
青霉素
红霉素
氟哌酸
庆大霉素
头孢菌素
患者男性18岁嗓子痛咳嗽乏力2周食欲下降X线胸片左下肺多形态性浸润影呈节段性分布选择用药是
青霉素
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庆大霉素
头孢菌素
男性20岁咽痛咳嗽乏力肌痛1周伴有食欲下降胸片示左下肺多形性浸润影呈节段性分布临床选择用药为
青霉素
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庆大霉素
头孢菌素
男性15岁咽痛咳嗽乏力2周食欲下降胸片左下肺多发斑片浸润影呈节段性分布选择用药是
青霉素
红霉素
氧氟沙星
庆大霉素
头孢菌素
男性15岁嗓子痛咳嗽乏力2周食欲下降胸片左下肺多形态性浸润影呈节段性分布选择用药是
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头孢菌素
某男26岁咽痛咳嗽乏力肌痛1周．伴有食欲下降胸片示左下肺多形性浸润影呈节段性分布临床选择用药为
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庆大霉素
头孢菌类
男性25岁咽痛咳嗽乏力肌痛1周．伴有食欲下降胸片示左下肺多形性浸润影呈节段性分布临床选择用药为
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青霉素
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LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutmulticulturalistsisNOTsupportedbythetext
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. InrefutingArnold’’sopponentstheauthoremploysallofthefollowingtechniquesEXCEPT
Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71.Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Somehoweverarelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotakebypersonsinauthorityacttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72.ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWarwhenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredictedhoweverthatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture. Thiskindofsupportlikeallgovernmentsupportrequiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupportinggoodasopposedtobadsciencebutavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generallytheideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74.Howevertheworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld’’smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepastgivingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
1Describethepictures. 2Deducethepurposeofthedrawerofthepictures. 3Suggestcounter-measures.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
InspiteofrisingconcernintheNortheastandCanadaAdministrationspokesmenhaverepeatedlyinsistedthatnothingcouldreallybedoneaboutacidrainandtheindustry-producedsulfuremissionsuntilallthescientificfactswerein.Suddenlylastweekhoweverfactscamerainingdownineffectmakingfurtherscientificdebateonwhatmainlycausestheproblemallbutirrelevant. WhatbroughtaboutthedownpourwasastudycommissionedbyPresidentialScienceAdviser.Thespokesmenplainlycalledforremedialactionevenifsometechnicalquestionsaboutacidrainwerestillunanswered.Ifwetaketheconservativepointofviewthatwemustwaituntilthescientificknowledgeisdefinitivesaidthespokesmantheaccumulateddepositionanddamagedenvironmentmayreachthepointof’’irreversibility’’. Whenitrainsitpours.NextcameastudyfromtheNationalResearchCouncil.Itsdefinitiveconclusion:reducingemissionsofsulfurdioxidefromcoal-burningpowerplantsandfactoriessuchastheseintheMidwestwouldinfactsignificantlyreducetheacidityinrainsnowandotherprecipitation降水thatiswidelybelievedtobeworseningthelifefromfresh-waterlakesandforestsintheNortheastandCanada.Thespokesmandidnotrecommendanyspecificaction. ApairofremedialmeasuresarealreadytakenbeforeCongress.ASenatecommitteerecentlyapprovedabillthatwouldrequirereductionoverthenextdecadeofsulfur-dioxideemissionsby10milliontonsintheStatesborderingontheeastoftheMississippi.AtoughermeasurewasintroducedintheHouseorderingthe50largestsulfurpollutersintheU.S.tocutemissionssubstantially.ToeasetheEasterncoalminingindustrywhichfearsaswitchtolow-sulfurWesterncoalthebillrequirestheinstallationofexpensivescrubbersdevicesforremovingsulfurfromthesmokeratherthananorderthatforbidshigh-sulfurfuel.StillthelegislationisbeingvigorouslyopposedbythecoalindustryandutilitiesespeciallyintheMid-westwhereheavyindustriesarebattlingtosurvive.InasurveyalsoreleasedlastweektheEdisonElectricInstituteanindustrygroupgravelypredictedthatelectricityratescouldriseasmuchas50%iftheemission-controllegislationpassed. GovernmentstudiesdisputethesefiguresbutCongresshasbeensuspendedonacid-rainmeasures.Nowasaresultoftheacademystudysupportersofthebillsaremoreoptimistic.Neverthelessamajorpoliticalbattleisshapingup. Thisarticlemostprobablyappearedin
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Whilediseaseispresentpriortosocialorganizationcommunallifecreatesspecialhazards.Whiletheorganizationofsocietycanreducethedangersofdiseasetradeandurbanizationwiththeirconsequentproblemsofsanitationandpollutioncanalsoaggravatesuchdangers.Eveninthemid-twentiethcenturyduringthebriefcalmbetweenthepolioandAIDSepidemicsepidemichealthrisksassociatedwithcarcinogenscancer-producingsubstancesfrompollutedairthreatenedtheindustrializedworld. Totheeconomisteffortstocombattheserisksareatleastpartiallypublicgoods.Thebenefitsfrompublicgoodsareindivisibleamongbeneficiaries.Asoleprivatepurchaserofhealthcarewouldgiveothersinsocietyafreeridewithrespecttothebenefitsobtained.Tomarkettheoristssuchgoodsarelawfulobjectsofgovernmentalinterventioninthemarket.Whilethetheoryofpublicgoodshelpsexplainaspectsofpublichealthlawandassistsinfittingitintomoderneconomictheoryitomitsacriticalpoint.Illhealthisnotamerebyproductofeconomicactivitybutaninevitableoccurrenceofhumanexistence.Asaresultwhereverthereishumansocietytherewillbepublichealth.Everysocietyhastofacetherisksofdisease.Andbecauseitmusteverysocietysearchestomakediseasecomprehensiblewithinthecontextofthesociety’’sownparticularculturereligionorscience.Inthissensehealthcareispublicnotonlybecauseitsbenefitsareindivisibleandthreatstoitarisefromfactorsoutsideoftheindividualbutalsobecausecommunallifegivesindividualstheculturalcontextinwhichtounderstandit. Governmentstypicallyhaveassumedanactiverolewithrespecttohealthcareactingasiftheirrolewereobligatory.Howgovernmentshavefulfilledthatdutyhasvariedthroughouttimeandacrosssocietiesaccordingnotonlytothewealthandscientificsophisticationoftheculturebutalsotoitsfundamentalvalues--becausehealthisdefinedinpartbyacommunity’’sbeliefsystempublichealthmeasureswillnecessarilyreflectculturalnormsandvalues. ThosewhocriticizetheUnitedStatesgovernmenttodayfornotprovidinghealthcaretoallcitizensequatetheprovisionofhealthcarewithinsurancecoverageforthecostsofmedicalexpenses.Bythisstandardseventeenthandeighteenth-centuryAmericalackedanysignificantconceptionofpublichealthlaw.Howeverdespitethegeneralpaucityscarcityofbureaucraticorganizationinpre-industrialAmericathevastextentofhealthregulationandprovisionstandsoutasremarkable.Ofcoursethepublicroleintheprotectionandregulationofeighteenth-centuryhealthwascarriedoutinwaysquitedifferentfromthosetoday.Organizationsresponsibleforhealthregulationwerelessstablethanmodernbureaucraciestendingtoappearincrisesandfadeawayinperiodsofcalm.Thefocuswasonepidemicswhichwereseenasunnaturalandwarrantingaresponsenottothemanyprevalentandchronicconditionswhichwereacceptedaspartandparcelofdailylife.Additionallyandnotsurprisinglyreligiousinfluencewassignificantespeciallyintheseventeenthcentury.Finallyinanerawhichlackedsharpdivisionsbetweenprivateandgovernmentalbodiesmanypublicresponsibilitieswerecarriedoutbywhatwewouldnowconsiderprivateassociations.Neverthelesstheextentofpublichealthregulationlongbeforethedawnofthewelfarestateisremarkableandsuggeststhatthefoundinggeneration’’sassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetweengovernmentandhealthweremorecomplexthancommonlyassumed. TheauthormentionsallofthefollowingascausesofepidemicdiseasesEXCEPT
Whenanewmovementinartattainsacertainfashionitisadvisabletofindoutwhatitsadvocatesareaimingatforhoweverfarfetchedandunreasonabletheirprinciplesmayseemtodayitispossiblethatinyearstocometheymayberegardedasnormal.WithregardtoFuturistpoetryhoweverthecaseisratherdifficultforwhateverFuturistpoetrymaybe--evenadmittingthatthetheoryonwhichitisbasedmayberight--itcanhardlybeclassedasLiterature. ThisinbriefiswhattheFuturistsays:foracenturypastconditionsoflifehavebeenconditionallyspeedinguptillnowweliveinaworldofnoiseandviolenceandspeed.Consequentlyourfeelingsthoughtsandemotionshaveundergoneacorrespondingchange.ThisspeedingupoflifesaystheFuturistrequiresanewformofexpression.Wemustspeedupourliteraturetooifwewanttointerpretmodernstress.Wemustpouroutalargestreamofessentialwordsunhamperedbystopsorqualifyingadjectivesorfiniteverbs.Insteadofdescribingsoundswemustmakeupwordsthatimitatethem;wemustusemanysizesoftypeanddifferentcoloredinksonthesamepageandshortenorlengthenwordsatwill. Certainlytheirdescriptionsofbattlesareconfused.ButitisalittleupsettingtoreadintheexplanatorynotesthatacertainlinedescribesafightbetweenaTurkishandaBulgarianofficeronabridgeoffwhichtheybothfallintotheriver--andthentofindthatthelineconsistsofthenoiseoftheirfallingandtheweightsoftheofficers:Pluff!Pluff!Ahundredandeighty-fivekilograms. ThisthoughitfulfillsthelawsandrequirementsofFuturistpoetrycanhardlybeclassedasLiterature.Allthesamenothinkingmancanrefusetoaccepttheirfirstproposition:thatagreatchangeinouremotionallifecallsforachangeofexpression.Thewholequestionisreallythis:haveweessentiallychanged Whenanovelliteraryideaappearspeopleshouldtryto__________.
Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71.Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Somehoweverarelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotakebypersonsinauthorityacttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72.ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWarwhenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredictedhoweverthatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture. Thiskindofsupportlikeallgovernmentsupportrequiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupportinggoodasopposedtobadsciencebutavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generallytheideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74.Howevertheworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld’’smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepastgivingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. Thetextischieflyaimedat
InspiteofrisingconcernintheNortheastandCanadaAdministrationspokesmenhaverepeatedlyinsistedthatnothingcouldreallybedoneaboutacidrainandtheindustry-producedsulfuremissionsuntilallthescientificfactswerein.Suddenlylastweekhoweverfactscamerainingdownineffectmakingfurtherscientificdebateonwhatmainlycausestheproblemallbutirrelevant. WhatbroughtaboutthedownpourwasastudycommissionedbyPresidentialScienceAdviser.Thespokesmenplainlycalledforremedialactionevenifsometechnicalquestionsaboutacidrainwerestillunanswered.Ifwetaketheconservativepointofviewthatwemustwaituntilthescientificknowledgeisdefinitivesaidthespokesmantheaccumulateddepositionanddamagedenvironmentmayreachthepointof’’irreversibility’’. Whenitrainsitpours.NextcameastudyfromtheNationalResearchCouncil.Itsdefinitiveconclusion:reducingemissionsofsulfurdioxidefromcoal-burningpowerplantsandfactoriessuchastheseintheMidwestwouldinfactsignificantlyreducetheacidityinrainsnowandotherprecipitation降水thatiswidelybelievedtobeworseningthelifefromfresh-waterlakesandforestsintheNortheastandCanada.Thespokesmandidnotrecommendanyspecificaction. ApairofremedialmeasuresarealreadytakenbeforeCongress.ASenatecommitteerecentlyapprovedabillthatwouldrequirereductionoverthenextdecadeofsulfur-dioxideemissionsby10milliontonsintheStatesborderingontheeastoftheMississippi.AtoughermeasurewasintroducedintheHouseorderingthe50largestsulfurpollutersintheU.S.tocutemissionssubstantially.ToeasetheEasterncoalminingindustrywhichfearsaswitchtolow-sulfurWesterncoalthebillrequirestheinstallationofexpensivescrubbersdevicesforremovingsulfurfromthesmokeratherthananorderthatforbidshigh-sulfurfuel.StillthelegislationisbeingvigorouslyopposedbythecoalindustryandutilitiesespeciallyintheMid-westwhereheavyindustriesarebattlingtosurvive.InasurveyalsoreleasedlastweektheEdisonElectricInstituteanindustrygroupgravelypredictedthatelectricityratescouldriseasmuchas50%iftheemission-controllegislationpassed. GovernmentstudiesdisputethesefiguresbutCongresshasbeensuspendedonacid-rainmeasures.Nowasaresultoftheacademystudysupportersofthebillsaremoreoptimistic.Neverthelessamajorpoliticalbattleisshapingup. FromthedescriptionoftheeffortsintheHousewecanseethat
Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71.Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Somehoweverarelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotakebypersonsinauthorityacttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72.ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWarwhenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredictedhoweverthatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture. Thiskindofsupportlikeallgovernmentsupportrequiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupportinggoodasopposedtobadsciencebutavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generallytheideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74.Howevertheworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld’’smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepastgivingrisetonewstandardsofelegance. Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71.Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Somehoweverarelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotakebypersonsinauthorityacttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72.ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWarwhenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredictedhoweverthatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture. Thiskindofsupportlikeallgovernmentsupportrequiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupportinggoodasopposedtobadsciencebutavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generallytheideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74.Howevertheworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld’’smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepastgivingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.
InspiteofrisingconcernintheNortheastandCanadaAdministrationspokesmenhaverepeatedlyinsistedthatnothingcouldreallybedoneaboutacidrainandtheindustry-producedsulfuremissionsuntilallthescientificfactswerein.Suddenlylastweekhoweverfactscamerainingdownineffectmakingfurtherscientificdebateonwhatmainlycausestheproblemallbutirrelevant. WhatbroughtaboutthedownpourwasastudycommissionedbyPresidentialScienceAdviser.Thespokesmenplainlycalledforremedialactionevenifsometechnicalquestionsaboutacidrainwerestillunanswered.Ifwetaketheconservativepointofviewthatwemustwaituntilthescientificknowledgeisdefinitivesaidthespokesmantheaccumulateddepositionanddamagedenvironmentmayreachthepointof’’irreversibility’’. Whenitrainsitpours.NextcameastudyfromtheNationalResearchCouncil.Itsdefinitiveconclusion:reducingemissionsofsulfurdioxidefromcoal-burningpowerplantsandfactoriessuchastheseintheMidwestwouldinfactsignificantlyreducetheacidityinrainsnowandotherprecipitation降水thatiswidelybelievedtobeworseningthelifefromfresh-waterlakesandforestsintheNortheastandCanada.Thespokesmandidnotrecommendanyspecificaction. ApairofremedialmeasuresarealreadytakenbeforeCongress.ASenatecommitteerecentlyapprovedabillthatwouldrequirereductionoverthenextdecadeofsulfur-dioxideemissionsby10milliontonsintheStatesborderingontheeastoftheMississippi.AtoughermeasurewasintroducedintheHouseorderingthe50largestsulfurpollutersintheU.S.tocutemissionssubstantially.ToeasetheEasterncoalminingindustrywhichfearsaswitchtolow-sulfurWesterncoalthebillrequirestheinstallationofexpensivescrubbersdevicesforremovingsulfurfromthesmokeratherthananorderthatforbidshigh-sulfurfuel.StillthelegislationisbeingvigorouslyopposedbythecoalindustryandutilitiesespeciallyintheMid-westwhereheavyindustriesarebattlingtosurvive.InasurveyalsoreleasedlastweektheEdisonElectricInstituteanindustrygroupgravelypredictedthatelectricityratescouldriseasmuchas50%iftheemission-controllegislationpassed. GovernmentstudiesdisputethesefiguresbutCongresshasbeensuspendedonacid-rainmeasures.Nowasaresultoftheacademystudysupportersofthebillsaremoreoptimistic.Neverthelessamajorpoliticalbattleisshapingup. Thefirstparagraphshowsthat
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
Whilediseaseispresentpriortosocialorganizationcommunallifecreatesspecialhazards.Whiletheorganizationofsocietycanreducethedangersofdiseasetradeandurbanizationwiththeirconsequentproblemsofsanitationandpollutioncanalsoaggravatesuchdangers.Eveninthemid-twentiethcenturyduringthebriefcalmbetweenthepolioandAIDSepidemicsepidemichealthrisksassociatedwithcarcinogenscancer-producingsubstancesfrompollutedairthreatenedtheindustrializedworld. Totheeconomisteffortstocombattheserisksareatleastpartiallypublicgoods.Thebenefitsfrompublicgoodsareindivisibleamongbeneficiaries.Asoleprivatepurchaserofhealthcarewouldgiveothersinsocietyafreeridewithrespecttothebenefitsobtained.Tomarkettheoristssuchgoodsarelawfulobjectsofgovernmentalinterventioninthemarket.Whilethetheoryofpublicgoodshelpsexplainaspectsofpublichealthlawandassistsinfittingitintomoderneconomictheoryitomitsacriticalpoint.Illhealthisnotamerebyproductofeconomicactivitybutaninevitableoccurrenceofhumanexistence.Asaresultwhereverthereishumansocietytherewillbepublichealth.Everysocietyhastofacetherisksofdisease.Andbecauseitmusteverysocietysearchestomakediseasecomprehensiblewithinthecontextofthesociety’’sownparticularculturereligionorscience.Inthissensehealthcareispublicnotonlybecauseitsbenefitsareindivisibleandthreatstoitarisefromfactorsoutsideoftheindividualbutalsobecausecommunallifegivesindividualstheculturalcontextinwhichtounderstandit. Governmentstypicallyhaveassumedanactiverolewithrespecttohealthcareactingasiftheirrolewereobligatory.Howgovernmentshavefulfilledthatdutyhasvariedthroughouttimeandacrosssocietiesaccordingnotonlytothewealthandscientificsophisticationoftheculturebutalsotoitsfundamentalvalues--becausehealthisdefinedinpartbyacommunity’’sbeliefsystempublichealthmeasureswillnecessarilyreflectculturalnormsandvalues. ThosewhocriticizetheUnitedStatesgovernmenttodayfornotprovidinghealthcaretoallcitizensequatetheprovisionofhealthcarewithinsurancecoverageforthecostsofmedicalexpenses.Bythisstandardseventeenthandeighteenth-centuryAmericalackedanysignificantconceptionofpublichealthlaw.Howeverdespitethegeneralpaucityscarcityofbureaucraticorganizationinpre-industrialAmericathevastextentofhealthregulationandprovisionstandsoutasremarkable.Ofcoursethepublicroleintheprotectionandregulationofeighteenth-centuryhealthwascarriedoutinwaysquitedifferentfromthosetoday.Organizationsresponsibleforhealthregulationwerelessstablethanmodernbureaucraciestendingtoappearincrisesandfadeawayinperiodsofcalm.Thefocuswasonepidemicswhichwereseenasunnaturalandwarrantingaresponsenottothemanyprevalentandchronicconditionswhichwereacceptedaspartandparcelofdailylife.Additionallyandnotsurprisinglyreligiousinfluencewassignificantespeciallyintheseventeenthcentury.Finallyinanerawhichlackedsharpdivisionsbetweenprivateandgovernmentalbodiesmanypublicresponsibilitieswerecarriedoutbywhatwewouldnowconsiderprivateassociations.Neverthelesstheextentofpublichealthregulationlongbeforethedawnofthewelfarestateisremarkableandsuggeststhatthefoundinggeneration’’sassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetweengovernmentandhealthweremorecomplexthancommonlyassumed. HealthcareisinherentlyapublicconcernforallofthefollowingreasonsEXCLUDING
Comparisonsweredrawnbetweenthedevelopmentoftelevisioninthe20thcenturyandthediffusionofprintinginthe15thand16thcenturies.Yetmuchhadhappened________Aswasdiscussedbeforeitwasnot______the19thcenturythatthenewspaperbecamethedominantpre-electronic______followinginthewakeofthepamphletandthebookandinthe________oftheperiodical.Itwasduringthesametimethatthecommunicationsrevolution________upbeginningwithtransporttherailwayandleading________throughthetelegraphthetelephoneradioandmotionpictures________the20th-centuryworldofthemotorcarandtheairplane.Noteveryoneseesthatprocessin________Itisimportanttodoso. Itisgenerallyrecognized________thattheintroductionofthecomputerintheearly20thcentury________bytheinventionoftheintegratedcircuitduringthe1960sradicallychangedtheprocess________itsimpactonthemediawasnotimmediately________Astimewentbycomputersbecamesmallerandmorepowerfulandtheybecamepersonaltooaswellas________withdisplaybecomingsharperandstorage________increasing.Theywerethoughtoflikepeople________generationswiththedistancebetweengenerationsmuch________. Itwaswithinthecomputeragethattheterminformationsocietybegantobewidelyusedtodescribethe________withinwhichwenowlive.Thecommunicationsrevolutionhas________bothworkandleisureandhowwethinkandfeelbothaboutplaceandtimebuttherehavebeen________viewsaboutitseconomicpoliticalsocialandculturalimplications.Benefitshavebeenweighed________harmfuloutcomes.Andgeneralizationshaveproveddifficult.
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