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通商大臣
鸦片战争后根据南京条约规定中国开放广州福州厦门宁波上海五个通商口岸为此清政府设置了具体办理与西方各国
五口通商大臣
南洋大臣
北洋大臣
办理通商事务大臣
19世纪60年代以前掌管国家财权的机构是
户部
内务部
工部
度支部
南北洋大臣
南北洋通商大臣
清末以两江总督兼任驻北洋大臣由兼任驻
北洋通商大臣于1861年初设时称三口通商大臣下列不属于此三口的是
营口
牛庄
天津
登州
南洋通商大臣
北洋政府规定国家中央银行为
中国银行
交通银行
中国通商银行
1895年北洋舰队覆没后慈禧太后任命同日本议和的全权大臣是
直隶总督兼北洋大臣作为清政府代表签署了马关条约
1897年在上海成立的标志着中国现代银行的产生
交通银行
浙江兴业银行
中国通商银行
北洋银行
北洋大臣依例由兼任
两江总督
直隶总督
两广总督
四川总督
简述五口通商大臣的制度缺陷
初掌管对外通商和交涉事务并兼管对外贸易和海关税务后职掌逐渐扩展凡有关洋务的铁路电报关税矿务海军制造文
__事务衙门
农工商部
商部
度支部
南北洋大臣
五口通商大臣
洋务运动时期清政府设北洋大臣专管北方三口通商事务三口是指
天津、牛庄、登州
牛庄、登州、烟台
天津、登州、烟台
天津、烟台、牛庄
洋务运动初期清政府设北洋大臣专管北方三口通商事务三口是指
天津、牛庄、登州
牛庄、登州、烟台
天津、登州、烟台
天津、烟台、牛庄
.1888年时任直隶总督北洋大臣的李鸿章为天津海关赐书匾津海新关赐此匾距天津开埠通商已有
48年
46年
30年
28年
清末负责第一部独立商法典制定的是
商部
北洋大臣
工商部
__编察馆
第二次鸦片战争之后为了与世界接轨清政府设置了一些近代经济管理部门首先设置的是
__各国事务衙门
南北洋通商的大臣
邮传部
商部
度支部
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Therelationoflanguageandmindhasinterestedphilosophersformanycenturies.61TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthoughtwhichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe. Onlyrecentlydidlinguistsbegintheseriousstudyoflanguagesthatwereverydifferentfromtheirown.Twoanthropologist-linguistsFranzBoasandEdwardSapirwerepioneersindescribingmanynativelanguagesofNorthandSouthAmericaduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.62Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanishedasthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativelanguages.Otherlinguistsintheearlierpartofthiscenturyhoweverwhowerelesseagertodealwithbizarredatafromexoticlanguagewerenotalwayssograteful.63ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.NativeAmericanlanguagesareindeeddifferentsomuchsoinfactthatNavajocouldbeusedbytheUSmilitaryasacodeduringWorldWarIItosendsecretmessages. Sapir’’spupilBenjaminLeeWhorfcontinuedthestudyofAmericanIndianlanguages.64BeinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthoughtWhorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtinasociety.Hereasonedthatbecauseitiseasiertoformulatecertainconceptsandnotothersinagivenlanguagethespeakersofthatlanguagethinkalongonetrackandnotalonganother.65Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhichinitsstrongestformstatesthatlanguageimprisonsthemindandthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.LaterthisideabecametobeknownastheSapir-Whorfhypothesisbutthistermissomewhatinappropriate.AlthoughbothSapirandWhorfemphasizedthediversityoflanguagesSapirhimselfneverexplicitlysupportedthenotionoflinguisticdeterminism.
TheSupremeCourt’’sdecisionsonphysician-assistedsuicidecarryimportantimplicationsforhowmedicineseekstorelievedyingpatientsofpainandsuffering. Althoughitruledthatthereisnoconstitutionalrighttophysician-assistedsuicidetheCourtineffectsupportedthemedicalprincipleofdoubleeffectacenturies-oldmoralprincipleholdingthatanactionhavingtwoeffects―agoodonethatisintendedandaharmfulonethatisforeseen―ispermissibleiftheactorintendsonlythegoodeffect. Doctorshaveusedthatprincipleinrecentyearstojustifyusinghighdosesofmorphinetocontrolterminallyiiipatients’’paineventhoughincreasingdosageswilleventuallykillthepatient. NancyDublerdirectorofMontefioreMedicalCentercontendsthattheprinciplewillshielddoctorswhountilnowhaveveryverystronglyinsistedthattheycouldnotgivepatientssufficientmedicationtocontroltheirpainifthatmighthastendeath. GeorgeAnnaschairofthehealthlawdepartmentatBostonUniversitymaintainsthataslongasadoctorprescribesadrugforalegitimatemedicalpurposethedoctorhasdonenothingillegalevenifthepatientusesthedrugtohastendeath.It’’slikesurgeryhesays.Wedon’’tcallthosedeathshomicidesbecausethedoctorsdidn’’tintendtokilltheirpatientsalthoughtheyriskedtheirdeath.Ifyou’’reaphysicianyoucanriskyourpatients’’suicideaslongasyoudon’’tintendtheirsuicide. Onanotherlevelmanyinthemedicalcommunityacknowledgethattheassisted-suicidedebatehasbeenfueledinpartbythedespairofpatientsforwhommodernmedicinehasprolongedthephysicalagonyofdying. JustthreeweeksbeforetheCourt’’srulingonphysician-assistedsuicidetheNationalAcademyofScienceNASreleasedatwo-volumereportApproachingDeath:ImprovingCareattheEndofLife.Itidentifiestheundertreatmentofpainandtheaggressiveuseofineffectualandforcedmedicalproceduresthatmayprolongandevendishonortheperiodofdyingasthetwinproblemsofend-of-lifecare. TheprofessionistakingstepstorequireyoungdoctorstotraininhospicestotestknowledgeofaggressivepainmanagementtherapiestodevelopaMedicarebillingcodeforhospital-basedcareandtodevelopnewstandardsforassessingandtreatingpainattheendoflife. Annassayslawyerscanplayakeyroleininsistingthatthesewell-meaningmedicalinitiativestranslateintobettercare.Largenumbersofphysiciansseemunconcernedwiththepaintheirpatientsareneedlesslyandpredictablysufferingtotheextentthatitconstitutessystematicpatientabuse.Hesaysmedicallicensingboardsmustmakeitclear..thatpainfuldeathsarepresumptivelyonesthatareincompetentlymanagedandshouldresultinlicensesuspension. AccordingtotheNAS’’sreportoneoftheproblemsinend-of-tirecareis
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Wellnogainwithoutpaintheysay.ButwhataboutpainwithoutgainEverywhereyougoinAmericayouheartalesofcorporaterevival.Whatishardertoestablishiswhethertheproductivityrevolutionthatbusinessmenassumetheyarepresidingoverisforreal. Theofficialstatisticsaremildlydiscouraging.Theyshowthatifyoulumpmanufacturingandservicestogetherproductivityhasgrownonaverageby1.2%since1987.Thatissomewhatfasterthantheaverageduringthepreviousdecade.Andsince1991productivityhasincreasedbyabout2%ayearwhichismorethantwicethe1978―1987average.Thetroubleisthatpartoftherecentaccelerationisduetotheusualreboundthatoccursatthispointinabusinesscycleandsoisnotconclusiveevidenceofarevivalintheunderlyingtrend.ThereisasRobertRubinthetreasurysecretarysaysadisjunctionbetweenthemassofbusinessanecdotethatpointstoleapinproductivityandthepicturereflectedbythestatistics. Someofthiscanbeeasilyexplained.Newwaysoforganizingtheworkplace―allthatreengineeringanddownsizing―areonlyonecontributiontotheoverallproductivityofaneconomywhichisdrivenbymanyotherfactorssuchasjointinvestmentinequipmentandmachinerynewtechnologyandinvestmentineducationandtraining.Moreovermostofthechangesthatcompaniesmakeareintendedtokeepthemprofitableandthisneednotalwaysmeanincreasingproductivity:switchingtonewmarketsorimprovingqualitycanmatterjustasmuch. Twootherexplanationsaremorespeculative.Firstsomeofthebusinessrestructuringofrecentyearsmayhavebeenineptlydone.Secondevenifitwaswelldoneitmayhavespreadmuchlesswidelythanpeoplesuppose. LeonardSchlesingeraHarvardacademicandformerchiefexecutiveofAuBonPainarapidlygrowingchainofbakerycafessaysthatmuchre-engineeringhasbeencrude.Inmanycaseshebelievesthelossofrevenuehasbeengreaterthanthereductionsincost.HiscolleagueMichaelBeersaysthatfartoomanycompanieshaveappliedre-engineeringinamechanisticfashionchoppingoutcostswithoutgivingsufficientthoughttolong-termprofitability.BBDO’’sAIRosenshineisblunter.Hedismissesalotoftheworkofre-engineeringconsultantsasmererubbish―theworstsortofambulance-chasing. Theofficialstatisticsonproductivitygrowth____________.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
TheSupremeCourt’’sdecisionsonphysician-assistedsuicidecarryimportantimplicationsforhowmedicineseekstorelievedyingpatientsofpainandsuffering. Althoughitruledthatthereisnoconstitutionalrighttophysician-assistedsuicidetheCourtineffectsupportedthemedicalprincipleofdoubleeffectacenturies-oldmoralprincipleholdingthatanactionhavingtwoeffects―agoodonethatisintendedandaharmfulonethatisforeseen―ispermissibleiftheactorintendsonlythegoodeffect. Doctorshaveusedthatprincipleinrecentyearstojustifyusinghighdosesofmorphinetocontrolterminallyiiipatients’’paineventhoughincreasingdosageswilleventuallykillthepatient. NancyDublerdirectorofMontefioreMedicalCentercontendsthattheprinciplewillshielddoctorswhountilnowhaveveryverystronglyinsistedthattheycouldnotgivepatientssufficientmedicationtocontroltheirpainifthatmighthastendeath. GeorgeAnnaschairofthehealthlawdepartmentatBostonUniversitymaintainsthataslongasadoctorprescribesadrugforalegitimatemedicalpurposethedoctorhasdonenothingillegalevenifthepatientusesthedrugtohastendeath.It’’slikesurgeryhesays.Wedon’’tcallthosedeathshomicidesbecausethedoctorsdidn’’tintendtokilltheirpatientsalthoughtheyriskedtheirdeath.Ifyou’’reaphysicianyoucanriskyourpatients’’suicideaslongasyoudon’’tintendtheirsuicide. Onanotherlevelmanyinthemedicalcommunityacknowledgethattheassisted-suicidedebatehasbeenfueledinpartbythedespairofpatientsforwhommodernmedicinehasprolongedthephysicalagonyofdying. JustthreeweeksbeforetheCourt’’srulingonphysician-assistedsuicidetheNationalAcademyofScienceNASreleasedatwo-volumereportApproachingDeath:ImprovingCareattheEndofLife.Itidentifiestheundertreatmentofpainandtheaggressiveuseofineffectualandforcedmedicalproceduresthatmayprolongandevendishonortheperiodofdyingasthetwinproblemsofend-of-lifecare. TheprofessionistakingstepstorequireyoungdoctorstotraininhospicestotestknowledgeofaggressivepainmanagementtherapiestodevelopaMedicarebillingcodeforhospital-basedcareandtodevelopnewstandardsforassessingandtreatingpainattheendoflife. Annassayslawyerscanplayakeyroleininsistingthatthesewell-meaningmedicalinitiativestranslateintobettercare.Largenumbersofphysiciansseemunconcernedwiththepaintheirpatientsareneedlesslyandpredictablysufferingtotheextentthatitconstitutessystematicpatientabuse.Hesaysmedicallicensingboardsmustmakeitclear..thatpainfuldeathsarepresumptivelyonesthatareincompetentlymanagedandshouldresultinlicensesuspension. Fromthefirstthreeparagraphswelearnthat
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Ahistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicapbutifproperlyhandleditmaybecomeadrivingforce.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarithadamarketeighttimeslargerthananycompetitorgivingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld’’sbestitsworkerswerethemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed. Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitablytheretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid-1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustriessuchasconsumerelectronicshadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericantelevisionmakerleftZenith.Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea’’sLGElectronicsinJuly.Foreign-madecarsandtextilesweresweepingintothedomesticmarket.America’’smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.ForawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductorswhichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputeragewasgoingtobethenextcasualty. Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofdoingbusinesswasfailingandthattheirincomeswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica’’sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas. Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Self-doubthasyieldedtoblindpride.Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructurehasgoneonadiethaslearnttobemorequick-wittedaccordingtoRichardCavanaghexecutivedeanofHarvard’’sKennedySchoolofGovernment.ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivitysaysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstituteathink-tankinWashingtonD.C.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodasagoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates. TheU.S.achieveditspredominanceafterWorldWarⅡbecause__________.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
AsAmerica’’sairbecomessteadilymorecontaminatedactivitiesacrossthenationtocopewithsmogappeartobelaggingfurtherandfurtherbehindactualneedsdespitearisingpublicclamorforimprovement. Therehasbeenaconsiderableprogressinthelastcoupleofyears.Buttheover-allpictureisthatsomanylocalitieshaven’’treallycometogripswiththeairpollutionproblemthatpeoplemightbedismayediftheyknewhowtheirwelfarewasbeingtrifledwith. Airpollutionsourcesarenowhurlingmorethan140milliontonsofcontaminantsintotheatmosphereeveryyearbyFederalestimates.Twoyearsagoitwasonly130milliontons. Theincreasehasbeencausedbymanythings--morepeoplemoreautomobilesmoreindustrymorespaceheatinglittleifanyreductionthatmoreoftenthannotareinadequate. Theadversehealtheffectsofairpollutionarebecomingmorewidelyrecognizedalthoughspecificmedicalevidenceisstillfragmentary.Asapsychologicalannoyanceoftencalledanestheticfactorittranslatesintodecreasedpropertyvalues.Indamagetocropsandotherplantsitscostisreckonedinmillionsofdollars;indamagetostructuresandmaterialsinbillions. Federalandstatepollutioncontrolofficialsreportthefollowinghighlightofthecurrentsituation. Statesandlocalitiesgenerallystillhavepenaltiesforairpollutionthatarelittlemorethanawristslapwithfinesaslowas＄10.Enforcementisgenerallysketchyandweak.Andtheremedialproceduresaresocumbersomethatmoreandmoretheyarebeingbypassedbysimplelawsuitsbroughtbypublicofficialsorcitizens. AlthoughFederallawhasrequiredautomakerstoprovidevehicleswithfumecontrolequipmentfewstateshavedoneanythingtoassureitseffectivenessafteracarhasleftthefactorybyprovidingforregularinspectionoftheequipment. Publicofficialsinmanyplacesstillseemtoconsiderburstsofcomplaintsfromcitizenspreferabletocomplaintstheymightgetfrominstitutingeffectiveairqualityprograms.Industriesandotherpolluterssuchasmunicipalitiesstillexertgreatinfluenceopposingorweakeningregulatorylawsandpackingregulatoryboardswiththeirownspokesmen. Publicresentmentoverairpollutionisgrowingasisshownbyrecurringincidentsofpicketing设置纠察员andincreasingnumberoflegalactions. ThebigFederalprogramtocombatairpollutionunderwayforseveralyearsisproceedingfairlyclosetoschedule.ButFederalauto-fumeregulationswillnotbeveryproductivefornearlyadecadeuntilaround100millionunregulatedolder-generationcarshavebeenreplacedonthehighways. ThepartoftheFederaleffortthatdealswithstationarypollutionsourceslikefactoriesisstilllargelyinanorganizationalphaseyieldinglittleimmediatereductioninfumes. Anexampleoftheestheticfactorassociatedwithairpollutionwouldbe
Therelationoflanguageandmindhasinterestedphilosophersformanycenturies.61TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthoughtwhichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe. Onlyrecentlydidlinguistsbegintheseriousstudyoflanguagesthatwereverydifferentfromtheirown.Twoanthropologist-linguistsFranzBoasandEdwardSapirwerepioneersindescribingmanynativelanguagesofNorthandSouthAmericaduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.62Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanishedasthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativelanguages.Otherlinguistsintheearlierpartofthiscenturyhoweverwhowerelesseagertodealwithbizarredatafromexoticlanguagewerenotalwayssograteful.63ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.NativeAmericanlanguagesareindeeddifferentsomuchsoinfactthatNavajocouldbeusedbytheUSmilitaryasacodeduringWorldWarIItosendsecretmessages. Sapir’’spupilBenjaminLeeWhorfcontinuedthestudyofAmericanIndianlanguages.64BeinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthoughtWhorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtinasociety.Hereasonedthatbecauseitiseasiertoformulatecertainconceptsandnotothersinagivenlanguagethespeakersofthatlanguagethinkalongonetrackandnotalonganother.65Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhichinitsstrongestformstatesthatlanguageimprisonsthemindandthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.LaterthisideabecametobeknownastheSapir-Whorfhypothesisbutthistermissomewhatinappropriate.AlthoughbothSapirandWhorfemphasizedthediversityoflanguagesSapirhimselfneverexplicitlysupportedthenotionoflinguisticdeterminism.
本题为选做题请在IⅡ两道题中选取其中一道作答若两题都回答只按第1道试题的成绩记入总分 选做题Ⅰ 以下是有关联合国的材料 材料1 五十五年前在世界反法西斯战争取得胜利之际联合国应运而生半个多世纪以来依靠广大会员国的支持联合国为缓解地区冲突消除旧殖民主义促进世界和平合作与发展做出了许多有益的工作联合国作为世界上最有代表性最具权威的主权国家间的国际组织在维护世界和平促进共同发展建立公正合理的国际政治经济新秩序方面具有不可替代的作用展望新世纪联合国肩负的任务更加艰巨联合国的积极作用只能加强而不能削弱联合国的权威必须维护而不能损害 我们坚持维护联合国宪章的宗旨和原则继续发挥联合国及其安理会在处理国际事务维护世界和平方面的积极作用确保全体会员国平等参与国际事务的权利任何国家或国家集团在处理国际事务中都不应对联合国采取需要时则利用之不需要时则抛弃之的态度 ——摘自中国____2000年9月6日在联合国千年首脑会议上的讲话 材料2 国际组织是国际关系发展到一定历史阶段的产物人类曾为通过建立国际组织以结束兵连祸结进而创造一个美好的世界进行过漫长而艰难的探索继19世纪的欧洲协调万国联盟和海牙体系后第一次世界大战结束后世界上第一个具有普遍性的国际组织——国际联盟简称国联于1920年1月问世然而由于主要成员国之间的激烈矛盾和自身结构缺陷国联自1946年4月19日不复存在本世纪人类两度惨遭世界大战的痛苦催生了联合国的问世中国为此做出了重大贡献联合国创始人之一美国总统罗斯福曾于1945年旧金山制宪会议前夕说即将成立的联合国将是一个永久性的和平机构它应该从此宣告单方面行动排他性联盟势力范围力量均衡以及尝试了若干世纪而从未成功过的所有其他权宜之计的结束 不幸的是在联合国问世半个多世纪以来罗斯福所不愿看到的排他性联盟势力范围乃至赤裸裸将联合国甩在一边的单方面行动屡有发生在一个多样化的世界中构筑单极世界格局的强权政治时常左右着包括联合国在内的国际事务的发展人类在跨入新千年之计这个世界的现状是既不公平也不太平人们一方面首肯联合国存在的必要另一方面又痛感联合国与他们期望之间的差距世界几乎已把冷战时期遗留的和冷战后发生的全部最棘手的问题都交给联合国而其中的许多都是年深日久屡治不愈的痼疾联合国前秘书长加利曾忧心如焚地说联合国面临纷至沓来的要求决不能变成盛名之累发生有负众望的危机 较之本世纪初虽然人类在科学技术领域和物质财富生产方面取得前所未有的进步但处于新千年和新世纪之交的人类社会文明发展正迫不及待地要求各国领袖们运用自己的政治智慧对于以下问题做出回答在即将到来的21世纪人类应建立一个怎样的国际政治经济新秩序这种国际新秩序的建立又需要一个怎样的联合国 ——摘自2000年9月7日人民日报文章新千年的呼唤 材料3 尽管理论家们竭力想证实圆圈是方的但毫无疑问北约的轰炸进一步破坏了脆弱的国际法框架的残存部分在最终导致北约作出决定的讨论中美国将这一点表露无遗除了英国到目前为止它只与戈尔巴乔夫时代之前的乌克兰一样是个亦步亦趋的角色之外北约成员国都对美国的政策心存疑虑国务院官员解释说美国坚持它的立场认为北约应该能够独立于联合国之外行事美国拒绝允许在最后的北约声明中出现授权这个令人头疼的词不愿将任何权威拱手让于联合国宪章和国际法它允许使用认可这个词在里根时代美国开始公然与国际法和联合国宪章对抗最高当局以令人不快但又不可否认的明确态度解释说国际法院联合国和其他机构已经毫无意义因为它们已经不再像战后初期那样听命于美国 在克林顿执政期间对世界秩序的违抗已经走向极端甚至连鹰派政策分析家都感到忧虑 ——摘自英新政治家周刊1999年4月9日文章评美国不要听其言而要观其行 请回答 1结合材料1～3说明联合国的作用 2结合材料1～3说明影响联合国发挥作用的最主要因素是什么 3材料1说展望新世纪联合国肩负的任务更艰巨结合材料1～3予以分析 选做题Ⅱ 材料1 从1949年中华人民共和国成立至1972年二十年间中关关系处于敌对状态在你担任总统的时候改变了这个状态我非常赞赏你的看法考虑到国与国之间的关系主要应该从国家自身的战略利益出发不去计较社会制度和意识形态的区别我知道你是反对共产主义的而我是共产主义者 材料2 在这个世纪实行过去失败了的任何政策都是不行的遏制已过时 ——摘自__1989年会见尼克松时的谈话 材料3 在荚苏进行对话的同时美国可能需要在中国问题上为自己找个可以依靠的有利地位 ——摘自尼克松与戴高乐的谈话 材料4 1999年5月5日美国政府抛出了所谓的考克斯报告污蔑中国窃取美国的尖端军事技术5月8日又悍然使用5枚导致袭击我驻南斯拉夫大使馆造成我多名人员伤亡和馆舍的严重破坏5月底又通过了所谓的天__件十周年议案2000年国防拨款法和涉台法案1999年7月9日针对李登辉的两国论美国公开表示一个中国的对华政策不变1月15日中关两国政府签署了关于中国加入世贸组织的双边协定2000年5月24日笑国众议院通过了一项对华永久性正常贸易关系PNTR议案 根据材料回答下列问题 11994年4月美国前总统尼克松去世了其墓志铭上写着历史给予的最高荣誉是和平缔造者的称号试结合材料123和所学知识对此加以评述 2材料4中中美关系的变化发展体现了唯物辩证法的哪些原理 3结合政治理论的知识说明应当如何看待中美关系的变化发展
. Yourmobilephoneismissing.Writeanoticelookingforitwhichshouldinclude: 1detaileddescriptionofthephone 2timeandplaceofmissingitand 3waytocontactandreward. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyournameattheendofthenotice.UseLiMinginstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10pionts
Wellnogainwithoutpaintheysay.ButwhataboutpainwithoutgainEverywhereyougoinAmericayouheartalesofcorporaterevival.Whatishardertoestablishiswhethertheproductivityrevolutionthatbusinessmenassumetheyarepresidingoverisforreal. Theofficialstatisticsaremildlydiscouraging.Theyshowthatifyoulumpmanufacturingandservicestogetherproductivityhasgrownonaverageby1.2%since1987.Thatissomewhatfasterthantheaverageduringthepreviousdecade.Andsince1991productivityhasincreasedbyabout2%ayearwhichismorethantwicethe1978―1987average.Thetroubleisthatpartoftherecentaccelerationisduetotheusualreboundthatoccursatthispointinabusinesscycleandsoisnotconclusiveevidenceofarevivalintheunderlyingtrend.ThereisasRobertRubinthetreasurysecretarysaysadisjunctionbetweenthemassofbusinessanecdotethatpointstoleapinproductivityandthepicturereflectedbythestatistics. Someofthiscanbeeasilyexplained.Newwaysoforganizingtheworkplace―allthatreengineeringanddownsizing―areonlyonecontributiontotheoverallproductivityofaneconomywhichisdrivenbymanyotherfactorssuchasjointinvestmentinequipmentandmachinerynewtechnologyandinvestmentineducationandtraining.Moreovermostofthechangesthatcompaniesmakeareintendedtokeepthemprofitableandthisneednotalwaysmeanincreasingproductivity:switchingtonewmarketsorimprovingqualitycanmatterjustasmuch. Twootherexplanationsaremorespeculative.Firstsomeofthebusinessrestructuringofrecentyearsmayhavebeenineptlydone.Secondevenifitwaswelldoneitmayhavespreadmuchlesswidelythanpeoplesuppose. LeonardSchlesingeraHarvardacademicandformerchiefexecutiveofAuBonPainarapidlygrowingchainofbakerycafessaysthatmuchre-engineeringhasbeencrude.Inmanycaseshebelievesthelossofrevenuehasbeengreaterthanthereductionsincost.HiscolleagueMichaelBeersaysthatfartoomanycompanieshaveappliedre-engineeringinamechanisticfashionchoppingoutcostswithoutgivingsufficientthoughttolong-termprofitability.BBDO’’sAIRosenshineisblunter.Hedismissesalotoftheworkofre-engineeringconsultantsasmererubbish―theworstsortofambulance-chasing. WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTmentionedinthepassage____________.
AsAmerica’’sairbecomessteadilymorecontaminatedactivitiesacrossthenationtocopewithsmogappeartobelaggingfurtherandfurtherbehindactualneedsdespitearisingpublicclamorforimprovement. Therehasbeenaconsiderableprogressinthelastcoupleofyears.Buttheover-allpictureisthatsomanylocalitieshaven’’treallycometogripswiththeairpollutionproblemthatpeoplemightbedismayediftheyknewhowtheirwelfarewasbeingtrifledwith. Airpollutionsourcesarenowhurlingmorethan140milliontonsofcontaminantsintotheatmosphereeveryyearbyFederalestimates.Twoyearsagoitwasonly130milliontons. Theincreasehasbeencausedbymanythings--morepeoplemoreautomobilesmoreindustrymorespaceheatinglittleifanyreductionthatmoreoftenthannotareinadequate. Theadversehealtheffectsofairpollutionarebecomingmorewidelyrecognizedalthoughspecificmedicalevidenceisstillfragmentary.Asapsychologicalannoyanceoftencalledanestheticfactorittranslatesintodecreasedpropertyvalues.Indamagetocropsandotherplantsitscostisreckonedinmillionsofdollars;indamagetostructuresandmaterialsinbillions. Federalandstatepollutioncontrolofficialsreportthefollowinghighlightofthecurrentsituation. Statesandlocalitiesgenerallystillhavepenaltiesforairpollutionthatarelittlemorethanawristslapwithfinesaslowas＄10.Enforcementisgenerallysketchyandweak.Andtheremedialproceduresaresocumbersomethatmoreandmoretheyarebeingbypassedbysimplelawsuitsbroughtbypublicofficialsorcitizens. AlthoughFederallawhasrequiredautomakerstoprovidevehicleswithfumecontrolequipmentfewstateshavedoneanythingtoassureitseffectivenessafteracarhasleftthefactorybyprovidingforregularinspectionoftheequipment. Publicofficialsinmanyplacesstillseemtoconsiderburstsofcomplaintsfromcitizenspreferabletocomplaintstheymightgetfrominstitutingeffectiveairqualityprograms.Industriesandotherpolluterssuchasmunicipalitiesstillexertgreatinfluenceopposingorweakeningregulatorylawsandpackingregulatoryboardswiththeirownspokesmen. Publicresentmentoverairpollutionisgrowingasisshownbyrecurringincidentsofpicketing设置纠察员andincreasingnumberoflegalactions. ThebigFederalprogramtocombatairpollutionunderwayforseveralyearsisproceedingfairlyclosetoschedule.ButFederalauto-fumeregulationswillnotbeveryproductivefornearlyadecadeuntilaround100millionunregulatedolder-generationcarshavebeenreplacedonthehighways. ThepartoftheFederaleffortthatdealswithstationarypollutionsourceslikefactoriesisstilllargelyinanorganizationalphaseyieldinglittleimmediatereductioninfumes. ThewordhurlinginPar.3maybebestreplacedby
Ahistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicapbutifproperlyhandleditmaybecomeadrivingforce.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarithadamarketeighttimeslargerthananycompetitorgivingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld’’sbestitsworkerswerethemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed. Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitablytheretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid-1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustriessuchasconsumerelectronicshadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericantelevisionmakerleftZenith.Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea’’sLGElectronicsinJuly.Foreign-madecarsandtextilesweresweepingintothedomesticmarket.America’’smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.ForawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductorswhichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputeragewasgoingtobethenextcasualty. Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofdoingbusinesswasfailingandthattheirincomeswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica’’sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas. Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Self-doubthasyieldedtoblindpride.Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructurehasgoneonadiethaslearnttobemorequick-wittedaccordingtoRichardCavanaghexecutivedeanofHarvard’’sKennedySchoolofGovernment.ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivitysaysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstituteathink-tankinWashingtonD.C.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodasagoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates. Whatcanbeinferredfromthepassage
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
Thehumanbraincandoalotofwonderfulthings;manyoftheminclude1masteryofcomplexfeedbacksystemswithlong2Forexampleconsiderhowdifficultraisingachildtrulyis.Manyfactorsare3includingthenutritionalphysicalemotionalandmentalconditionofthechildandthefeedbackofthesefactors4thebehaviorofthoseinvolvedinraisingthechild.To5mattersmanyoftheresponsesofthechild/parentsystemtakeyearsto6themselves.Yetbillionsofparentshavesomehow7tofeedclotheprotectnurturehealteachandlovetheirchildren8successfuladulthood. 9allourintuitivesophisticationindealingwithcomplicatedsituationsit’’sa10toseehowpoorlywedealwithsomenewersystemsmostof11broughtaboutbytechnology. BothraisingchildrenandprotectingEarth’’slife-supportsystemsare12oflifeanddeath;inthelongtermtheyareequallyimportant.But13ourbrainsseemfairlywellpreparedforthelong-termprocessofraisingkidsweseemtohave14built-inskillfortakingcareoftheenvironmentthatsupportsusanychildrenwemighthaveandallother15.Itseemsthatthethinkingpartsofourbrainscan’’tdealwithcomplicatedsystemsandtheirlong-term16andthe17partsofourbrainsthatcandealwithcomplexsystemsdon’’thelpusmuchoutsideoftheir18areas.Oneofthegoalsofsystemsscienceistousemathandcomputerstohelppeoplegetbetter19takingcareofEarth’’slife-supportsystems.Thetaskinvolvesteachingourthinkingbrainsabout20complicatedsystemswork.
TheSupremeCourt’’sdecisionsonphysician-assistedsuicidecarryimportantimplicationsforhowmedicineseekstorelievedyingpatientsofpainandsuffering. Althoughitruledthatthereisnoconstitutionalrighttophysician-assistedsuicidetheCourtineffectsupportedthemedicalprincipleofdoubleeffectacenturies-oldmoralprincipleholdingthatanactionhavingtwoeffects―agoodonethatisintendedandaharmfulonethatisforeseen―ispermissibleiftheactorintendsonlythegoodeffect. Doctorshaveusedthatprincipleinrecentyearstojustifyusinghighdosesofmorphinetocontrolterminallyiiipatients’’paineventhoughincreasingdosageswilleventuallykillthepatient. NancyDublerdirectorofMontefioreMedicalCentercontendsthattheprinciplewillshielddoctorswhountilnowhaveveryverystronglyinsistedthattheycouldnotgivepatientssufficientmedicationtocontroltheirpainifthatmighthastendeath. GeorgeAnnaschairofthehealthlawdepartmentatBostonUniversitymaintainsthataslongasadoctorprescribesadrugforalegitimatemedicalpurposethedoctorhasdonenothingillegalevenifthepatientusesthedrugtohastendeath.It’’slikesurgeryhesays.Wedon’’tcallthosedeathshomicidesbecausethedoctorsdidn’’tintendtokilltheirpatientsalthoughtheyriskedtheirdeath.Ifyou’’reaphysicianyoucanriskyourpatients’’suicideaslongasyoudon’’tintendtheirsuicide. Onanotherlevelmanyinthemedicalcommunityacknowledgethattheassisted-suicidedebatehasbeenfueledinpartbythedespairofpatientsforwhommodernmedicinehasprolongedthephysicalagonyofdying. JustthreeweeksbeforetheCourt’’srulingonphysician-assistedsuicidetheNationalAcademyofScienceNASreleasedatwo-volumereportApproachingDeath:ImprovingCareattheEndofLife.Itidentifiestheundertreatmentofpainandtheaggressiveuseofineffectualandforcedmedicalproceduresthatmayprolongandevendishonortheperiodofdyingasthetwinproblemsofend-of-lifecare. TheprofessionistakingstepstorequireyoungdoctorstotraininhospicestotestknowledgeofaggressivepainmanagementtherapiestodevelopaMedicarebillingcodeforhospital-basedcareandtodevelopnewstandardsforassessingandtreatingpainattheendoflife. Annassayslawyerscanplayakeyroleininsistingthatthesewell-meaningmedicalinitiativestranslateintobettercare.Largenumbersofphysiciansseemunconcernedwiththepaintheirpatientsareneedlesslyandpredictablysufferingtotheextentthatitconstitutessystematicpatientabuse.Hesaysmedicallicensingboardsmustmakeitclear..thatpainfuldeathsarepresumptivelyonesthatareincompetentlymanagedandshouldresultinlicensesuspension. GeorgeAnnaswouldprobablyagreethatdoctorsshouldbepunishedifthey
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