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可兴奋细胞兴奋的共同标志是
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可兴奋细胞兴奋时共有的特征是产生
收缩
分泌
冲动
反射
动作电位
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征为
反射活动
动作电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
腺体分泌
下列可兴奋细胞兴奋性最高的是
骨骼肌
心肌
神经
平滑肌
可兴奋细胞兴奋时共有的特征是产生
收缩反应
神经冲动
反射活动
电位变化
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征
反射活动
动作电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
腺体分泌
可兴奋细胞兴奋时共有的特征是产生
可兴奋细胞兴奋的共同指标是
静息电位
动作电位
阈电位
最大复极电位
兴奋性突触后电位
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征是产生
反射活动
腺体分泌
神经传导
肌肉收缩
动作电位
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征为
反射活动
动作电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
腺体分泌
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征是产生
反射活动
动物电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
可兴奋细胞兴奋的共同标志是
反射活动
肌肉收缩
腺体分泌
神经冲动
锋电位
可兴奋细胞兴奋时共有的特征是产生
收缩反应
分泌神经
反射活动
电位变化
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征是产生
反射活动
动作电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
可兴奋细胞兴奋时的共同特征是
反射活动
动作电位
神经传导
肌肉收缩
可兴奋细胞兴奋的共同标志是
反射活动
肌肉收缩
腺体分泌
神经冲动
动作电位(2/2002)
简述刺激引起可兴奋细胞兴奋必须具备的条件
可兴奋细胞兴奋时共有的特征是产生
收缩反应
电位变化
分泌
反射活动
可兴奋细胞兴奋的共同指标是
静息电位
动作电位
阈电位
最大复极电位
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Personalityistoalargeextentinherent―A-typeparentsusuallybringaboutA-typeoffspring.Buttheenvironmentmustalsohaveaprofoundeffectsinceifcompetitionisimportanttotheparentsitislikelytobecomeamajorfactorinthelivesoftheirchildren. OneplacewherechildrensoakupAcharacteristicsisschoolwhichisbyitsverynatureahighlycompetitiveinstitution.Toomanyschoolsadoptthewinatallcostsmoralstandardandmeasuretheirsuccessbysportingachievements.Thecurrentpassionformakingchildrencompeteagainsttheirclassmatesoragainsttheclockproducesatwo-layersysteminwhichcompetitiveAtypesseeminsomewaybetterthantheirBtypefellows.Beingtookeentowincanhavedangerousconsequences:rememberthatPheidippidesthefirstmarathonrunnerdroppeddeadsecondsaftersaying:Rejoiceweconquer! Byfartheworstformofcompetitioninschoolsisthedisproportionateemphasisonexaminations.Itisarareschoolthatallowspupilstoconcentrateonthosethingstheydowell.Themeritsofcompetitionbyexaminationaresomewhatquestionablebutcompetitioninthecertainknowledgeoffailureispositivelyharmful. ObviouslyitisneitherpracticalnordesirablethatallAyoungsterschangeintoB’’s.Theworldneedstypesandschoolshaveanimportantdutytotrytofitachild’’spersonalitytohispossiblefutureemployment.Itistopmanagement. Ifthepreoccupationofschoolswithacademicworkwaslessenedmoretimemightbespentteachingchildrensurervalues.Perhapsselectionforthecaringprofessionsespeciallymedicinecouldbemadelessbygoodgradesinchemistryandmorebysuchconsiderationsassensitivityandsympathy.ItissurelyamistaketochooseourdoctorsexclusivelyfromAtypestock.B’’sareimportantandshouldbeencouraged. Theauthorisstronglyopposedtothepracticeofexaminationsatschoolsbecause________________.
Noonecanbeagreatthinkerwhodoesnotrealizethatasathinkeritishisfirstdutytofollowhisintellecttowhateverconclusionsitmaylead.Truthgainsmoreevenbytheerrorsofonewhowithduestudyandpreparationthinksforhimselfthanbythetrueopinionsofthosewhoonlyholdthembecausetheydonotsufferthemselvestothink.Notthatitissolelyorchieflytoformgreatthinkersthatfreedomofthinkingisrequired.Onthecontraryitisasmuchorevenmoreindispensabletoenableaveragehumanbeingstoattainthementalqualitywhichtheyarecapableof.Therehavebeenandmayagainbegreatindividualthinkersinageneralatmosphereofmentalslavery.Butthereneverhasbeennoreverwillbeinthatatmosphereanintellectuallyactivepeople.Whileanypeoplehasmadeatemporaryapproachtosuchacharacterithasbeenbecausethedreadofheterodox非正统的thinkingwasforatimesuspended.Wherethereisanunspokenconventionthatprinciplesarenottobedisputed;wherethediscussionofthegreatestquestionswhichcanoccupyhumanityisconsideredtobeclosedwecannothopetofindthatgenerallyhighscaleofmentalactivitywhichhasmadesomeperiodsofhistorysoremarkable.Neverwhenprolongedargumentsavoidedthesubjectswhicharelargeandimportantenoughtorouseenthusiasmwasthemindofapeoplestirredupfromitsfoundationsandtheimpulsegivenwhichraisedevenpersonsofthemostordinaryintellecttosomethingofthinkingbeings. Hewhoknowsonlyhisownsideofthecaseknowslittleofthat.Hisreasonsmaybegoodandnoonemayhavebeenabletorefutethem.Butifheisequallyunabletorefutethereasonsontheoppositesideandifhedoesnotsomuchasknowwhattheyarehehasnogroundforpreferringeitheropinion.Therationalpositionforhimwouldbesuspensionofjudgmentandunlesshecontentshimselfwiththatheiseitherledbyauthorityoradoptslikethegeneralityoftheworldthesidetowhichhefeelsthemostinclination.Norisitenoughthatheshouldheartheargumentsofopponentsfromhisownteacherspresentedastheystatethemandaccompaniedbywhattheyofferasrefutations.Thatisnotthewaytodojusticetotheargumentsorbringthemintorealcontactwithhisownmind.Hemustbeabletohearthemfrompersonswhoactuallybelievethem;whodefendtheminearnestanddotheirveryutmostforthem.Hemustknowthemintheirseeminglyreasonableandpersuasiveform:hemustfeelthewholeforceofthedifficultywhichthetrueviewofthesubjecthastoencounteranddisposeof;otherwisehewillneverreallypossesshimselfoftheportionoftruthwhichmeetsandremovesthatdifficulty.Ninety-nineinahundredofwhatarecallededucatedmenareinthisconditionandevenofthosewhocanarguefluentlyfortheiropinions.Theirconclusionmaybetruebutitmightbefalseforanythingtheyknow.Theyhaveneverthrownthemselvesintothementalpositionofthosewhothinkdifferentlyfromthemandconsideredwhatsuchpersonsmayhavetosay. Theauthorisoftheopinionthatinagreatperiodwemayexpecttofind
中国__在实践中探索符合中国国情的社会主义建设道路开始的标志是
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Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould 1describethepicture 2interpretitsimplicationsinlifeand 3supportyourviewwithexamples. Youshouldwriteabout160-200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
Inacompetitiveeconomytheconsumerusuallyhasthechoiceofseveraldifferentbrandsofthesameproduct.Yetunderneaththeirlabelstheseproductsareoftennearlyidentical.Onemanufacturer’’stoothpastetendstodifferverylittlefromanothermanufacturer’’s.Twodifferentbrandsofshampoomayvaryonlyinscentorcolor.Andthetobaccointwodifferentbrandsofcigarettesfrequentlycomesfromthesamefields.Thisclosesimilaritymeansthatashopperoftenhaslittlereasontochooseonebrandoveranother.Thusmanufacturersareconfrontedwithaproblem--howtokeepsaleshighenoughtostayinbusiness.Manufacturerssolvethisproblembyadvertising.Throughadvertisingeachmanufacturingcompanytriestoconvinceconsumersthatitsproductisspecial.Todothisthecompaniestrytoappealtoconsumersinvariousways.Infactadvertisementsmaybeclassifiedintothreetypesaccordingtothekindofappealstheyuse. Onetypeofadvertisementtriestoappealtotheconsumer’’sreasoningmind.Itmayofferaclaimthatseemsscientific.ForexampleitmaysaythatdentistsrecommendFlashtoothpasteoritmaydeclarethatWoofdogfoodcontainsaspecialvitamin-richingredientknownasK-9oritmayreportthatlaboratorytestsshowthatR.I.P.cigarettescontainfewerharmfulingredientsthanotherbrands.Insellingaproductthetruthofadvertisingmaybelessimportantthantheappearanceoftruth.Ascientificapproachgivestheappearanceoftruth. Anothertypeofadvertisementtriestoamusethepotentialbuyer.Productsthatareessentiallyboringsuchascleaningpowderorinsecticideareoftenadvertisedinanamusingmanner.Onewayofdoingthisistomaketheproductsappearalive.Theadvertisermaydrawlittlecartooneyesarmsandlegsonthecansofcleaningpowderandhavetheresultingfiguresscrubthesink.Adsofthissortaresillybutadvertisersbelievethatconsumersarelikelytorememberandbuytheproductsthattheconsumersassociatewithfun. Associatingtheproductwithsomethingpleasantisthetechniqueofthethirdtypeofappeal.Inthisclassareadsthatsuggestthattheproductwillsatisfysomebasichumandesires.Onesuchdesireisthewishtobeadmiredbyotherpeople.Manyautomobileadvertisementsareinthiscategory.Theyimplythatotherpeoplewilladmireyou--mayevenbejealous--whentheyseeyoudrivingthehotnewAardvarkcar.Thiskindofappealissometimesstrengthenedbyhiringafamouspersontoendorsetheproduct.Seeingthefamouspersontheconsumerissupposedtoreasonthus:EveryoneadmiresJudsonSmiththegreatfootballstar.JudsonSmithusedBuckworthyBanktraveler’’schecks.ThereforeifIuseBuckworthyBanktraveler’’scheckseveryonewilladmiremetoo.Someotherbasicdesiresthatadscommonlytrytoappealtoarethedesiresforsocialacceptancefinancialsecurityandsoon. OneonlyneedstolookthroughamagazineorwatchanhourofTVinordertoseeexamplesofthesethreedifferentadvertisingstrategies. Wecaninferfromthetextthat
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Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Noonecanbeagreatthinkerwhodoesnotrealizethatasathinkeritishisfirstdutytofollowhisintellecttowhateverconclusionsitmaylead.Truthgainsmoreevenbytheerrorsofonewhowithduestudyandpreparationthinksforhimselfthanbythetrueopinionsofthosewhoonlyholdthembecausetheydonotsufferthemselvestothink.Notthatitissolelyorchieflytoformgreatthinkersthatfreedomofthinkingisrequired.Onthecontraryitisasmuchorevenmoreindispensabletoenableaveragehumanbeingstoattainthementalqualitywhichtheyarecapableof.Therehavebeenandmayagainbegreatindividualthinkersinageneralatmosphereofmentalslavery.Butthereneverhasbeennoreverwillbeinthatatmosphereanintellectuallyactivepeople.Whileanypeoplehasmadeatemporaryapproachtosuchacharacterithasbeenbecausethedreadofheterodox非正统的thinkingwasforatimesuspended.Wherethereisanunspokenconventionthatprinciplesarenottobedisputed;wherethediscussionofthegreatestquestionswhichcanoccupyhumanityisconsideredtobeclosedwecannothopetofindthatgenerallyhighscaleofmentalactivitywhichhasmadesomeperiodsofhistorysoremarkable.Neverwhenprolongedargumentsavoidedthesubjectswhicharelargeandimportantenoughtorouseenthusiasmwasthemindofapeoplestirredupfromitsfoundationsandtheimpulsegivenwhichraisedevenpersonsofthemostordinaryintellecttosomethingofthinkingbeings. Hewhoknowsonlyhisownsideofthecaseknowslittleofthat.Hisreasonsmaybegoodandnoonemayhavebeenabletorefutethem.Butifheisequallyunabletorefutethereasonsontheoppositesideandifhedoesnotsomuchasknowwhattheyarehehasnogroundforpreferringeitheropinion.Therationalpositionforhimwouldbesuspensionofjudgmentandunlesshecontentshimselfwiththatheiseitherledbyauthorityoradoptslikethegeneralityoftheworldthesidetowhichhefeelsthemostinclination.Norisitenoughthatheshouldheartheargumentsofopponentsfromhisownteacherspresentedastheystatethemandaccompaniedbywhattheyofferasrefutations.Thatisnotthewaytodojusticetotheargumentsorbringthemintorealcontactwithhisownmind.Hemustbeabletohearthemfrompersonswhoactuallybelievethem;whodefendtheminearnestanddotheirveryutmostforthem.Hemustknowthemintheirseeminglyreasonableandpersuasiveform:hemustfeelthewholeforceofthedifficultywhichthetrueviewofthesubjecthastoencounteranddisposeof;otherwisehewillneverreallypossesshimselfoftheportionoftruthwhichmeetsandremovesthatdifficulty.Ninety-nineinahundredofwhatarecallededucatedmenareinthisconditionandevenofthosewhocanarguefluentlyfortheiropinions.Theirconclusionmaybetruebutitmightbefalseforanythingtheyknow.Theyhaveneverthrownthemselvesintothementalpositionofthosewhothinkdifferentlyfromthemandconsideredwhatsuchpersonsmayhavetosay. Accordingtotheauthoritisalwaysadvisableto
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AlbertEinsteinoncesaidThewholeofscienceisnothingmorethanarefinementofeverydaythinking. Thefirstthingscientistsmustdoistoaskaquestionoridentifyaproblemtobeinvestigated.46Thenscientistsworkingonthisproblemcollectscientificdataorfactsbymakingobservationsandtakingmeasurementswhichmustbeverifiedorconfirmedbyrepeatedobservationsandmeasurementsideallybyseveraldifferentinvestigators. 47Theprimarygoalofscienceisnotfactsinandofthemselvesbutanewideaprincipleormodelthatconnectsandexplainscertainfactsandleadstousefulpredictionsaboutwhatshouldhappeninnature.Scientistsworkingonaparticularproblemtrytocomeupwithavarietyofpossibleexplanationsorscientifichypothesesofwhattheyorotherscientistsobserveinnature.Thenexperimentsareconductedandrepeatedtobesuretheyarereproducibletotestthedeductionsorpredictionsforeachhypothesissoastoarriveatthemostplausibleorusefulhypothesis. 48Ifmanyexperimentsbydifferentscientistssupportaparticularhypothesisitbecomesascientifictheory―awell-testedandwidelyacceptedideaprincipleormodelthatusuallytiestogetherandexplainsmanyfactsthatpreviouslyappearedtobeunrelated.Convertingascientifichypothesistoascientifictheoryisadifficultprocessoftenrequiringdecadesevenhundredsofyears.Toscientiststheoriesarenottobetakenlightlyfortheyareideasorprinciplesstatedwithahighdegreeofcertaintybecausetheyaresupportedbyagreatdealofevidence. Anotherendresultofscienceisascientificlaw―adescriptionofwhatwefindhappeninginnatureoverandoverinthesamewaywithoutknownexception.Themorecomplexthepartsofnaturescientistsstudythemoredifficultitbecomestodiscoverscientificlaws.49Therearemanyscientificlawsofphysicsandchemistryonlyafewinbiologyandevenfewerandlessreliableonesinfieldsinvolvingcomplexinteractionsofmultiplefactorsvariablessuchasecologyclimatologystudyofclimateandsocialsciencessuchaseconomicsandpolitics. Thescientificprocessrequiresnotonlylogicalreasoningbutalsoimaginationcreativityandintuition.AccordingtophysicistAlbertEinsteinThereisnocompletelylogicalwaytoanewscientificidea.50IntuitionimaginationandcreativityareasimportantinscienceastheyareinpoetryartmusicandothergreatadventuresofthehumanspiritthatawakenustothewondermysteryandbeautyoflifetheEarthandtheuniverse.
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Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory. Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
发展社会主义民主政治最根本的是
AlbertEinsteinoncesaidThewholeofscienceisnothingmorethanarefinementofeverydaythinking. Thefirstthingscientistsmustdoistoaskaquestionoridentifyaproblemtobeinvestigated.46Thenscientistsworkingonthisproblemcollectscientificdataorfactsbymakingobservationsandtakingmeasurementswhichmustbeverifiedorconfirmedbyrepeatedobservationsandmeasurementsideallybyseveraldifferentinvestigators. 47Theprimarygoalofscienceisnotfactsinandofthemselvesbutanewideaprincipleormodelthatconnectsandexplainscertainfactsandleadstousefulpredictionsaboutwhatshouldhappeninnature.Scientistsworkingonaparticularproblemtrytocomeupwithavarietyofpossibleexplanationsorscientifichypothesesofwhattheyorotherscientistsobserveinnature.Thenexperimentsareconductedandrepeatedtobesuretheyarereproducibletotestthedeductionsorpredictionsforeachhypothesissoastoarriveatthemostplausibleorusefulhypothesis. 48Ifmanyexperimentsbydifferentscientistssupportaparticularhypothesisitbecomesascientifictheory―awell-testedandwidelyacceptedideaprincipleormodelthatusuallytiestogetherandexplainsmanyfactsthatpreviouslyappearedtobeunrelated.Convertingascientifichypothesistoascientifictheoryisadifficultprocessoftenrequiringdecadesevenhundredsofyears.Toscientiststheoriesarenottobetakenlightlyfortheyareideasorprinciplesstatedwithahighdegreeofcertaintybecausetheyaresupportedbyagreatdealofevidence. Anotherendresultofscienceisascientificlaw―adescriptionofwhatwefindhappeninginnatureoverandoverinthesamewaywithoutknownexception.Themorecomplexthepartsofnaturescientistsstudythemoredifficultitbecomestodiscoverscientificlaws.49Therearemanyscientificlawsofphysicsandchemistryonlyafewinbiologyandevenfewerandlessreliableonesinfieldsinvolvingcomplexinteractionsofmultiplefactorsvariablessuchasecologyclimatologystudyofclimateandsocialsciencessuchaseconomicsandpolitics. Thescientificprocessrequiresnotonlylogicalreasoningbutalsoimaginationcreativityandintuition.AccordingtophysicistAlbertEinsteinThereisnocompletelylogicalwaytoanewscientificidea.50IntuitionimaginationandcreativityareasimportantinscienceastheyareinpoetryartmusicandothergreatadventuresofthehumanspiritthatawakenustothewondermysteryandbeautyoflifetheEarthandtheuniverse.
Inacompetitiveeconomytheconsumerusuallyhasthechoiceofseveraldifferentbrandsofthesameproduct.Yetunderneaththeirlabelstheseproductsareoftennearlyidentical.Onemanufacturer’’stoothpastetendstodifferverylittlefromanothermanufacturer’’s.Twodifferentbrandsofshampoomayvaryonlyinscentorcolor.Andthetobaccointwodifferentbrandsofcigarettesfrequentlycomesfromthesamefields.Thisclosesimilaritymeansthatashopperoftenhaslittlereasontochooseonebrandoveranother.Thusmanufacturersareconfrontedwithaproblem--howtokeepsaleshighenoughtostayinbusiness.Manufacturerssolvethisproblembyadvertising.Throughadvertisingeachmanufacturingcompanytriestoconvinceconsumersthatitsproductisspecial.Todothisthecompaniestrytoappealtoconsumersinvariousways.Infactadvertisementsmaybeclassifiedintothreetypesaccordingtothekindofappealstheyuse. Onetypeofadvertisementtriestoappealtotheconsumer’’sreasoningmind.Itmayofferaclaimthatseemsscientific.ForexampleitmaysaythatdentistsrecommendFlashtoothpasteoritmaydeclarethatWoofdogfoodcontainsaspecialvitamin-richingredientknownasK-9oritmayreportthatlaboratorytestsshowthatR.I.P.cigarettescontainfewerharmfulingredientsthanotherbrands.Insellingaproductthetruthofadvertisingmaybelessimportantthantheappearanceoftruth.Ascientificapproachgivestheappearanceoftruth. Anothertypeofadvertisementtriestoamusethepotentialbuyer.Productsthatareessentiallyboringsuchascleaningpowderorinsecticideareoftenadvertisedinanamusingmanner.Onewayofdoingthisistomaketheproductsappearalive.Theadvertisermaydrawlittlecartooneyesarmsandlegsonthecansofcleaningpowderandhavetheresultingfiguresscrubthesink.Adsofthissortaresillybutadvertisersbelievethatconsumersarelikelytorememberandbuytheproductsthattheconsumersassociatewithfun. Associatingtheproductwithsomethingpleasantisthetechniqueofthethirdtypeofappeal.Inthisclassareadsthatsuggestthattheproductwillsatisfysomebasichumandesires.Onesuchdesireisthewishtobeadmiredbyotherpeople.Manyautomobileadvertisementsareinthiscategory.Theyimplythatotherpeoplewilladmireyou--mayevenbejealous--whentheyseeyoudrivingthehotnewAardvarkcar.Thiskindofappealissometimesstrengthenedbyhiringafamouspersontoendorsetheproduct.Seeingthefamouspersontheconsumerissupposedtoreasonthus:EveryoneadmiresJudsonSmiththegreatfootballstar.JudsonSmithusedBuckworthyBanktraveler’’schecks.ThereforeifIuseBuckworthyBanktraveler’’scheckseveryonewilladmiremetoo.Someotherbasicdesiresthatadscommonlytrytoappealtoarethedesiresforsocialacceptancefinancialsecurityandsoon. OneonlyneedstolookthroughamagazineorwatchanhourofTVinordertoseeexamplesofthesethreedifferentadvertisingstrategies. Thebesttitleforthistextwouldbe
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Thefourgirlsin"TheSisterhoodoftheTravelingPants"makeapact.46Havingfoundthemagiceverywomandreamsofapairofjeansthatfitsallfourofthemperfectlytheyvowtosharethemlong-distanceduringtheirfirstsummerapart. Thejeansmustbemagicbecausethegirls’shapescouldn’tbemoredifferent.PetiteLenaAlexisBledelisallergictoboyswhoseeherasabeautifulface.WittyCarmenAmericaFerreraistoocurvytofitintothebridesmaid’sgownorderedforherbyLydiaNancyTravistheSouthernbride-to-beofherdivorcedfatherBradleyWhitford.BridgetBlakeLivelyalankystarathletehasnevercometotermswithhermother’ssuicide.47AndTibbyAmberTamblynisablue-hairedcynicwhosesummerjobatasuperstorenamedWallman’sispayingforvideoequipmenttomakeherfirstfilm. 48Thegirlspassthejeansaroundtobringthemluckwhentheyareseparated:LenawithrelativesonSantoriniwhereKostasMichaelRadychangeshermindaboutmen;Carmenwiththefathersheneverseeswhosenewfamilyisashock;BridgetinaMexicansoccercampwhereshesetshersightsonEricMikeVogelforbiddenfruitbecausehe’sacoach;andTibbyvideotapingherco-workers."Adocumentary"saysoneinterviewsubject."That’slikeamovieonlyboring" DeliaEphronandElizabethChandler’sscreenplayisnicelyservedbythedirectionofacomedyveteranKenKwapis.49Hecreatesafairytalesummerworldwherethegirlsgrapplewithrealissues:loveandfamilydeathlosingyourvirginityforthewrongreasonsdivorceracismandhavinganunfashionablebodytype.50Themagicofcourseisinthegirlsastheyhelpeachotherachieveinsightsthatfewoftheirelderscouldmanage.gentlysprinkledsprinkledwithtears.AnnBrashareswhowrotethenovelonwhichthefilmisbasedhaswrittentwomorebooksabouttheSisterhood.IfthisoneclicksWarnerBrosmayfinditselftheproudownerofthefirstsummerfilmfranchiseforteenagegirls. Hecreatesafairytalesummerworldwherethegirlsgrapplewithrealissues:loveandfamilydeathlosingyourvirginityforthewrongreasonsdivorceracismandhavinganunfashionablebodytype.
Directions: Supposeyouarethemanagerofacompany.Writealetterofjobrefusaltooneoftheintervieweesinwhichshouldinclude1yourappreciationforhisapplication;2themasonsforyourrefusal;3thepossibilityforfuturecooperation.Youshouldwriteabout100words.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
Whatoursocietysuffersfrommosttodayistheabsenceofconsensusaboutwhatitandlifeinitoughttobe.Suchconsensuscannotbegainedfromsociety’’spresentstageorfromfantasiesaboutwhatitoughttobe.Forthatthepresentistoocloseandtoodiversifiedandthefuturetoouncertaintomakebelievableclaimsaboutit.AconsensusinthepresenthencecanbeachievedonlythroughasharedunderstandingofthepastasHomer’’sepics史诗informedthosewholivedcenturieslaterwhatitmeanttobeGreekandbywhatimagesandidealstheyweretolivetheirlivesandorganizetheirsocieties. Mostsocietiesderiveconsensusfromalonghistoryalanguagealltheirownacommonreligioncommonancestry.Themythsbywhichtheylivearebasedonallofthese.ButtheUnitedStatesisacountryofimmigrantscomingfromagreatvarietyofnations.Latelyithasbeenemphasizedthatanasocialnarcissistic自我陶醉的personalityhasbecomecharacteristicofAmericansandthatitisthistypeofpersonalitythatmakesforthelackofwell-beingbecauseitpreventsusfromachievingconsensusthatwouldcounteractatendencytowithdrawintoprivateworlds.InhisstudyofnarcissismChristopherLaschsaysthatmodernmantorturedbyself-consciousnessturnstonewtherapiesnottofreehimselfofhispersonalworriesbuttofindmeaningandpurposeinlifetofindsomethingtolivefor.Thereiswidespreaddistressbecausenationalmoralehasdeclinedandwehavelostanearliersenseofnationalvisionandpurpose. Contrarytorigidreligionsorpoliticalbeliefsasarefoundintotalitarian极权主义的societiesourcultureisoneofgreatindividualdifferencesatleastinprincipleandintheory.Butthisleadstodisunityevenchaos.Americansbelieveinthevalueofdiversitybutjustbecauseoursisasocietybasedonindividualdiversityitneedsconsensusaboutsomedominatingideasmorethansocietiesbasedonuniformoriginoftheircitizens.Henceifwearetohaveconsensusitmustbebasedonamyth―avision―aboutacommonexperienceaconquestthatmadeusAmericansasthemythabouttheconquestofTroyformedtheGreeks.Onlyacommonmythcanofferrelieffromthefearthatlifeiswithoutmeaningorpurpose.Mythspermitustoexamineourplaceintheworldbycomparingittoasharedidea.Mythsaresharedfantasiesthatformthetiethatbindstheindividualtoothermembersofhisgroup.Suchmythshelptowardofffeelingsofisolationguiltanxietyandpurposelessness―inshorttheycombatisolationandthebreakdownofsocialstandardsandvalues. Homer’’sepicsmentionedinParagraph1exemplifiesthefactthat
Whatoursocietysuffersfrommosttodayistheabsenceofconsensusaboutwhatitandlifeinitoughttobe.Suchconsensuscannotbegainedfromsociety’’spresentstageorfromfantasiesaboutwhatitoughttobe.Forthatthepresentistoocloseandtoodiversifiedandthefuturetoouncertaintomakebelievableclaimsaboutit.AconsensusinthepresenthencecanbeachievedonlythroughasharedunderstandingofthepastasHomer’’sepics史诗informedthosewholivedcenturieslaterwhatitmeanttobeGreekandbywhatimagesandidealstheyweretolivetheirlivesandorganizetheirsocieties. Mostsocietiesderiveconsensusfromalonghistoryalanguagealltheirownacommonreligioncommonancestry.Themythsbywhichtheylivearebasedonallofthese.ButtheUnitedStatesisacountryofimmigrantscomingfromagreatvarietyofnations.Latelyithasbeenemphasizedthatanasocialnarcissistic自我陶醉的personalityhasbecomecharacteristicofAmericansandthatitisthistypeofpersonalitythatmakesforthelackofwell-beingbecauseitpreventsusfromachievingconsensusthatwouldcounteractatendencytowithdrawintoprivateworlds.InhisstudyofnarcissismChristopherLaschsaysthatmodernmantorturedbyself-consciousnessturnstonewtherapiesnottofreehimselfofhispersonalworriesbuttofindmeaningandpurposeinlifetofindsomethingtolivefor.Thereiswidespreaddistressbecausenationalmoralehasdeclinedandwehavelostanearliersenseofnationalvisionandpurpose. Contrarytorigidreligionsorpoliticalbeliefsasarefoundintotalitarian极权主义的societiesourcultureisoneofgreatindividualdifferencesatleastinprincipleandintheory.Butthisleadstodisunityevenchaos.Americansbelieveinthevalueofdiversitybutjustbecauseoursisasocietybasedonindividualdiversityitneedsconsensusaboutsomedominatingideasmorethansocietiesbasedonuniformoriginoftheircitizens.Henceifwearetohaveconsensusitmustbebasedonamyth―avision―aboutacommonexperienceaconquestthatmadeusAmericansasthemythabouttheconquestofTroyformedtheGreeks.Onlyacommonmythcanofferrelieffromthefearthatlifeiswithoutmeaningorpurpose.Mythspermitustoexamineourplaceintheworldbycomparingittoasharedidea.Mythsaresharedfantasiesthatformthetiethatbindstheindividualtoothermembersofhisgroup.Suchmythshelptowardofffeelingsofisolationguiltanxietyandpurposelessness―inshorttheycombatisolationandthebreakdownofsocialstandardsandvalues. TheasocialpersonalityofAmericansresultsfrom
经验论的错误在于
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
Yourofficeisinbadneedofanewcopier.WritealettertotheRBMManufacturingCompanytoindicate: 1themodelofcopieryouneed 2itsworkingloadrequiredand 3inquiryaboutpricewarrantyandservice. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Historiansaredetectivessearchingouttheevidenceofthepastintheirpursuitofhistory.Thisisachallengingandfrequentlyengagingquest1itsownbutevidencemustbeturnedto2.Primarysourcesthatareuncovered3manyformsthatvary4thequestionsaskedandtheperiodstudiedbutwrittenrecordsare5historiansusemorethananyother.Thehistoriandoesnot6evidenceinthemannerofcourtsoflawwherequestionsofadmissibilityandtruthversusfalsehoodare7.Thehistorian’’suseofevidenceismuchmore8Determininghowandwithwhatend9mindanypieceofevidencecameintoexistencearethefirsttasks10thehistorianintheinternalcriticismofhistoricalsources.Itisimportanttoknowforinstancewho11aparticularcensusandwithwhatinstructionsor12acorrespondentwasaddressingafriendorfoecolleagueoropponent. Formanyyearshistoriansdividedevidenceintothetwo13ofprimaryandsecondarysources.Theformerwereconsideredasany14orartifactfromtheperiod15studythelatterasdescriptionsorreconstructionsbasedonprimarysources.Thefunctionofthehistorianitwas16wastoconvertprimarysourcesintosecondarysources.This17misleads.Whathavebeencalledsecondarysourcesamnothistoricalsourcesatallbut18thatrevealthehistorian’’spointofview.Allevidenceusedbythehistorianwasaprimarysourceatthetimeitwas19anditisalwayspartialandincomplete.Thereinliespartofthe20ofhistory.
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