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Ifyouwishtostudyhardyoumustseefilms_____.
more often
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Directions:Youareplanningtostudyinaforeignuniversi
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Directions:Studythefollowinginformationcarefullyan
Directions:Youwishtostudyatacertainforeignuniversi
Directions:Youareplanningtostudyinaforeignuniversi
Directions: Youareplanningtostudyinaforeignuniver
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—Whatwouldyouwishtodoifyouwereacollegestudentagain
has not studied biology
did study biology
had studied biology
studied biology
—Whatwouldyouwishtodoifyouwereacollegestudentagain
has not studied psychology
had studied psychology
did study psychology
studied psychology
PartA Directions: LastweekyougottoknowthatZhangHo
Directions:Youwishtostudyatacertainforeignuniversi
—Whatwouldyouwishtodoifyouwereacollegestudentagain
has not studied psychology
had studied psychology
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Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 19
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 13
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 3
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 7
Directions: ProfessorWangyourseniormiddleschoolEnglishteacherhasbeenteachingforexactlythirtyyears.Yourformerclassmatesaregoingtoholdapartytocelebratethisspecialoccasion.Youcannotattendthepartyforacertainreason.SoyouaregoingtowritealettertoProfessorWangtoexpressyourcongratulationsaswellasyourapologyforfailingtoshowupintheparty. Writeyourletterinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2. Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter;use"LiMing"instead. Donotwritetheaddress.
ManyintheMiddleEasthavedifficultyinadjustingthemselvestothenewsituationcreatedbythedepartureoftheimperialpowers.Forthefirsttimeinalmost200yearstherulersandpeopleoftheMiddleEasthavetoacceptthefinalresponsibilityfortheirownaffairstomaketheirownmistakesandtoaccepttheconsequences.Thisisdifficulttointernalizeeventoperceiveaftersolongaperiod.Fortheentirelifetimesofthosewhoformulateandconductpolicyatthepresenttimeandoftheirpredecessorsformanygenerationsvitaldecisionsweremadeelsewhereultimatecontrollayelsewhereandtheprincipaltaskofstatesmanshipanddiplomacywasasfaraspossibletoavoidorreducethedangersofthissituationandtoexploitsuchopportunitiesasitmightfromtimetotimeoffer.Itisverydifficulttoforsakethehabitsnotjustofalifetimebutofawholeeraofhistory.Thedifficultyismuchgreaterwhenalienculturalsocialandeconomicpreeminencecontinuesandevenincreasesdespitetheendingofalienpoliticalandmilitarydomination. MilitaryandtoagrowingextentpoliticalinterventionbytheWesthasindeedendedbuttheimpactofitsscienceandcultureitstechnologyamenitiesandinstitutionsremainsandevenincreases.Asinotherpartsofthenon-Westernworldthisimpacthasbeenandwillbeenormous.InthesecircumstancesitisnaturalthatMiddleEasternersshouldcontinuetoassume—andproceedontheassumption—thatrealresponsibilityanddecisionstilllieelsewhere.Initscrudestformthisbeliefleadstowildandstrangeconspiracytheoriesdirectedagainstthosewhomtheyregardastheirenemies—IsraelandmoregenerallytheJewstheUnitedStatesandmoregenerallytheWest.Notheoryistooabsurdtobeassertedortoopreposteroustobewidelyandinstantlybelieved.Evenamongmoreresponsiblestatesmenandanalystsasimilarbeliefinalienpoweralbeitinalesscrudeformoftenseemstoguidebothanalysisandpolicy.Someevengosofarastoinviteoutsideinterventionpresumableinthebeliefthatonlyoutsidepowershavethecapacitytomakeandenforcedecisions.AcaseinpointistheconstantappealtotheUnitedStatestoinvolveitselfintheArabIsraelconflictoddlycoupledwiththerepeatedaccusationof"Americanimperialism." ThisstateofmindislikelytocontinueforsometimewithappealsforsupportoreveninterventiontotheUnitedStatestoRussiaandeventotheEuropeanUnion.IntimenodoubtMiddleEasterngovernmentsandpeoplewilllearnhowtousethiswindowofopportunitytothebestadvantage—thatisofcourseifthewindowremainsopenlongenough. Theauthorimpliedinthepassagethat
HERE’SATALEOFTWOCOMPANIES.Bothareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsinvolvingallegationsofsexualharassment.CompanyAisconfrontedwiththeproblemandpunishestopexecs.CompanyBstonewallsandmountsanaggressivecampaigntodiscredititsaccusersandportrayitselfasavictimofcorporateslander.41Forbusinessschoolslookingforafewgoodcasestudiesindamagecontrollastweekwasaboutasgoodasitgets.OnewasSwedishpharmaceuticalscompanyAstraUSAamakerofasthmamedicationsandthepopularanestheticXylocaine.FacingsimilarchargesMitsubishiMotormanufacturingofAmericaoptedforinyour-facedenial.WhodiditrightIt’stoosoontoknowforsure.Astra’sstrategymayseemsmarter.FinanciallyspeakingatleastonecanseewhyMitsubishiisreluctanttoissueapublicmeaculpa.Fessingupcouldexposeittoasmuchas$200millionindamages.Suchcontroversiesarenoraritythesedays.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunitycommissionalonereceivedmorethan15000complaintsofsexualharassmentlastyearmorethantwiceasmanyasin1991.ItssuitagainstMitsubishifiledlastmonthmayturnouttobebyfarthebiggestever—andcouldeventuallyinvolveasmanyastwothirdsofthecompany’s900femaleworkers.42Mitsubishi’sresponsewasclearfromthebeginning.WhentheEEOCannounceditscaseagainsttheIllinoisautomakerthecompanydispatchedbusloadsofworkerstopickettheagency’sChicagooffices.AttorneysforMitsubishiwillnodoubtprobetheprivatelivesofthewomenlodgingcomplaintsandmayevenaccusethemofJapanbashing.Mitsubishi’sbrassinTokyoseemedabittakenabackbytheferocityofthecounteroffensivetothepointofsuggestingthatmaybethecasecouldbequietlysettled.43CouldsuchtacticsbeeffectiveIfaggressivePRmakespeopledoubttheallegationsagainstthecompanyorencouragesfederalinvestigatorstosettleonmorefavorabletermsthenthestrategywillhavesucceeded.ButtherearerisksespeciallyforconsumercompanieslikeMitsubishi.44That’snosmallthreatconsideringthatMitsubishiisstrugglingtoturnaprofitinthiscountry.45Astra’sstrategyseemssavier.Itsopennessandpromptresponsemighthelpitevadepunitivedamagesshouldanyofthecomplaintsgotoajury.Infactthatmaybeachiefreasonthecompanyactedevenbeforeitcompleteditsowninvestigation.ThatsaidAstraisinthesouptobeginwithbecauseithadnoadequatemechanismsforreportingincidentsandbecauseitfailedtodealwithitsproblemsbeforetheybecamepublic.Womenhavecomplainedofharassmentatthecompanyformorethanadecade.BusinessWeekreportsincidentsrangingfromgropingsatcompanyretreatstosuggestionsthatfemalesalesrepscouldadvancetheircareersbyputtingoutsexuallyfortheirbosses—includingtheheadofthecompanyLarsBildman.Hislawyerdeniestheallegationsasdotheotherexecutives.SofarAstraitselfhasofferednoevidencesuggestinganyofthethreeareguilty.Bothcompaniesnowpromisetodobetter.Astraisoverhaulingitscorporatepersonnelpoliciesandplanstotrainmanagersonhowtohandleissuesofsexualdiscrimination.SoisMitsubishi.Saystheautomaker’sgeneralcounselGaryShultz:Wearegoingtobecomethemodelinhandingsexual-harassmentand-discriminationcases.Thatremainstobeseen.Ifthesesortsofscandalsforcecompaniestosetuprulesthatactuallyworkthatmaybethebestcasestudyofall.[A]That’spreciselywhatthecompanydidinresponsetoapriorsexual-harassmentsuitfiledby29womenin1994.[B]Agreatdealofattentionshouldbepaidtotheseaffairs.SaysMitsubishis’sspokesman.[C]Butwe’retakingtheseallegationsveryseriouslysaysAstraspokesmanBenjaminKincannon.[D]Outragedbytheautomaker’sseemingdisregardofitsproblemsperennialpresidentialhopefulJesseJacksonandtheNationalOrganizationforWomencalledoncarbuyerstoboycottthecompany.[E]WhenbusinessWeekpublishedtalesofwide-rangingabuseatAstra’sAmericansubsidiaryoutsideBostonthecompanyquicklyfaceduptotheproblemandsuspendeditsU.S.chiefexecutivealongwithtwotoplieutenants.[F]Prof.MartinStolleracrisis-managementexpertatNorthwesternUniversitythinksso.Theaimofcrisismanagementistostoptheattackershesays.
Sincetheindustrialrevolutiongovernmentsocietyandindustryhaveattemptedtochanneltechnologicalprogressinusefuldirections.WhetheritistheprintingpressthecottongintheautomobileortheInternettechnologicalinnovationsoftenhaveprofoundeconomicandsocialeffects.Toharnessthebenefitsandminimizethemoreharmfuleffectsofnewtechnologiesmoderngovernmentsusefourbasicapproaches:specificdirectionmarketincentivescriminalprohibitionandbehaviormodification. SpecificdirectionstartswithgovernmentsidentifyingoneormorekeyfactorsintheR&Dphase.Thenusingavarietyofmeansrangingfromadministrativeregulationtooutrightstateownershipthegovernmentseekstocontroltheimplementationofthetechnology. Marketincentivesarethedeliberatemanipulationofthemarketbythegovernmenttocontrolhowaparticularlytechnologyisdistributedandused.Forexamplesomegovernmentsimposetaxestocoverthehiddencostsassociatedwiththeuseofaparticulartechnology.Forexampleraisinggasolinetaxestopayforhighwayimprovements.Othermethodsincludethegrantingofsubsidiestoprivateresearchersorthestrengtheningofintellectualpropertylawstogiveaddedincentivestodevelopers. Criminalprohibitionusuallytakesplacewhenstrongoppositionexiststoaparticulartechnologyorfieldofresearch.Inrecentyearsmostdevelopedcountrieshaveenactedlegislationtobanthecloningofhumanbeings.Otherexamplesaretheenforcementofcleanairregulationsthatforcepowerplantstoemitfewergreenhousegasses. Finallybehaviormodificationincludestheuseofthemediaadvertisingandgovernmentandcorporateleadershiptoencourageaparticularsocietytouseatechnologyinabeneficialway.ForexamplewhilethereislimitedgovernmentregulationoftheInternetwebsitesareencouragedtoinstallsafeguardstopreventchildrenfromviewinginappropriatematerial.ArecentnationaladvertisingcampaignrecentlyboostedthepercentageofNewYorkresidentswhorecycledbyalmost25%.Suchcampaignsdonotusedirectgovernmentregulationbutinsteadappealtotheuser’ssenseofcivicdutyorsocialresponsibility. OfallnewtechnologiesperhapsnonehaschangedthelandscapeandcharacterofAmericanlifemorethantheautomobile.YetthecostsofthistechnologyarenotalwaysreflectedinthepriceofUsingthetechnology.Forexampleitcostsanoilcompany$0.89pergallonofgasproduced.ThissameliterissoldtoU.S.consumersatabout$1.20pergallon.Yetwhilethispricereflectsthecostofproductionplusaprofitfortheoilcompanyitdoesnotreflecttheactualcostofusingthetechnology.Forthatwemustfactorintheenvironmentalcostsassociatedwithairpollutionincreasedhealthcareenvironmentaldegradationandthepoliticalcostsdependenceonforeignoilenergyshortages.Inshortinordertobeeffectiveallofthesestrategiesforchannelingtechnologytobenefitsocietymustincorporateallthecostsassociatedwithusage. Thekeyfactorthatguidesthefourstrategiesisto
Themajorityofsuccessfulseniormanagersdonotcloselyfollowtheclassicalrationalmodeloffirstclarifyinggoalsassessingtheproblemformulatingoptionsestimatinglikelihoodsofsuccessmakingadecisionandonlythentakingactiontoimplementthedecision.Ratherintheirday-by-daytacticalmaneuverstheseseniorexecutivesrelyonwhatisvaguelytermed"intuition"tomanageanetworkofinterrelatedproblemsthatrequirethemtodealwithambiguityinconsistencynoveltyandsurprise;andtointegrateactionintotheprocesstothinking. Generationsofwritersonmanagementhaverecognizedthatsomepracticingmanagersrelyheavilyonintuition.Ingeneralhoweversuchwritersdisplayapoorgraspofwhatintuitionis.Someseeitastheoppositeofrationality;othersviewitasanexcuseforcapriciousness. Isenberg’srecentresearchonthecognitiveprocessesofseniormanagersrevealsthatmanagers’intuitionisneitherofthese.Ratherseniormanagersuseintuitioninatleastfivedistinctways.Firsttheyintuitivelysensewhenaproblemexists.Secondmanagersrelyonintuitiontoperformwell-learnedbehaviorpatternsrapidly.Thisintuitionisnotarbitraryorirrationalbutisbasedonyearsofpainstakingpracticeandhands-onexperiencethatbuildskills.Athirdfunctionofintuitionistosynthesizeisolatedbitsofdataandpracticeintoanintegratedpictureofteninan"Aha!"experience.Fourthsomemanagersuseintuitionasacheckontheresultsofmorerationalanalysis.MostseniorexecutivesarefamiliarwiththeformaldecisionanalysismodelsandtoolsandthosewhousesuchsystematicmethodsforreachingdecisionsareoccasionallyleeryofsolutionssuggestedbythesemethodswhichruncountertotheirsenseofthecorrectcourseofactionFinallymanagerscanuseintuitiontobypassin-depthanalysisandmoverapidlytoengenderaplausiblesolution.Usedinthiswayintuitionisanalmostinstantaneouscognitiveprocessinwhichamanagerrecognizesfamiliarpatterns. Oneoftheimplicationsoftheintuitivestyleofexecutivemanagementisthat"thinking"isinseparablefromacting.Sincemanagersoften"know"whatisrightbeforetheycananalyzeandexplainittheyfrequentlyactfirstandexplainlater.Analysisisinextricablytiedtoactioninthinking/actingcyclesinwhichmanagersdevelopthoughtsabouttheircompaniesandorganizationsnotbyanalyzingaproblematicsituationandthenactingbutbyactingandanalyzingincloseconcert. GiventhegreatuncertaintyofmanyofthemanagementissuesthattheyfaceseniormanagersofteninstigateacourseofactionsimplytolearnmoreaboutanissueTheythenusetheresultsoftheactiontodevelopamorecompleteunderstandingoftheissue.Oneimplicationofthinking/actingcyclesisthatactionisoftenpartofdefiningtheproblemnotjustofimplementingthesolution. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthewritersonmanagementLine1Para.2
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 15
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 11
Themajorityofsuccessfulseniormanagersdonotcloselyfollowtheclassicalrationalmodeloffirstclarifyinggoalsassessingtheproblemformulatingoptionsestimatinglikelihoodsofsuccessmakingadecisionandonlythentakingactiontoimplementthedecision.Ratherintheirday-by-daytacticalmaneuverstheseseniorexecutivesrelyonwhatisvaguelytermed"intuition"tomanageanetworkofinterrelatedproblemsthatrequirethemtodealwithambiguityinconsistencynoveltyandsurprise;andtointegrateactionintotheprocesstothinking. Generationsofwritersonmanagementhaverecognizedthatsomepracticingmanagersrelyheavilyonintuition.Ingeneralhoweversuchwritersdisplayapoorgraspofwhatintuitionis.Someseeitastheoppositeofrationality;othersviewitasanexcuseforcapriciousness. Isenberg’srecentresearchonthecognitiveprocessesofseniormanagersrevealsthatmanagers’intuitionisneitherofthese.Ratherseniormanagersuseintuitioninatleastfivedistinctways.Firsttheyintuitivelysensewhenaproblemexists.Secondmanagersrelyonintuitiontoperformwell-learnedbehaviorpatternsrapidly.Thisintuitionisnotarbitraryorirrationalbutisbasedonyearsofpainstakingpracticeandhands-onexperiencethatbuildskills.Athirdfunctionofintuitionistosynthesizeisolatedbitsofdataandpracticeintoanintegratedpictureofteninan"Aha!"experience.Fourthsomemanagersuseintuitionasacheckontheresultsofmorerationalanalysis.MostseniorexecutivesarefamiliarwiththeformaldecisionanalysismodelsandtoolsandthosewhousesuchsystematicmethodsforreachingdecisionsareoccasionallyleeryofsolutionssuggestedbythesemethodswhichruncountertotheirsenseofthecorrectcourseofactionFinallymanagerscanuseintuitiontobypassin-depthanalysisandmoverapidlytoengenderaplausiblesolution.Usedinthiswayintuitionisanalmostinstantaneouscognitiveprocessinwhichamanagerrecognizesfamiliarpatterns. Oneoftheimplicationsoftheintuitivestyleofexecutivemanagementisthat"thinking"isinseparablefromacting.Sincemanagersoften"know"whatisrightbeforetheycananalyzeandexplainittheyfrequentlyactfirstandexplainlater.Analysisisinextricablytiedtoactioninthinking/actingcyclesinwhichmanagersdevelopthoughtsabouttheircompaniesandorganizationsnotbyanalyzingaproblematicsituationandthenactingbutbyactingandanalyzingincloseconcert. GiventhegreatuncertaintyofmanyofthemanagementissuesthattheyfaceseniormanagersofteninstigateacourseofactionsimplytolearnmoreaboutanissueTheythenusetheresultsoftheactiontodevelopamorecompleteunderstandingoftheissue.Oneimplicationofthinking/actingcyclesisthatactionisoftenpartofdefiningtheproblemnotjustofimplementingthesolution. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingwouldmostprobablybeonemajordifferenceinbehaviorbetweenManagerXwhousesintuitiontoreachdecisionsandManagerYwhousesonlyformaldecisionanalysis
WritealettertoapplyforapositioninalocalEnglishtrainingschool.Inthedescriptionyoushouldincludethefollowingitems: 1whatistheposition 2yourexperienceandrelatedability.
ArecentpollindicatedthathalftheteenagersintheUnitedStatesbelievethatcommunicationbetweenthemandtheirparentsis1andfurtherthatoneoftheprimecausesofthisgapis2listeningbehavior.Asaan3inpointoneparentbelievedthatherdaughterhadasevere4problem.Shewasso5thatshetookhertoanaudiologisttohavehereartested.Theaudiologistcarefullytestedbothearsandreportedbacktotheparent:"There’snothingwrongwithherhearing.She’sjust6youout." Aleadingcauseofthe7divorceratemorethanhalfofallmarriagesendindivorceisthefailureofhusbandsandwivesto8effectively.Theydon’tlistentoeachother.Neitherperson9totheactualmessagesentbytheother. In10fashionpoliticalscientistsreportthatagrowingnumberofpeoplebelievethattheirelectedand11officialsareoutof12withtheconstituentstheyaresupposedly13WhyBecausetheydon’tbelievethattheylistentothem.Infactitseemsthatsometimesourpoliticiansdon’tevenlistentothemselves.Thefollowingisatruestory:Atanational14conferenceheldinAlbuquerquesomeyearsagothenSenatorJosephMontoyawas15acopyofapressreleasebyapressaideshortlybeforehegotupbeforetheaudienceto16aspeech.Whenherosetospeak17thehorrorofthepressaideandthe18ofhisaudienceMontoyabeganreadingthepressreleasenothisspeech.Hebegan"Forimmediaterelease.SenatorJosephM.MontoyaDemocratofNewMexicolastnighttoldtheNational..."Montoyareadtheentiresixpagerelease19withthestatementthathe"wasrepeatedly20byapplause. 1
Sincetheindustrialrevolutiongovernmentsocietyandindustryhaveattemptedtochanneltechnologicalprogressinusefuldirections.WhetheritistheprintingpressthecottongintheautomobileortheInternettechnologicalinnovationsoftenhaveprofoundeconomicandsocialeffects.Toharnessthebenefitsandminimizethemoreharmfuleffectsofnewtechnologiesmoderngovernmentsusefourbasicapproaches:specificdirectionmarketincentivescriminalprohibitionandbehaviormodification. SpecificdirectionstartswithgovernmentsidentifyingoneormorekeyfactorsintheR&Dphase.Thenusingavarietyofmeansrangingfromadministrativeregulationtooutrightstateownershipthegovernmentseekstocontroltheimplementationofthetechnology. Marketincentivesarethedeliberatemanipulationofthemarketbythegovernmenttocontrolhowaparticularlytechnologyisdistributedandused.Forexamplesomegovernmentsimposetaxestocoverthehiddencostsassociatedwiththeuseofaparticulartechnology.Forexampleraisinggasolinetaxestopayforhighwayimprovements.Othermethodsincludethegrantingofsubsidiestoprivateresearchersorthestrengtheningofintellectualpropertylawstogiveaddedincentivestodevelopers. Criminalprohibitionusuallytakesplacewhenstrongoppositionexiststoaparticulartechnologyorfieldofresearch.Inrecentyearsmostdevelopedcountrieshaveenactedlegislationtobanthecloningofhumanbeings.Otherexamplesaretheenforcementofcleanairregulationsthatforcepowerplantstoemitfewergreenhousegasses. Finallybehaviormodificationincludestheuseofthemediaadvertisingandgovernmentandcorporateleadershiptoencourageaparticularsocietytouseatechnologyinabeneficialway.ForexamplewhilethereislimitedgovernmentregulationoftheInternetwebsitesareencouragedtoinstallsafeguardstopreventchildrenfromviewinginappropriatematerial.ArecentnationaladvertisingcampaignrecentlyboostedthepercentageofNewYorkresidentswhorecycledbyalmost25%.Suchcampaignsdonotusedirectgovernmentregulationbutinsteadappealtotheuser’ssenseofcivicdutyorsocialresponsibility. OfallnewtechnologiesperhapsnonehaschangedthelandscapeandcharacterofAmericanlifemorethantheautomobile.YetthecostsofthistechnologyarenotalwaysreflectedinthepriceofUsingthetechnology.Forexampleitcostsanoilcompany$0.89pergallonofgasproduced.ThissameliterissoldtoU.S.consumersatabout$1.20pergallon.Yetwhilethispricereflectsthecostofproductionplusaprofitfortheoilcompanyitdoesnotreflecttheactualcostofusingthetechnology.Forthatwemustfactorintheenvironmentalcostsassociatedwithairpollutionincreasedhealthcareenvironmentaldegradationandthepoliticalcostsdependenceonforeignoilenergyshortages.Inshortinordertobeeffectiveallofthesestrategiesforchannelingtechnologytobenefitsocietymustincorporateallthecostsassociatedwithusage. Byimplementingcriminalprohibitionthegovernmentwillbeableto
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 1
Thatrapscallionwholeapsoffthemonkeybarslandingsmackontoaninnocent3-year-oldbystanderandskipsoffgigglingallthewhileAccordingtoanewpaperoutofIsraelhemaynotfeelallthatbadabouttheincident.ThestudyconductedbyDr.InbalKivensonBar-OnattheUniversityofHaifashowsthathighlevelsoffearlessnessin3-and4-year-oldsisstronglyassociatedwithaggressionandalackofsympathy.Thisnewswilllikelysurpriserisk-lovingAmericawhereparentstypicallybeamwithpridewhentheirundauntedchildmountsthebigslide. Fearlessnessisafar-endpointonthespectrumofwhatpsychologistscallthe"approachandwithdrawaldimension"—people’stendencytoapproachnewstimulitogaininformationandacquirenewskillsandwithdrawfromunfamiliarstimulitoavoiddanger.Strikingtherightbalanceisconsideredcrucialtoman’ssurvival.Butwhataboutpreschoolers’There’sacleardownsideDr.KivensonBar-Ondiscoveredaftersheobservedlotsofpreschoolplayandmachinations.Intotalshedocumented80childrenatpreschoolhomeandinthelabmeasuringtheirpropensityforfearlessnessandothersocialandemotionalcharacteristicsatthebeginningandendofoneyear.Fearlessnesswasmeasuredbyobservingreactionstovariousfright-inducingsituations:separationfromparentstheroarofavacuumcleanerajack-in-the-boxandthelike.Thosewhodisplayedgreaterlevelsoffearlessnessthestudyfoundhadnotroublerecognizingfacialexpressionsofangersurprisehappinessandsadnessinotherchildren—buttheyhadahardtimeidentifyingfear. Overalltheywere"emotionallyshallow"andshowedlowerlevelsofsympathy.Theytookadvantageoffriendsandlackedregretoverinappropriateconduct."Thesefindings"thepaperexplains"suggestthatfearlessnessinpreschoolconstitutesaclearriskfactorfordevelopmentalpathwaysthatleadtoproblemsinmoralityconsciencedevelopmentandsevereantisocialbehaviors."Atthesametimefearlesschildrentendedtobehighlysociable."Oneofthemostinterestingfindingswasthatwecoulddiscriminatebetweenfriendlinessandsympathy"Dr.KivensonBar-Onsaid."Thesekidsarecuriouseasygoingandfriendlybuttheyhaveahardtimerecognizingemotionaldistressinothers." JamieOstrovapsychologyprofessorattheStateUniversityatBuffalowhostudiesaggressionsaysthatchildrenattheextremeendofthefearlessspectrurn"maybecharmingbutthey’realsohighlymanipulativeanddeceptiveandskilledatgettingtheirway—evenatage3or4."Itcouldbethatfearlesschildrenneedstrongerdistresscuestoactivetheirautonomicnervoussystemslimitingtheirabilitytodetectdistresscuesinothers.ItseemstobeifI’mnotworriedaboutthisyoucan’tbeeither.Butshouldwebe AccordingtoDr.KivensonBar-Onfearlesschildren
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 5
Inasensethenewprotectionismisnotprotectionismatallatleastnotinthetraditionalsenseoftheterm.Theoldprotectionismreferredonlytotrade-restrictingandtrade-expandingdevicessuchasthetarifforexportsubsidy.Thenewprotectionismismuchbroaderthanthis;itincludesinterventionsintoforeigntradebutisnotlimitedtothem.46Thenewprotectionisminfactreferstohowthewholeofgovernmentinterventionintotheprivateeconomyaffectsinternationaltrade.Theemphasisontradeisstilltherethuscamethetermprotection.Butwhatisnewistherealizationthatvirtuallyallgovernmentactivitiescanaffectinternationaleconomicrelations.47TheemergenceofthenewprotectionismintheWesternworldreflectsthevictoryoftheinterventionistorwelfareeconomyoverthemarketeconomy.JabTumilerwritesTheoldprotectionismcoexistedwithoutanyapparentintellectualdifficultywiththeacceptableofthemarketasanationalaswellasaninternationaleconomicdistributionmechanism-indeedprotectionistsaswellasifnotmorethanfreetradersstoodforlaissez-faire放任政策.48Nowasinthe1930’sprotectionismisanexpressionofaprofoundskepticismastotheabilityofthemarkettodistributeresourcesandincomestosocietiessatisfaction.Itispreciselythisprofoundskepticismofthemarketeconomythatisresponsiblefortheprotectionism.Inamarketeconomyeconomicchangeofvariouscolorsimpliesredistributionsofresourcesandincomes.Thesameopinioninmanycommunitiesapparentlyisthatsuchredistributionsoftenarenotproper.Thereforethegovernmentintervenestobringaboutamoredesiredresult.ThevictoryofthewelfarestateisalmostcompleteinnorthernEurope.InSwedenNorwayFinlandDenmarkandtheNetherlandsgovernmentinterventioninalmostallaspectsofeconomicandsociallifeisconsiderednormal.49InGreatBritainthisisonlysomewhatlesstrue.GovernmenttraditionallyhasplayedaveryactiveroleineconomiclifeinFranceandcontinuedtodoso.OnlyGermanydarestogoagainstthetidetowardsexcessiveinterventionisminWesternEurope.ItalsohappenstobethemostsuccessfulWesternEuropeaneconomy.50ThewelfarestatehasmadesignificantprogressintheUnitedStagesaswellasinWesternEurope.Socialsecurityunemploymentinsuranceminimum-wagelawsandrentcontrolarebynowtraditionalwelfarestateelementsontheAmericanscene.
Inasensethenewprotectionismisnotprotectionismatallatleastnotinthetraditionalsenseoftheterm.Theoldprotectionismreferredonlytotrade-restrictingandtrade-expandingdevicessuchasthetarifforexportsubsidy.Thenewprotectionismismuchbroaderthanthis;itincludesinterventionsintoforeigntradebutisnotlimitedtothem.46Thenewprotectionisminfactreferstohowthewholeofgovernmentinterventionintotheprivateeconomyaffectsinternationaltrade.Theemphasisontradeisstilltherethuscamethetermprotection.Butwhatisnewistherealizationthatvirtuallyallgovernmentactivitiescanaffectinternationaleconomicrelations.47TheemergenceofthenewprotectionismintheWesternworldreflectsthevictoryoftheinterventionistorwelfareeconomyoverthemarketeconomy.JabTumilerwritesTheoldprotectionismcoexistedwithoutanyapparentintellectualdifficultywiththeacceptableofthemarketasanationalaswellasaninternationaleconomicdistributionmechanism-indeedprotectionistsaswellasifnotmorethanfreetradersstoodforlaissez-faire放任政策.48Nowasinthe1930’sprotectionismisanexpressionofaprofoundskepticismastotheabilityofthemarkettodistributeresourcesandincomestosocietiessatisfaction.Itispreciselythisprofoundskepticismofthemarketeconomythatisresponsiblefortheprotectionism.Inamarketeconomyeconomicchangeofvariouscolorsimpliesredistributionsofresourcesandincomes.Thesameopinioninmanycommunitiesapparentlyisthatsuchredistributionsoftenarenotproper.Thereforethegovernmentintervenestobringaboutamoredesiredresult.ThevictoryofthewelfarestateisalmostcompleteinnorthernEurope.InSwedenNorwayFinlandDenmarkandtheNetherlandsgovernmentinterventioninalmostallaspectsofeconomicandsociallifeisconsiderednormal.49InGreatBritainthisisonlysomewhatlesstrue.GovernmenttraditionallyhasplayedaveryactiveroleineconomiclifeinFranceandcontinuedtodoso.OnlyGermanydarestogoagainstthetidetowardsexcessiveinterventionisminWesternEurope.ItalsohappenstobethemostsuccessfulWesternEuropeaneconomy.50ThewelfarestatehasmadesignificantprogressintheUnitedStagesaswellasinWesternEurope.Socialsecurityunemploymentinsuranceminimum-wagelawsandrentcontrolarebynowtraditionalwelfarestateelementsontheAmericanscene.
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 17
Deflationisaneconomictheoryrelatingchangesinthepricelevelstochangesinthequantityofmoney.Initsdeveloped1itconstitutesananalysisofthe2underlyinginflationanddeflation.As3bytheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeinthe17thcenturytheScottish4DavidHumeinthe18thcenturyand5itwasaweapon6themercantilistswhowerethoughttoequatewealthwithmoney.Ifthe7ofmoneybyanationmerelyraised8arguedthequantitytheoriststhena"favourable"balanceoftrade9desiredbymercantilistswouldincreasethesupplyofmoneybutwouldnotin-crease10.Inthe19thcenturythequantitytheory11totheascendancyoffreetradeoverprotectionism.Inthe19thand20thcenturiesitplayedapartinthe12ofbusinesscyclesandinthetheoryofforeign13rates. The14theorycameunderattackduringthe1930s15monetaryexpansionseemedineffectiveincombatingdeflation.Economistsarguedthatthelevelsofinvestmentandgovernmentspendingweremoreimportantthanthemoneysupplyindeterminingeconomicactivity. Thetideofopinion16againinthe1960swhenexperience17post-WorldWarⅡinflationandnewempirical18ofmoneyandprices—19AMonetaryHistoryoftheUnitedStates1963byMiltonFriedmanandAnnaSchwartz—restoredmuchofthequantitytheory’slostprestige.Oneimplicationofthistheoryisthatthesizeofthestockofmoneymustbeconsideredwhenshapinggovernmentalpolicies20tocontrolpricesandmaintainfullemployment. 9
46SurprisinglyenoughmodernhistorianshaverarelyinterestedthemselvesinthehistoryoftheAmericanSouthintheperiodbeforetheSouthbegantobecomeself-consciouslyanddistinctivelySouthern—thedecadesafter1815.ConsequentlytheculturalhistoryofBritain’sNorthAmericanempireintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieshasbeenwrittenalmostasiftheSoutherncolonieshadneverexisted.TheAmericanculturethatemergedduringtheColonialandRevolutionaryerashasbeendepictedashavingbeensimplyanextensionofNewEnglandPuritanculture.HoweverProfessorDavishasrecentlyarguedthattheSouthstoodapartfromtherestofAmericansocietyduringthisearlyperiodfollowingitsownuniquepatternofculturaldevelopment.47ThecaseforSoutherndistinctivenessrestsupontworelatedpremises:firstthattheculturalsimilaritiesamongthefiveSoutherncolonieswerefarmoreimpressivethanthedifferencesandsecondthatwhatmadethosecoloniesalikealsomadethemdifferentfromtheothercolonies.ThefirstforwhichDavisoffersanenormousamountofevidencecanbeacceptedwithoutmajorreservations;thesecondisfarmoreproblematic.WhatmakesthesecondpremiseproblematicistheuseofthePuritancoloniesasabasisforcomparison.QuiteproperlyDavisdecriestheexcessiveinfluenceascribedbyhistorianstothePuritansintheformationofAmericanculture.YetDavisinadvertentlyaddsweighttosuchascriptionsbyusingthePuritansasthestandardagainstwhichtoassesstheachievementsandcontributionsofSoutherncolonials.48ThroughoutDavisfocusesontheimportantandundeniabledifferencesbetweentheSouthernandNortherncoloniesinmotivesforandpatternsofearlysettlementinattitudestowardnatureandNativeAmericansandinthedegreeofreceptivitytometropolitanculturalinfluences.49HoweverrecentscholarshiphasstronglysuggestedthatthoseaspectsofearlyNewEnglandculturethatseemtohavebeenmostdistinctlyPuritansuchasthestrongreligiousorientationandthecommunalimpulsewerenoteventypicalofNewEnglandasawholebutwerelargelyconfinedtothetwocoloniesofAmerica.ThuswhatincontrasttothePuritanNortherncoloniesappearstoDavistobepeculiarlySouthern—acquisitivenessastronginterestinpoliticsandthelawandatendencytocultivatemetropolitanculturalmodels—wasnotonlymoretypicallyEnglishthantheculturalpatternsexhibitedbyPuritanMassachusettsandConnecticutbutalsoalmostcertainlycharacteristicofmostotherearlymodernBritishcoloniesfromBarbadosnorthtoRhodeIslandandNewHampshire.50WithinthelargerframeworkofAmericancoloniallifethennottheSouthernbuttheNortherncoloniesappeartohavebeendistinctiveandeventheyseemtohavebeenrapidlyassimilatingtothedominantculturalpatternsbythelastColonialperiod.
46SurprisinglyenoughmodernhistorianshaverarelyinterestedthemselvesinthehistoryoftheAmericanSouthintheperiodbeforetheSouthbegantobecomeself-consciouslyanddistinctivelySouthern—thedecadesafter1815.ConsequentlytheculturalhistoryofBritain’sNorthAmericanempireintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieshasbeenwrittenalmostasiftheSoutherncolonieshadneverexisted.TheAmericanculturethatemergedduringtheColonialandRevolutionaryerashasbeendepictedashavingbeensimplyanextensionofNewEnglandPuritanculture.HoweverProfessorDavishasrecentlyarguedthattheSouthstoodapartfromtherestofAmericansocietyduringthisearlyperiodfollowingitsownuniquepatternofculturaldevelopment.47ThecaseforSoutherndistinctivenessrestsupontworelatedpremises:firstthattheculturalsimilaritiesamongthefiveSoutherncolonieswerefarmoreimpressivethanthedifferencesandsecondthatwhatmadethosecoloniesalikealsomadethemdifferentfromtheothercolonies.ThefirstforwhichDavisoffersanenormousamountofevidencecanbeacceptedwithoutmajorreservations;thesecondisfarmoreproblematic.WhatmakesthesecondpremiseproblematicistheuseofthePuritancoloniesasabasisforcomparison.QuiteproperlyDavisdecriestheexcessiveinfluenceascribedbyhistorianstothePuritansintheformationofAmericanculture.YetDavisinadvertentlyaddsweighttosuchascriptionsbyusingthePuritansasthestandardagainstwhichtoassesstheachievementsandcontributionsofSoutherncolonials.48ThroughoutDavisfocusesontheimportantandundeniabledifferencesbetweentheSouthernandNortherncoloniesinmotivesforandpatternsofearlysettlementinattitudestowardnatureandNativeAmericansandinthedegreeofreceptivitytometropolitanculturalinfluences.49HoweverrecentscholarshiphasstronglysuggestedthatthoseaspectsofearlyNewEnglandculturethatseemtohavebeenmostdistinctlyPuritansuchasthestrongreligiousorientationandthecommunalimpulsewerenoteventypicalofNewEnglandasawholebutwerelargelyconfinedtothetwocoloniesofAmerica.ThuswhatincontrasttothePuritanNortherncoloniesappearstoDavistobepeculiarlySouthern—acquisitivenessastronginterestinpoliticsandthelawandatendencytocultivatemetropolitanculturalmodels—wasnotonlymoretypicallyEnglishthantheculturalpatternsexhibitedbyPuritanMassachusettsandConnecticutbutalsoalmostcertainlycharacteristicofmostotherearlymodernBritishcoloniesfromBarbadosnorthtoRhodeIslandandNewHampshire.50WithinthelargerframeworkofAmericancoloniallifethennottheSouthernbuttheNortherncoloniesappeartohavebeendistinctiveandeventheyseemtohavebeenrapidlyassimilatingtothedominantculturalpatternsbythelastColonialperiod.
ManyintheMiddleEasthavedifficultyinadjustingthemselvestothenewsituationcreatedbythedepartureoftheimperialpowers.Forthefirsttimeinalmost200yearstherulersandpeopleoftheMiddleEasthavetoacceptthefinalresponsibilityfortheirownaffairstomaketheirownmistakesandtoaccepttheconsequences.Thisisdifficulttointernalizeeventoperceiveaftersolongaperiod.Fortheentirelifetimesofthosewhoformulateandconductpolicyatthepresenttimeandoftheirpredecessorsformanygenerationsvitaldecisionsweremadeelsewhereultimatecontrollayelsewhereandtheprincipaltaskofstatesmanshipanddiplomacywasasfaraspossibletoavoidorreducethedangersofthissituationandtoexploitsuchopportunitiesasitmightfromtimetotimeoffer.Itisverydifficulttoforsakethehabitsnotjustofalifetimebutofawholeeraofhistory.Thedifficultyismuchgreaterwhenalienculturalsocialandeconomicpreeminencecontinuesandevenincreasesdespitetheendingofalienpoliticalandmilitarydomination. MilitaryandtoagrowingextentpoliticalinterventionbytheWesthasindeedendedbuttheimpactofitsscienceandcultureitstechnologyamenitiesandinstitutionsremainsandevenincreases.Asinotherpartsofthenon-Westernworldthisimpacthasbeenandwillbeenormous.InthesecircumstancesitisnaturalthatMiddleEasternersshouldcontinuetoassume—andproceedontheassumption—thatrealresponsibilityanddecisionstilllieelsewhere.Initscrudestformthisbeliefleadstowildandstrangeconspiracytheoriesdirectedagainstthosewhomtheyregardastheirenemies—IsraelandmoregenerallytheJewstheUnitedStatesandmoregenerallytheWest.Notheoryistooabsurdtobeassertedortoopreposteroustobewidelyandinstantlybelieved.Evenamongmoreresponsiblestatesmenandanalystsasimilarbeliefinalienpoweralbeitinalesscrudeformoftenseemstoguidebothanalysisandpolicy.Someevengosofarastoinviteoutsideinterventionpresumableinthebeliefthatonlyoutsidepowershavethecapacitytomakeandenforcedecisions.AcaseinpointistheconstantappealtotheUnitedStatestoinvolveitselfintheArabIsraelconflictoddlycoupledwiththerepeatedaccusationof"Americanimperialism." ThisstateofmindislikelytocontinueforsometimewithappealsforsupportoreveninterventiontotheUnitedStatestoRussiaandeventotheEuropeanUnion.IntimenodoubtMiddleEasterngovernmentsandpeoplewilllearnhowtousethiswindowofopportunitytothebestadvantage—thatisofcourseifthewindowremainsopenlongenough. ItisnaturalforMiddleEasternerstoassumethat
Thatrapscallionwholeapsoffthemonkeybarslandingsmackontoaninnocent3-year-oldbystanderandskipsoffgigglingallthewhileAccordingtoanewpaperoutofIsraelhemaynotfeelallthatbadabouttheincident.ThestudyconductedbyDr.InbalKivensonBar-OnattheUniversityofHaifashowsthathighlevelsoffearlessnessin3-and4-year-oldsisstronglyassociatedwithaggressionandalackofsympathy.Thisnewswilllikelysurpriserisk-lovingAmericawhereparentstypicallybeamwithpridewhentheirundauntedchildmountsthebigslide. Fearlessnessisafar-endpointonthespectrumofwhatpsychologistscallthe"approachandwithdrawaldimension"—people’stendencytoapproachnewstimulitogaininformationandacquirenewskillsandwithdrawfromunfamiliarstimulitoavoiddanger.Strikingtherightbalanceisconsideredcrucialtoman’ssurvival.Butwhataboutpreschoolers’There’sacleardownsideDr.KivensonBar-Ondiscoveredaftersheobservedlotsofpreschoolplayandmachinations.Intotalshedocumented80childrenatpreschoolhomeandinthelabmeasuringtheirpropensityforfearlessnessandothersocialandemotionalcharacteristicsatthebeginningandendofoneyear.Fearlessnesswasmeasuredbyobservingreactionstovariousfright-inducingsituations:separationfromparentstheroarofavacuumcleanerajack-in-the-boxandthelike.Thosewhodisplayedgreaterlevelsoffearlessnessthestudyfoundhadnotroublerecognizingfacialexpressionsofangersurprisehappinessandsadnessinotherchildren—buttheyhadahardtimeidentifyingfear. Overalltheywere"emotionallyshallow"andshowedlowerlevelsofsympathy.Theytookadvantageoffriendsandlackedregretoverinappropriateconduct."Thesefindings"thepaperexplains"suggestthatfearlessnessinpreschoolconstitutesaclearriskfactorfordevelopmentalpathwaysthatleadtoproblemsinmoralityconsciencedevelopmentandsevereantisocialbehaviors."Atthesametimefearlesschildrentendedtobehighlysociable."Oneofthemostinterestingfindingswasthatwecoulddiscriminatebetweenfriendlinessandsympathy"Dr.KivensonBar-Onsaid."Thesekidsarecuriouseasygoingandfriendlybuttheyhaveahardtimerecognizingemotionaldistressinothers." JamieOstrovapsychologyprofessorattheStateUniversityatBuffalowhostudiesaggressionsaysthatchildrenattheextremeendofthefearlessspectrurn"maybecharmingbutthey’realsohighlymanipulativeanddeceptiveandskilledatgettingtheirway—evenatage3or4."Itcouldbethatfearlesschildrenneedstrongerdistresscuestoactivetheirautonomicnervoussystemslimitingtheirabilitytodetectdistresscuesinothers.ItseemstobeifI’mnotworriedaboutthisyoucan’tbeeither.Butshouldwebe AsfortheresultoftheresearchAmericanparentsmaybe
HERE’SATALEOFTWOCOMPANIES.Bothareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsinvolvingallegationsofsexualharassment.CompanyAisconfrontedwiththeproblemandpunishestopexecs.CompanyBstonewallsandmountsanaggressivecampaigntodiscredititsaccusersandportrayitselfasavictimofcorporateslander.41Forbusinessschoolslookingforafewgoodcasestudiesindamagecontrollastweekwasaboutasgoodasitgets.OnewasSwedishpharmaceuticalscompanyAstraUSAamakerofasthmamedicationsandthepopularanestheticXylocaine.FacingsimilarchargesMitsubishiMotormanufacturingofAmericaoptedforinyour-facedenial.WhodiditrightIt’stoosoontoknowforsure.Astra’sstrategymayseemsmarter.FinanciallyspeakingatleastonecanseewhyMitsubishiisreluctanttoissueapublicmeaculpa.Fessingupcouldexposeittoasmuchas$200millionindamages.Suchcontroversiesarenoraritythesedays.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunitycommissionalonereceivedmorethan15000complaintsofsexualharassmentlastyearmorethantwiceasmanyasin1991.ItssuitagainstMitsubishifiledlastmonthmayturnouttobebyfarthebiggestever—andcouldeventuallyinvolveasmanyastwothirdsofthecompany’s900femaleworkers.42Mitsubishi’sresponsewasclearfromthebeginning.WhentheEEOCannounceditscaseagainsttheIllinoisautomakerthecompanydispatchedbusloadsofworkerstopickettheagency’sChicagooffices.AttorneysforMitsubishiwillnodoubtprobetheprivatelivesofthewomenlodgingcomplaintsandmayevenaccusethemofJapanbashing.Mitsubishi’sbrassinTokyoseemedabittakenabackbytheferocityofthecounteroffensivetothepointofsuggestingthatmaybethecasecouldbequietlysettled.43CouldsuchtacticsbeeffectiveIfaggressivePRmakespeopledoubttheallegationsagainstthecompanyorencouragesfederalinvestigatorstosettleonmorefavorabletermsthenthestrategywillhavesucceeded.ButtherearerisksespeciallyforconsumercompanieslikeMitsubishi.44That’snosmallthreatconsideringthatMitsubishiisstrugglingtoturnaprofitinthiscountry.45Astra’sstrategyseemssavier.Itsopennessandpromptresponsemighthelpitevadepunitivedamagesshouldanyofthecomplaintsgotoajury.Infactthatmaybeachiefreasonthecompanyactedevenbeforeitcompleteditsowninvestigation.ThatsaidAstraisinthesouptobeginwithbecauseithadnoadequatemechanismsforreportingincidentsandbecauseitfailedtodealwithitsproblemsbeforetheybecamepublic.Womenhavecomplainedofharassmentatthecompanyformorethanadecade.BusinessWeekreportsincidentsrangingfromgropingsatcompanyretreatstosuggestionsthatfemalesalesrepscouldadvancetheircareersbyputtingoutsexuallyfortheirbosses—includingtheheadofthecompanyLarsBildman.Hislawyerdeniestheallegationsasdotheotherexecutives.SofarAstraitselfhasofferednoevidencesuggestinganyofthethreeareguilty.Bothcompaniesnowpromisetodobetter.Astraisoverhaulingitscorporatepersonnelpoliciesandplanstotrainmanagersonhowtohandleissuesofsexualdiscrimination.SoisMitsubishi.Saystheautomaker’sgeneralcounselGaryShultz:Wearegoingtobecomethemodelinhandingsexual-harassmentand-discriminationcases.Thatremainstobeseen.Ifthesesortsofscandalsforcecompaniestosetuprulesthatactuallyworkthatmaybethebestcasestudyofall.[A]That’spreciselywhatthecompanydidinresponsetoapriorsexual-harassmentsuitfiledby29womenin1994.[B]Agreatdealofattentionshouldbepaidtotheseaffairs.SaysMitsubishis’sspokesman.[C]Butwe’retakingtheseallegationsveryseriouslysaysAstraspokesmanBenjaminKincannon.[D]Outragedbytheautomaker’sseemingdisregardofitsproblemsperennialpresidentialhopefulJesseJacksonandtheNationalOrganizationforWomencalledoncarbuyerstoboycottthecompany.[E]WhenbusinessWeekpublishedtalesofwide-rangingabuseatAstra’sAmericansubsidiaryoutsideBostonthecompanyquicklyfaceduptotheproblemandsuspendeditsU.S.chiefexecutivealongwithtwotoplieutenants.[F]Prof.MartinStolleracrisis-managementexpertatNorthwesternUniversitythinksso.Theaimofcrisismanagementistostoptheattackershesays.
HERE’SATALEOFTWOCOMPANIES.Bothareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsareforeignownedbothareembroiledinscandalsinvolvingallegationsofsexualharassment.CompanyAisconfrontedwiththeproblemandpunishestopexecs.CompanyBstonewallsandmountsanaggressivecampaigntodiscredititsaccusersandportrayitselfasavictimofcorporateslander.41Forbusinessschoolslookingforafewgoodcasestudiesindamagecontrollastweekwasaboutasgoodasitgets.OnewasSwedishpharmaceuticalscompanyAstraUSAamakerofasthmamedicationsandthepopularanestheticXylocaine.FacingsimilarchargesMitsubishiMotormanufacturingofAmericaoptedforinyour-facedenial.WhodiditrightIt’stoosoontoknowforsure.Astra’sstrategymayseemsmarter.FinanciallyspeakingatleastonecanseewhyMitsubishiisreluctanttoissueapublicmeaculpa.Fessingupcouldexposeittoasmuchas$200millionindamages.Suchcontroversiesarenoraritythesedays.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunitycommissionalonereceivedmorethan15000complaintsofsexualharassmentlastyearmorethantwiceasmanyasin1991.ItssuitagainstMitsubishifiledlastmonthmayturnouttobebyfarthebiggestever—andcouldeventuallyinvolveasmanyastwothirdsofthecompany’s900femaleworkers.42Mitsubishi’sresponsewasclearfromthebeginning.WhentheEEOCannounceditscaseagainsttheIllinoisautomakerthecompanydispatchedbusloadsofworkerstopickettheagency’sChicagooffices.AttorneysforMitsubishiwillnodoubtprobetheprivatelivesofthewomenlodgingcomplaintsandmayevenaccusethemofJapanbashing.Mitsubishi’sbrassinTokyoseemedabittakenabackbytheferocityofthecounteroffensivetothepointofsuggestingthatmaybethecasecouldbequietlysettled.43CouldsuchtacticsbeeffectiveIfaggressivePRmakespeopledoubttheallegationsagainstthecompanyorencouragesfederalinvestigatorstosettleonmorefavorabletermsthenthestrategywillhavesucceeded.ButtherearerisksespeciallyforconsumercompanieslikeMitsubishi.44That’snosmallthreatconsideringthatMitsubishiisstrugglingtoturnaprofitinthiscountry.45Astra’sstrategyseemssavier.Itsopennessandpromptresponsemighthelpitevadepunitivedamagesshouldanyofthecomplaintsgotoajury.Infactthatmaybeachiefreasonthecompanyactedevenbeforeitcompleteditsowninvestigation.ThatsaidAstraisinthesouptobeginwithbecauseithadnoadequatemechanismsforreportingincidentsandbecauseitfailedtodealwithitsproblemsbeforetheybecamepublic.Womenhavecomplainedofharassmentatthecompanyformorethanadecade.BusinessWeekreportsincidentsrangingfromgropingsatcompanyretreatstosuggestionsthatfemalesalesrepscouldadvancetheircareersbyputtingoutsexuallyfortheirbosses—includingtheheadofthecompanyLarsBildman.Hislawyerdeniestheallegationsasdotheotherexecutives.SofarAstraitselfhasofferednoevidencesuggestinganyofthethreeareguilty.Bothcompaniesnowpromisetodobetter.Astraisoverhaulingitscorporatepersonnelpoliciesandplanstotrainmanagersonhowtohandleissuesofsexualdiscrimination.SoisMitsubishi.Saystheautomaker’sgeneralcounselGaryShultz:Wearegoingtobecomethemodelinhandingsexual-harassmentand-discriminationcases.Thatremainstobeseen.Ifthesesortsofscandalsforcecompaniestosetuprulesthatactuallyworkthatmaybethebestcasestudyofall.[A]That’spreciselywhatthecompanydidinresponsetoapriorsexual-harassmentsuitfiledby29womenin1994.[B]Agreatdealofattentionshouldbepaidtotheseaffairs.SaysMitsubishis’sspokesman.[C]Butwe’retakingtheseallegationsveryseriouslysaysAstraspokesmanBenjaminKincannon.[D]Outragedbytheautomaker’sseemingdisregardofitsproblemsperennialpresidentialhopefulJesseJacksonandtheNationalOrganizationforWomencalledoncarbuyerstoboycottthecompany.[E]WhenbusinessWeekpublishedtalesofwide-rangingabuseatAstra’sAmericansubsidiaryoutsideBostonthecompanyquicklyfaceduptotheproblemandsuspendeditsU.S.chiefexecutivealongwithtwotoplieutenants.[F]Prof.MartinStolleracrisis-managementexpertatNorthwesternUniversitythinksso.Theaimofcrisismanagementistostoptheattackershesays.
Sincetheindustrialrevolutiongovernmentsocietyandindustryhaveattemptedtochanneltechnologicalprogressinusefuldirections.WhetheritistheprintingpressthecottongintheautomobileortheInternettechnologicalinnovationsoftenhaveprofoundeconomicandsocialeffects.Toharnessthebenefitsandminimizethemoreharmfuleffectsofnewtechnologiesmoderngovernmentsusefourbasicapproaches:specificdirectionmarketincentivescriminalprohibitionandbehaviormodification. SpecificdirectionstartswithgovernmentsidentifyingoneormorekeyfactorsintheR&Dphase.Thenusingavarietyofmeansrangingfromadministrativeregulationtooutrightstateownershipthegovernmentseekstocontroltheimplementationofthetechnology. Marketincentivesarethedeliberatemanipulationofthemarketbythegovernmenttocontrolhowaparticularlytechnologyisdistributedandused.Forexamplesomegovernmentsimposetaxestocoverthehiddencostsassociatedwiththeuseofaparticulartechnology.Forexampleraisinggasolinetaxestopayforhighwayimprovements.Othermethodsincludethegrantingofsubsidiestoprivateresearchersorthestrengtheningofintellectualpropertylawstogiveaddedincentivestodevelopers. Criminalprohibitionusuallytakesplacewhenstrongoppositionexiststoaparticulartechnologyorfieldofresearch.Inrecentyearsmostdevelopedcountrieshaveenactedlegislationtobanthecloningofhumanbeings.Otherexamplesaretheenforcementofcleanairregulationsthatforcepowerplantstoemitfewergreenhousegasses. Finallybehaviormodificationincludestheuseofthemediaadvertisingandgovernmentandcorporateleadershiptoencourageaparticularsocietytouseatechnologyinabeneficialway.ForexamplewhilethereislimitedgovernmentregulationoftheInternetwebsitesareencouragedtoinstallsafeguardstopreventchildrenfromviewinginappropriatematerial.ArecentnationaladvertisingcampaignrecentlyboostedthepercentageofNewYorkresidentswhorecycledbyalmost25%.Suchcampaignsdonotusedirectgovernmentregulationbutinsteadappealtotheuser’ssenseofcivicdutyorsocialresponsibility. OfallnewtechnologiesperhapsnonehaschangedthelandscapeandcharacterofAmericanlifemorethantheautomobile.YetthecostsofthistechnologyarenotalwaysreflectedinthepriceofUsingthetechnology.Forexampleitcostsanoilcompany$0.89pergallonofgasproduced.ThissameliterissoldtoU.S.consumersatabout$1.20pergallon.Yetwhilethispricereflectsthecostofproductionplusaprofitfortheoilcompanyitdoesnotreflecttheactualcostofusingthetechnology.Forthatwemustfactorintheenvironmentalcostsassociatedwithairpollutionincreasedhealthcareenvironmentaldegradationandthepoliticalcostsdependenceonforeignoilenergyshortages.Inshortinordertobeeffectiveallofthesestrategiesforchannelingtechnologytobenefitsocietymustincorporateallthecostsassociatedwithusage. Specificdirectionischaracterizedby
ManyintheMiddleEasthavedifficultyinadjustingthemselvestothenewsituationcreatedbythedepartureoftheimperialpowers.Forthefirsttimeinalmost200yearstherulersandpeopleoftheMiddleEasthavetoacceptthefinalresponsibilityfortheirownaffairstomaketheirownmistakesandtoaccepttheconsequences.Thisisdifficulttointernalizeeventoperceiveaftersolongaperiod.Fortheentirelifetimesofthosewhoformulateandconductpolicyatthepresenttimeandoftheirpredecessorsformanygenerationsvitaldecisionsweremadeelsewhereultimatecontrollayelsewhereandtheprincipaltaskofstatesmanshipanddiplomacywasasfaraspossibletoavoidorreducethedangersofthissituationandtoexploitsuchopportunitiesasitmightfromtimetotimeoffer.Itisverydifficulttoforsakethehabitsnotjustofalifetimebutofawholeeraofhistory.Thedifficultyismuchgreaterwhenalienculturalsocialandeconomicpreeminencecontinuesandevenincreasesdespitetheendingofalienpoliticalandmilitarydomination. MilitaryandtoagrowingextentpoliticalinterventionbytheWesthasindeedendedbuttheimpactofitsscienceandcultureitstechnologyamenitiesandinstitutionsremainsandevenincreases.Asinotherpartsofthenon-Westernworldthisimpacthasbeenandwillbeenormous.InthesecircumstancesitisnaturalthatMiddleEasternersshouldcontinuetoassume—andproceedontheassumption—thatrealresponsibilityanddecisionstilllieelsewhere.Initscrudestformthisbeliefleadstowildandstrangeconspiracytheoriesdirectedagainstthosewhomtheyregardastheirenemies—IsraelandmoregenerallytheJewstheUnitedStatesandmoregenerallytheWest.Notheoryistooabsurdtobeassertedortoopreposteroustobewidelyandinstantlybelieved.Evenamongmoreresponsiblestatesmenandanalystsasimilarbeliefinalienpoweralbeitinalesscrudeformoftenseemstoguidebothanalysisandpolicy.Someevengosofarastoinviteoutsideinterventionpresumableinthebeliefthatonlyoutsidepowershavethecapacitytomakeandenforcedecisions.AcaseinpointistheconstantappealtotheUnitedStatestoinvolveitselfintheArabIsraelconflictoddlycoupledwiththerepeatedaccusationof"Americanimperialism." ThisstateofmindislikelytocontinueforsometimewithappealsforsupportoreveninterventiontotheUnitedStatestoRussiaandeventotheEuropeanUnion.IntimenodoubtMiddleEasterngovernmentsandpeoplewilllearnhowtousethiswindowofopportunitytothebestadvantage—thatisofcourseifthewindowremainsopenlongenough. Theword"this"inthethirdsentenceofParagraph1refersto
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