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Oncetheexclusivedomainofexecutiveswithexpenseaccountsmobilephonesaresettobecomeoneofthecentraltechnologiesofthe21stcentury.46Withinafewyearsthemobilephonewillevolvefromavoice-onlydevicetoamulti-functionalcommunicatorcapableoftransmittingandreceivingnotonlysoundbutvideostillimagesdataandtext.Awholeneweraofpersonalcommunicationisontheway.Thanksinparttothegrowthofwirelessnetworksthetelephoneisconvergingwiththepersonalcomputerandthetelevision.47Soonlight-weightphonesoutfittedwithhighresolutionscreens--whichcanbeembeddedineverythingfromwristwatchestopalm-heldunitswillbeconnectedtoseriesofloworbitsatellitesenablingpeopletotalksendandreceiveE-mailortakepartinvideoconferencesanytimeanywhere.Thesephonesmightalsoabsorbmanyofthekeyfunctionsofthedesktopcomputer.MobiledevicesareexpectedtobeidealforsomeofthenewpersonalizedservicesthatarebecomingavailableviatheInternet.Thecommunicationsrevolutionisalreadytakingshapearoundtheglobe.InEuropemall-scaletrialsareunderwayusingmobilephonesforelectroniccommerce.ForexamplemostphonescontainasubscriberidentificationmoduleSIMcardthatservesprimarilytoidentifyausertothephonenetwork.SomemanufacturersplantoupgradetheSIMcardtoanall-in-onepersonalidentificationandcreditcard.Anotherapproachistoaddaslottomobilephonesforasecondsmartcarddesignedspecificallyformobileecommerce.48ThesecardscouldbeusedtomakepaymentsovertheInternetorremovedfromthephoneforuseinpointof-saleterminalstopayforthingslikepublictransportationmovieticketsoraroundofdrinksatthebar.InFranceMotorolaiscurrentlytestingadualslotphonetheStarTACDinatrialwithFranceTelecomwhileinFinlandNokiaistestingaphonethatusesaspecialpluginreaderforatinysmartcard.Siemensispursuingadifferentapproach.49Sinceitisnotveryclearwhetherit’sbesttodoeverythingwithasingledeviceSiemensisdevelopingdualslotphonesandEinsteinadeviceequippedwithasmartcardreaderandkeypadthatcanbelinkedtothephoneviainfraredwirelesstechnology.50Forthosewhowanttothoughitwillbepossibletoreceivealmostallformsofelectroniccommunicationthroughasingledevicemostlikelyathree-in-onephonethatservesasacordlessathomeacellphoneontheroadandanintercomatwork.ThemobilephonewillbecomeincreasinglymultifunctionalsaysBurghardtSchallenbergervicepresidentfortechnologyandinnovationatSiemensInformationandConsumerProducts.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 10
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 20
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities.41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.______Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain.42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.______Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-calledunderclasstheyaresounder-privilegedandpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement.43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.______RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem.44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.______Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving.45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.______Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities.Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue.[A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites.[B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore.[C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.DowncamethewhitesonlynoticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.GonetoowerethehideouslynchingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks--hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect.[D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem.[E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks.[F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 14
DisabilityamongtheelderlyhasdeclinedmarkedlyintheUnitedStatesinthepasttwodecades.In198425percentoftheelderlypopulationreporteddifficultywithactivitiesassociatedwithindependentliving.By1999thesharehadfallento20percentadeclineofone-fifth.Althoughthesebasicfactsarewellknowntheirinterpretationisnotclear.IsthereductionindisabilityaresultofimprovedmedicalcareindividualbehavioralchangesenvironmentalmodificationsthatallowtheelderlytobetterfunctionbythemselvesorotherdemographicchangesWillthetrendcontinueorisittimelimitedWhatdoesthereductionindisabilitymeanforyearsofhealthylifeandlaborforceparticipation TheresearchersDavidCutlerMaryBethLandrumandKateStewartfocusondisabilitycausedbycardiovasculardiseasetoinvestigatetheroleofimprovedmedicalcareonreductionsindisability.Bylookingatjustoneconditiontheycananalyzehealthshocksandtheiroutcomesinsomedetail.CardiovasculardiseaseisanaturalconditiontoanalyzebecauseitisthemostcommoncauseofdeathintheUnitedStatesandmostotherdevelopedcountries.Alsomoreisspentoncardiovasculardiseasethanonanyotherconditionclearlyacasewheremedicalcarecouldreallymatter. Theresearchersmeasuredisabilityasthepresenceofimpairmentsin.ActivitiesofDailyLivingADLsandInstrumentalActivitiesofDailyLivingIADLs.TheirdatasourcetheNationalLong-TermCareSurveyNLTCSincludesinformationonsixADLmeasures:eatinggettinginoroutofbedwalkingaroundinsidedressingbathingandgettingtoorusingthetoilet.TherearealsoquestionsabouteightIADLmeasures:doinglighthouseworkorlaundrypreparingmealsshoppingforgroceriesgettingaroundoutsidemanagingmoneytakingmedicationsandmakingtelephonecalls.TheNLTCSisanationallyrepresentativelongitudinalsurveyofthehealthanddisabilityprofileofthepopulationaged65andover. Cutlerandhisco-researchersfindthatreduceddisabilityassociatedwithcardiovasculardiseaseaccountsforasignificantpartofthetotalreductionindisability--between14and22percent.Theevidencesuggeststhatimprovementsinmedicalcareincludingbothincreaseduseofrelevantproceduresandpharmaceuticalsledtoasignificantpartofthisdeclineindisability.Regionswithhigheruseexperiencedsubstantialreductionsinmortalityanddisability. Whileprecisedataontheimplicationsofreduceddisabilityarelackingthepossibleimpactofdisabilityreductionsisstaggering.Theresearchersestimatethatpreventingdisabilityafteranacutecardiovasculareventcanaddasmuchas3.7yearsofquality-adjustedlifeexpectancyorperhaps$316000ofvalue.Thecostofthisoutcomeissignificantlysmaller.Theinitialtreatmentcostsrangefrom$8610to$16332dependingontheprocedureused.FurtherrecentcostanalysesreportedthatannualMedicarespendingwaslowerforthenon-disabledthanthedisabledwhichsuggeststhathighertreatmentcostsmaybeoffsetbylowerfuturespendingamongamorehealthypopulation.Byvirtuallyanymeasurethereforetheresearchersconcludethatmedicaltechnologyafteracutecardiovascularepisodesisworththecost. Intheopeningparagraphtheauthorintroduceshistopicby
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 4
Adealisadeal—exceptapparentlywhenEntergyisinvolved.ThecompanyamajorenergysupplierinNewEnglandprovokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations. InsteadthecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourtaspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove. Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplantanagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesalethecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006thestatewentastepfurtherrequiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Thentoothecompanywentalong. EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitmentsoritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidentsincludingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakageraisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehaviortheVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension. Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislationandthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpowerlegalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainlytherearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitswordthatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint. ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStatesincludingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafelythecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionNRCreviewsthecompany’sapplicationitshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth. Thephraserenegingonkine3.para.1isclosestinmeaningto
46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage.ThatmayseemlikebadnewssaidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthereservehypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare.48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal.EveryonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkageCoffeysaid.Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood.ThereishoweveraremarkablerangeofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage.Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
Adealisadeal—exceptapparentlywhenEntergyisinvolved.ThecompanyamajorenergysupplierinNewEnglandprovokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations. InsteadthecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourtaspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove. Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplantanagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesalethecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006thestatewentastepfurtherrequiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Thentoothecompanywentalong. EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitmentsoritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidentsincludingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakageraisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehaviortheVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension. Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislationandthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpowerlegalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainlytherearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitswordthatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint. ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStatesincludingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafelythecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionNRCreviewsthecompany’sapplicationitshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth. AccordingtoParagraph4Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits
46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage.ThatmayseemlikebadnewssaidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthereservehypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare.48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal.EveryonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkageCoffeysaid.Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood.ThereishoweveraremarkablerangeofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage.Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 2
HenryKissingermaybethemostsuccessfulcertainlythemostflamboyantSecretaryofStatetoholdthatofficeinmoderntimes.Whenhewasappointedinthelate1960’stherewerenoAmericantieswithCommunistChinaVietnamandBerlinseemedreadytodrawtheUnitedStatesintoathirdworldwarandRussiawasseenas"theenemy". ButallthishaschangedandHenryKissingercausedmuchofthechange;in1971hemadehisfirsttriptoChinaatripthatwasthebeginningofthecurrenttiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.HebroughttheUnitedStatesandRussiaclosertogetheronmajorissuesbythepolicyhecalled"detente"literallymeaningarelaxation.Hisphilosophywasalwaystotalkandtobringtogether.WiththesetwopoliciesKissingerdidmuchtodrawattentionawayfromanypossibleRussia-Americanfriction. In1973hemadehisfirstvisittoEgypt.HerehewasabletobeginU.S.relationswithEgypt.HeusedhiscontactlatertobeginthesortoftalksthattheAmericanpresscalled"shuttlediplomacy".Forninety-ninedayshe"shuttled"backandforthonflightsbetweenCairoandJerusalemtoworkoutastep-by-stepwithdrawalofIsraelitroopsfromtheSinaidesert.Hiswithiscarefulapproachtodetailandhispresencemade"shuttlediplomacy"work.ItwastheonlysuccessfulapproachtoMid-eastpeaceinthethirtyyearssincethestateofIsraelwasfounded. AnothermajorworkwastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalk.ThoughhisterminofficepassedwiththetreatyunsignedKissingerleftadraftofthetreatytowhichtheRussianshadalreadyagreed.TheSALTtreatyspelledoutaone-tenthreductioninnucleararmsamajoraccomplishmentbyanystandardevenifonedoesnotconsideralltheotherconditionsandlimitationsincludedinthetreaty. EventhoughhesuccessfullyhelpedbringanendtotheVietnamWarKissinger’sfinaldaysinofficewereaffectedaswastheentireexecutivebranchinonewayoranotherbythescandalsoftheNixonWhiteHouse.Kissinger’scriticspointtohisroleinplacingwiretapsonthephonesofreportersandofficialsandtowhattheyconsiderhis"high-handed"approachtosettingforeignpolicy.ButKissingerduringthelastfewmonthsoftheNixonpresidencylimitedtheeffectsofAmericandomesticproblemsonourforeignpolicy.HecontinuedtalksintheMiddleEast.HecontinuedclosecontactwiththeSovietUnion. HistorywilldecideinthefinalviewasKissinger--andmanypresidents--oftensaidonthevalueofhisservice.Whatevertheydecidewhetherhisactionsarefinallytobeconsideredwiseorfoolishhehadapersonalvisionthatwillhedifficulttomatch. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphofthetextthat
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 16
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 8
Guthrie’scontiguityprincipleofferspracticalsuggestionsforhowtobreakhabits. Oneapplicationofthethresholdmethodinvolvesthetimeyoungchildrenspendonacademicactivities.Youngchildrenhaveshortattentionspanssothelengthoftimetheycansustainworkononeactivityislimited.Mostactivitiesarescheduledtolastnolongerthan30to40minutes.Howeveratthestartoftheschoolyearattentionspansquicklywaneandbehaviorproblemsoftenresult.ToapplyGuthrie’stheoryateachermightatthestartoftheyearlimitactivitiesto15to20minutes.Overthenextfewweekstheteachercouldgraduallyincreasethetimestudentsspendworkingonasingleactivity. Thethresholdmethodalsocanbeappliedtoteachingprintingandhandwriting.Whenchildrenfirstlearntoformletterstheirmovementsareawkwardandtheylackfinemotorcoordination.Thedistancesbetweenlinesonapagearepurposelywidesochildrencanfitthelettersintothespace.Ifpaperwithnarrowlinesisinitiallyintroducedstudents’etterswouldspilloverthebordersandstudentsmightbecomefrustrated.Oncestudentscanformletterswithinthelargerborderstheycanusepaperwithsmallerborderstohelpthemrefinetheirskills. Thefatiguemethodcanbeappliedwhendiscipliningdisruptivestudentswhobuildpaperairplanesandsailthemacrosstheroom.Theteachercanremovethestudentsfromtheclassroomgivethemalargestackofpaperandtellhimtostartmakingpaperairplanes.Afterthestudentshavemadeseveralairplanestheactivityshouldloseitsattractionandpaperwillbecomeacuefornotbuildingairplanes. Somestudentscontinuallyracearoundthegymwhentheyfirstentertheirphysicaleducationclass.Toemploythefatiguemethodtheteachermightdecidetohavethesestudentscontinuetorunafewmorelapsaftertheclasshasbegun. Theincompatibleresponsemethodcanbeusedwithstudentswhotalkandmisbehaveinthemediacenter.Readingisincompatiblewithtalking.Themediacenterteachermightaskthestudentstofindinterestingbooksandreadthemwhileinthecenter.Assumingthatthestudentsfindthebooksenjoyablethemediacenterwillovertimebecomeacueforselectingandreadingbooksratherthanfortalkingwithotherstudents. Inasocialstudiesclasssomestudentsregularlyfallasleep.Theteacherrealizedthatusingtheboardandoverheadprojectorwhilelecturingwasveryboring.Soontheteacherbegantoincorporateotherelementsintoeachlessonsuchasexperimentsanddebatesinanattempttoinvolvestudentsandraisetheirinterestinthecourse. Guthrieidentifiedthreemethodsfor
Guthrie’scontiguityprincipleofferspracticalsuggestionsforhowtobreakhabits. Oneapplicationofthethresholdmethodinvolvesthetimeyoungchildrenspendonacademicactivities.Youngchildrenhaveshortattentionspanssothelengthoftimetheycansustainworkononeactivityislimited.Mostactivitiesarescheduledtolastnolongerthan30to40minutes.Howeveratthestartoftheschoolyearattentionspansquicklywaneandbehaviorproblemsoftenresult.ToapplyGuthrie’stheoryateachermightatthestartoftheyearlimitactivitiesto15to20minutes.Overthenextfewweekstheteachercouldgraduallyincreasethetimestudentsspendworkingonasingleactivity. Thethresholdmethodalsocanbeappliedtoteachingprintingandhandwriting.Whenchildrenfirstlearntoformletterstheirmovementsareawkwardandtheylackfinemotorcoordination.Thedistancesbetweenlinesonapagearepurposelywidesochildrencanfitthelettersintothespace.Ifpaperwithnarrowlinesisinitiallyintroducedstudents’etterswouldspilloverthebordersandstudentsmightbecomefrustrated.Oncestudentscanformletterswithinthelargerborderstheycanusepaperwithsmallerborderstohelpthemrefinetheirskills. Thefatiguemethodcanbeappliedwhendiscipliningdisruptivestudentswhobuildpaperairplanesandsailthemacrosstheroom.Theteachercanremovethestudentsfromtheclassroomgivethemalargestackofpaperandtellhimtostartmakingpaperairplanes.Afterthestudentshavemadeseveralairplanestheactivityshouldloseitsattractionandpaperwillbecomeacuefornotbuildingairplanes. Somestudentscontinuallyracearoundthegymwhentheyfirstentertheirphysicaleducationclass.Toemploythefatiguemethodtheteachermightdecidetohavethesestudentscontinuetorunafewmorelapsaftertheclasshasbegun. Theincompatibleresponsemethodcanbeusedwithstudentswhotalkandmisbehaveinthemediacenter.Readingisincompatiblewithtalking.Themediacenterteachermightaskthestudentstofindinterestingbooksandreadthemwhileinthecenter.Assumingthatthestudentsfindthebooksenjoyablethemediacenterwillovertimebecomeacueforselectingandreadingbooksratherthanfortalkingwithotherstudents. Inasocialstudiesclasssomestudentsregularlyfallasleep.Theteacherrealizedthatusingtheboardandoverheadprojectorwhilelecturingwasveryboring.Soontheteacherbegantoincorporateotherelementsintoeachlessonsuchasexperimentsanddebatesinanattempttoinvolvestudentsandraisetheirinterestinthecourse. Tostopsnackingwhilewatchingtelevisionpeopleshouldkeeptheirhandsbusybysewingpaintingworkingcrosswordpuzzlesandsoforth.OvertimewatchingTVbecomesacueforengaginginanactivityotherthansnacking.Whatmethodisusedinthisexample
Adealisadeal—exceptapparentlywhenEntergyisinvolved.ThecompanyamajorenergysupplierinNewEnglandprovokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations. InsteadthecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourtaspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove. Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplantanagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesalethecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006thestatewentastepfurtherrequiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Thentoothecompanywentalong. EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitmentsoritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidentsincludingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakageraisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehaviortheVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension. Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislationandthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpowerlegalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainlytherearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitswordthatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint. ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStatesincludingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafelythecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionNRCreviewsthecompany’sapplicationitshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 18
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities.41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.______Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain.42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.______Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-calledunderclasstheyaresounder-privilegedandpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement.43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.______RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem.44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.______Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving.45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.______Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities.Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue.[A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites.[B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore.[C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.DowncamethewhitesonlynoticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.GonetoowerethehideouslynchingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks--hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect.[D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem.[E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks.[F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica.
Oncetheexclusivedomainofexecutiveswithexpenseaccountsmobilephonesaresettobecomeoneofthecentraltechnologiesofthe21stcentury.46Withinafewyearsthemobilephonewillevolvefromavoice-onlydevicetoamulti-functionalcommunicatorcapableoftransmittingandreceivingnotonlysoundbutvideostillimagesdataandtext.Awholeneweraofpersonalcommunicationisontheway.Thanksinparttothegrowthofwirelessnetworksthetelephoneisconvergingwiththepersonalcomputerandthetelevision.47Soonlight-weightphonesoutfittedwithhighresolutionscreens--whichcanbeembeddedineverythingfromwristwatchestopalm-heldunitswillbeconnectedtoseriesofloworbitsatellitesenablingpeopletotalksendandreceiveE-mailortakepartinvideoconferencesanytimeanywhere.Thesephonesmightalsoabsorbmanyofthekeyfunctionsofthedesktopcomputer.MobiledevicesareexpectedtobeidealforsomeofthenewpersonalizedservicesthatarebecomingavailableviatheInternet.Thecommunicationsrevolutionisalreadytakingshapearoundtheglobe.InEuropemall-scaletrialsareunderwayusingmobilephonesforelectroniccommerce.ForexamplemostphonescontainasubscriberidentificationmoduleSIMcardthatservesprimarilytoidentifyausertothephonenetwork.SomemanufacturersplantoupgradetheSIMcardtoanall-in-onepersonalidentificationandcreditcard.Anotherapproachistoaddaslottomobilephonesforasecondsmartcarddesignedspecificallyformobileecommerce.48ThesecardscouldbeusedtomakepaymentsovertheInternetorremovedfromthephoneforuseinpointof-saleterminalstopayforthingslikepublictransportationmovieticketsoraroundofdrinksatthebar.InFranceMotorolaiscurrentlytestingadualslotphonetheStarTACDinatrialwithFranceTelecomwhileinFinlandNokiaistestingaphonethatusesaspecialpluginreaderforatinysmartcard.Siemensispursuingadifferentapproach.49Sinceitisnotveryclearwhetherit’sbesttodoeverythingwithasingledeviceSiemensisdevelopingdualslotphonesandEinsteinadeviceequippedwithasmartcardreaderandkeypadthatcanbelinkedtothephoneviainfraredwirelesstechnology.50Forthosewhowanttothoughitwillbepossibletoreceivealmostallformsofelectroniccommunicationthroughasingledevicemostlikelyathree-in-onephonethatservesasacordlessathomeacellphoneontheroadandanintercomatwork.ThemobilephonewillbecomeincreasinglymultifunctionalsaysBurghardtSchallenbergervicepresidentfortechnologyandinnovationatSiemensInformationandConsumerProducts.
HenryKissingermaybethemostsuccessfulcertainlythemostflamboyantSecretaryofStatetoholdthatofficeinmoderntimes.Whenhewasappointedinthelate1960’stherewerenoAmericantieswithCommunistChinaVietnamandBerlinseemedreadytodrawtheUnitedStatesintoathirdworldwarandRussiawasseenas"theenemy". ButallthishaschangedandHenryKissingercausedmuchofthechange;in1971hemadehisfirsttriptoChinaatripthatwasthebeginningofthecurrenttiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.HebroughttheUnitedStatesandRussiaclosertogetheronmajorissuesbythepolicyhecalled"detente"literallymeaningarelaxation.Hisphilosophywasalwaystotalkandtobringtogether.WiththesetwopoliciesKissingerdidmuchtodrawattentionawayfromanypossibleRussia-Americanfriction. In1973hemadehisfirstvisittoEgypt.HerehewasabletobeginU.S.relationswithEgypt.HeusedhiscontactlatertobeginthesortoftalksthattheAmericanpresscalled"shuttlediplomacy".Forninety-ninedayshe"shuttled"backandforthonflightsbetweenCairoandJerusalemtoworkoutastep-by-stepwithdrawalofIsraelitroopsfromtheSinaidesert.Hiswithiscarefulapproachtodetailandhispresencemade"shuttlediplomacy"work.ItwastheonlysuccessfulapproachtoMid-eastpeaceinthethirtyyearssincethestateofIsraelwasfounded. AnothermajorworkwastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalk.ThoughhisterminofficepassedwiththetreatyunsignedKissingerleftadraftofthetreatytowhichtheRussianshadalreadyagreed.TheSALTtreatyspelledoutaone-tenthreductioninnucleararmsamajoraccomplishmentbyanystandardevenifonedoesnotconsideralltheotherconditionsandlimitationsincludedinthetreaty. EventhoughhesuccessfullyhelpedbringanendtotheVietnamWarKissinger’sfinaldaysinofficewereaffectedaswastheentireexecutivebranchinonewayoranotherbythescandalsoftheNixonWhiteHouse.Kissinger’scriticspointtohisroleinplacingwiretapsonthephonesofreportersandofficialsandtowhattheyconsiderhis"high-handed"approachtosettingforeignpolicy.ButKissingerduringthelastfewmonthsoftheNixonpresidencylimitedtheeffectsofAmericandomesticproblemsonourforeignpolicy.HecontinuedtalksintheMiddleEast.HecontinuedclosecontactwiththeSovietUnion. HistorywilldecideinthefinalviewasKissinger--andmanypresidents--oftensaidonthevalueofhisservice.Whatevertheydecidewhetherhisactionsarefinallytobeconsideredwiseorfoolishhehadapersonalvisionthatwillhedifficulttomatch. Themainideaofthetextisthat
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly; 2interpretthephenomenonreflectedbyitandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Directions:Writeanessayof160—200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould1describethedrawingbriefly2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen3giveyourcomments.YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.[*]
Oncetheexclusivedomainofexecutiveswithexpenseaccountsmobilephonesaresettobecomeoneofthecentraltechnologiesofthe21stcentury.46Withinafewyearsthemobilephonewillevolvefromavoice-onlydevicetoamulti-functionalcommunicatorcapableoftransmittingandreceivingnotonlysoundbutvideostillimagesdataandtext.Awholeneweraofpersonalcommunicationisontheway.Thanksinparttothegrowthofwirelessnetworksthetelephoneisconvergingwiththepersonalcomputerandthetelevision.47Soonlight-weightphonesoutfittedwithhighresolutionscreens--whichcanbeembeddedineverythingfromwristwatchestopalm-heldunitswillbeconnectedtoseriesofloworbitsatellitesenablingpeopletotalksendandreceiveE-mailortakepartinvideoconferencesanytimeanywhere.Thesephonesmightalsoabsorbmanyofthekeyfunctionsofthedesktopcomputer.MobiledevicesareexpectedtobeidealforsomeofthenewpersonalizedservicesthatarebecomingavailableviatheInternet.Thecommunicationsrevolutionisalreadytakingshapearoundtheglobe.InEuropemall-scaletrialsareunderwayusingmobilephonesforelectroniccommerce.ForexamplemostphonescontainasubscriberidentificationmoduleSIMcardthatservesprimarilytoidentifyausertothephonenetwork.SomemanufacturersplantoupgradetheSIMcardtoanall-in-onepersonalidentificationandcreditcard.Anotherapproachistoaddaslottomobilephonesforasecondsmartcarddesignedspecificallyformobileecommerce.48ThesecardscouldbeusedtomakepaymentsovertheInternetorremovedfromthephoneforuseinpointof-saleterminalstopayforthingslikepublictransportationmovieticketsoraroundofdrinksatthebar.InFranceMotorolaiscurrentlytestingadualslotphonetheStarTACDinatrialwithFranceTelecomwhileinFinlandNokiaistestingaphonethatusesaspecialpluginreaderforatinysmartcard.Siemensispursuingadifferentapproach.49Sinceitisnotveryclearwhetherit’sbesttodoeverythingwithasingledeviceSiemensisdevelopingdualslotphonesandEinsteinadeviceequippedwithasmartcardreaderandkeypadthatcanbelinkedtothephoneviainfraredwirelesstechnology.50Forthosewhowanttothoughitwillbepossibletoreceivealmostallformsofelectroniccommunicationthroughasingledevicemostlikelyathree-in-onephonethatservesasacordlessathomeacellphoneontheroadandanintercomatwork.ThemobilephonewillbecomeincreasinglymultifunctionalsaysBurghardtSchallenbergervicepresidentfortechnologyandinnovationatSiemensInformationandConsumerProducts.
DisabilityamongtheelderlyhasdeclinedmarkedlyintheUnitedStatesinthepasttwodecades.In198425percentoftheelderlypopulationreporteddifficultywithactivitiesassociatedwithindependentliving.By1999thesharehadfallento20percentadeclineofone-fifth.Althoughthesebasicfactsarewellknowntheirinterpretationisnotclear.IsthereductionindisabilityaresultofimprovedmedicalcareindividualbehavioralchangesenvironmentalmodificationsthatallowtheelderlytobetterfunctionbythemselvesorotherdemographicchangesWillthetrendcontinueorisittimelimitedWhatdoesthereductionindisabilitymeanforyearsofhealthylifeandlaborforceparticipation TheresearchersDavidCutlerMaryBethLandrumandKateStewartfocusondisabilitycausedbycardiovasculardiseasetoinvestigatetheroleofimprovedmedicalcareonreductionsindisability.Bylookingatjustoneconditiontheycananalyzehealthshocksandtheiroutcomesinsomedetail.CardiovasculardiseaseisanaturalconditiontoanalyzebecauseitisthemostcommoncauseofdeathintheUnitedStatesandmostotherdevelopedcountries.Alsomoreisspentoncardiovasculardiseasethanonanyotherconditionclearlyacasewheremedicalcarecouldreallymatter. Theresearchersmeasuredisabilityasthepresenceofimpairmentsin.ActivitiesofDailyLivingADLsandInstrumentalActivitiesofDailyLivingIADLs.TheirdatasourcetheNationalLong-TermCareSurveyNLTCSincludesinformationonsixADLmeasures:eatinggettinginoroutofbedwalkingaroundinsidedressingbathingandgettingtoorusingthetoilet.TherearealsoquestionsabouteightIADLmeasures:doinglighthouseworkorlaundrypreparingmealsshoppingforgroceriesgettingaroundoutsidemanagingmoneytakingmedicationsandmakingtelephonecalls.TheNLTCSisanationallyrepresentativelongitudinalsurveyofthehealthanddisabilityprofileofthepopulationaged65andover. Cutlerandhisco-researchersfindthatreduceddisabilityassociatedwithcardiovasculardiseaseaccountsforasignificantpartofthetotalreductionindisability--between14and22percent.Theevidencesuggeststhatimprovementsinmedicalcareincludingbothincreaseduseofrelevantproceduresandpharmaceuticalsledtoasignificantpartofthisdeclineindisability.Regionswithhigheruseexperiencedsubstantialreductionsinmortalityanddisability. Whileprecisedataontheimplicationsofreduceddisabilityarelackingthepossibleimpactofdisabilityreductionsisstaggering.Theresearchersestimatethatpreventingdisabilityafteranacutecardiovasculareventcanaddasmuchas3.7yearsofquality-adjustedlifeexpectancyorperhaps$316000ofvalue.Thecostofthisoutcomeissignificantlysmaller.Theinitialtreatmentcostsrangefrom$8610to$16332dependingontheprocedureused.FurtherrecentcostanalysesreportedthatannualMedicarespendingwaslowerforthenon-disabledthanthedisabledwhichsuggeststhathighertreatmentcostsmaybeoffsetbylowerfuturespendingamongamorehealthypopulation.Byvirtuallyanymeasurethereforetheresearchersconcludethatmedicaltechnologyafteracutecardiovascularepisodesisworththecost. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
46Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage.ThatmayseemlikebadnewssaidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthereservehypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare.48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal.EveryonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkageCoffeysaid.Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood.ThereishoweveraremarkablerangeofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage.Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77milliliters11morecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown.50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 12
DisabilityamongtheelderlyhasdeclinedmarkedlyintheUnitedStatesinthepasttwodecades.In198425percentoftheelderlypopulationreporteddifficultywithactivitiesassociatedwithindependentliving.By1999thesharehadfallento20percentadeclineofone-fifth.Althoughthesebasicfactsarewellknowntheirinterpretationisnotclear.IsthereductionindisabilityaresultofimprovedmedicalcareindividualbehavioralchangesenvironmentalmodificationsthatallowtheelderlytobetterfunctionbythemselvesorotherdemographicchangesWillthetrendcontinueorisittimelimitedWhatdoesthereductionindisabilitymeanforyearsofhealthylifeandlaborforceparticipation TheresearchersDavidCutlerMaryBethLandrumandKateStewartfocusondisabilitycausedbycardiovasculardiseasetoinvestigatetheroleofimprovedmedicalcareonreductionsindisability.Bylookingatjustoneconditiontheycananalyzehealthshocksandtheiroutcomesinsomedetail.CardiovasculardiseaseisanaturalconditiontoanalyzebecauseitisthemostcommoncauseofdeathintheUnitedStatesandmostotherdevelopedcountries.Alsomoreisspentoncardiovasculardiseasethanonanyotherconditionclearlyacasewheremedicalcarecouldreallymatter. Theresearchersmeasuredisabilityasthepresenceofimpairmentsin.ActivitiesofDailyLivingADLsandInstrumentalActivitiesofDailyLivingIADLs.TheirdatasourcetheNationalLong-TermCareSurveyNLTCSincludesinformationonsixADLmeasures:eatinggettinginoroutofbedwalkingaroundinsidedressingbathingandgettingtoorusingthetoilet.TherearealsoquestionsabouteightIADLmeasures:doinglighthouseworkorlaundrypreparingmealsshoppingforgroceriesgettingaroundoutsidemanagingmoneytakingmedicationsandmakingtelephonecalls.TheNLTCSisanationallyrepresentativelongitudinalsurveyofthehealthanddisabilityprofileofthepopulationaged65andover. Cutlerandhisco-researchersfindthatreduceddisabilityassociatedwithcardiovasculardiseaseaccountsforasignificantpartofthetotalreductionindisability--between14and22percent.Theevidencesuggeststhatimprovementsinmedicalcareincludingbothincreaseduseofrelevantproceduresandpharmaceuticalsledtoasignificantpartofthisdeclineindisability.Regionswithhigheruseexperiencedsubstantialreductionsinmortalityanddisability. Whileprecisedataontheimplicationsofreduceddisabilityarelackingthepossibleimpactofdisabilityreductionsisstaggering.Theresearchersestimatethatpreventingdisabilityafteranacutecardiovasculareventcanaddasmuchas3.7yearsofquality-adjustedlifeexpectancyorperhaps$316000ofvalue.Thecostofthisoutcomeissignificantlysmaller.Theinitialtreatmentcostsrangefrom$8610to$16332dependingontheprocedureused.FurtherrecentcostanalysesreportedthatannualMedicarespendingwaslowerforthenon-disabledthanthedisabledwhichsuggeststhathighertreatmentcostsmaybeoffsetbylowerfuturespendingamongamorehealthypopulation.Byvirtuallyanymeasurethereforetheresearchersconcludethatmedicaltechnologyafteracutecardiovascularepisodesisworththecost. Wecanlearnfromparagraph3that
Thereisadifferencebetweenscienceandtechnology.Scienceisamethodofanswering1questions;technologyisamethodofsolvingpracticalproblems.Sciencehastodowithdiscoveringthefactsandrelationshipsbetween2phenomenainnatureandwithestablishingtheoriesthat3toorganizethesefactsandrelationships;technologyhastodowithtoolstechniquesand3forapplyingthefindingsofscience.Another5betweenscienceandtechnologyhastodowiththeprogressineach. Progressinscience6thehumanfactor.Scientistswhoseektounderstandtheuniverseandknowthetruthwithinthehighestdegreeof7andcertaintycannot8theirownorotherpeople’slikesordislikesortopopularideasaboutthefitnessofthings.Whatscientistsdiscovermayshockor9people-asdidDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Butevenanunpleasanttruthis10thanlikelytobeuseful;besideswehavethechoiceofrefusingtobelieveit!But11sowithtechnology;wedonothavethechoiceofrefusingtohearthesoundproducedbyasupersonicaircraftflyingoverhead;wecannotrefusetobreathepollutedair.12scienceprogressintechnologymustbemeasured13thehumanfactor.Thepurposeoftechnologyistoservepeople—people14notmerelysomepeople;andfuturegenerationsnotmerelythosewhopresentlywishto15advantageforthemselves. Weareallfamiliarwiththe16useoftechnology.Manypeopleblametechnologyitself17widespreadpollutionresourcedepletion枯竭andevensocialdecayingeneral—somuch18thepromiseoftechnologyis"19"Thatpromiseisacleanerandhealthierworld.Ifwiseapplicationsofscienceandtechnologydonot20abetterworldwhatelsewill 6
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