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Text 3 Biologically, there is only one quality which distinguishes us from animals: the ability...
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Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 6
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 8
Text4 MosteconomistsintheUnitedStatesseemexcitedbythespellofthefreemarket.Consequentlynothingseemsgoodornormalthatdoesnotaccordwiththerequirementsofthefreemarket.Apricethatisdeterminedbythesellerorforthatmatterestablishedbyanyoneotherthantheaggregateofconsumersseemsharmful.Accordinglyitrequiresamajoractofwilltothinkofprice-fixingthedeterminationofpricesbythesellerasboth"normal"andhavingavaluableeconomicfunction.Infactprice-fixingisnormalinallindustrializedsocietiesbecausetheindustrialsystemitselfprovidesasaneffortlessconsequenceofitsowndevelopmenttheprice-fixingthatitrequires.Modernindustrialplanningrequiresandrewardsgreatsize.Henceacomparativelysmallnumberoflargefirmswillbecompetingforthesamegroupofconsumers.Thateachlargefirmwillactwithconsiderationofitsownneedsandthusavoidsellingitsproductsformorethanitscompetitorschargeiscommonlyrecognizedbyadvocatesoffree-marketeconomictheories.Buteachlargefirmwillalsoactwithfullconsiderationoftheneedsthatithasincommonwiththeotherlargefirmscompetingforthesamecustomers.Eachlargefirmwillthusavoidsignificantprice-cuttingbecauseprice-cuttingwouldbeprejudicialtothecommoninterestinastabledemandforproducts.Mosteconomistsdonotseeprice-fixingwhenitoccursbecause theyexpectittobebroughtaboutbyanumberofexplicitagreementsamonglargefirms;itisnot. Moreoverthoseeconomistswhoarguethatallowingthefreemarkettooperatewithoutinterferenceisthemostefficientmethodofestablishingpriceshavenotconsideredtheeconomiesofnon-socialistcountriesotherthantheUnitedStates.Theseeconomiesemployintentionalprice-fixingusuallyinanovertfashion.Formalprice-fixingbycartelandinformalprice-fixingbyagreementscoveringthemembersofanindustryarecommonplace.Weretheresomethingpeculiarlyefficientaboutthefreemarketandinefficientaboutprice-fixingthecountriesthathaveavoidedthefirstandusedthesecondwouldhavesuffereddrasticallyintheireconomicdevelopment.Thereisnoindicationthattheyhave. Socialistindustryalsoworkswithinaframeworkofcontrolledprices.In’theearly1970’stheSovietUnionbegantogivefirmsandindustriessomeoftheflexibilityinadjustingpricesthatamoreinformalevolutionhasaccordedthecapitalistsystem.EconomistsintheUnitesStateshavehailedthechangeasareturntothefreemarket.ButSovietfirmsarenomoresubjecttopricesestablishedbyafreemarketoverwhichtheyexerciselittleinfluencethanarecapitalistfirms;ratherSovietfirmshavebeengiventhepowertofixprices. Notes:spell魔力;一阵aggregate总体 Withwhichofthefollowingstatementsregardingthebehavioroflargefirmsinindustrializedsocietieswouldtheauthoragree
Text2 In1575—over400yearsagotheFrenchscholarLouisLeRoypublishedalearnedbookinwhichhevoiceddespairoverthechangescausedbythesocialandtechnologicalinnovationsofhistimewhatwenowcalltheRenaissance.Wealsofeelthatourtimesareoutofjoint;weevenhavereasontobelievethatourdescendantswillbeworseoffthanweare. Theearthwillsoonbeovercrowdedanditsresourcesexhausted.Pollutionwillruintheenvironmentupsettheclimateandendangerhumanhealth.Thegapinlivingstandardsbetweentherichandthepoorwillwidenandleadtheangryhungrypeopleoftheworldtoactsofdesperationincludingtheuseofnuclearweaponsasblackmail.Sucharetheinevitableconsequencesofpopulationandtechnologicalgrowthifpresenttrendscontinue. Thefutureisneveraprojectionofthepast.Animalsprobablyhavenochancetoescapefromthetyrannyofbiologicalevolutionbuthumanbeingsareblessedwiththefreedomofsocialevolution.Forustrendisnotdestinyfate.Theescapefromexistingtrendsisnowfacilitatedbythefactthatsocietiesanticipatefuturedangersandtakepreventivestepsagainstexpectedchanges Despitethewidespreadbeliefthattheworldhasbecometoocomplexfoecomprehensionbythehumanbrainmodernsocietieshaveoftenrespondedeffectivelytocriticalsituations.Thedecreaseinbirthratesthepartialprohibitionofpesticidesandtherethinkingoftechnologiesfortheproductionanduseofenergyarebutafewexamplesillustratingasuddenreversaloftrendscausednotbypoliticalupsetsorscientificbreakthroughsbutbypublicawarenessofconsequences. Evenmorestrikingarethesituationsinwhichsocialattitudesconcerningfuturedifficultiesundergorapidchangesbeforetheproblemshavecometopass--witnesstheheatedargumentsabouttheproblemsofbehaviorcontrolandofgeneticengineeringeventhoughthereisasyetnoproofthateffectivemethodscanbedevelopedtomanipulatebehaviorandgenesonapopulationscale. Oneofthecharacteristicsofourtimesisthustherapiditywithwhichstepscanbetakentochange.theorientationofcertaintrendsandeventoreversethem.Suchchangesusuallyemergefromgrassrootmovementsratherthanfromofficialdirectives. Notes:Renaissance14世纪—16世纪欧洲文艺复兴时期tyranny暴虐统治暴虐行为areblessedwith幸有有幸得到butafew只是几个cometopass发生实现Asyet至今grassroot群众 AccordingtothetextevidencesoftheinsightofthepublicintothedangerswhichsurrounduscanbefoundinallofthefollowingEXCEPT
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 16
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 18
Text3 Within80yearssomescientistsestimatetheworldmustproducemorethaneighttimesthepresentworldfoodsupply.Theproductivenessofthesearaisesourhopesforanadequatefoodsupplyinthefuture.Aidedbymenofsciencewehavesetforthtofindout that70percentoftheearthremainsunexplored--theoceandepths.Thuswemaybetterdiscoverandutilizethesea’snaturalproductsfortheworld’shungry. Itisfishproteinconcentratethatissought.fromtheseas.ByutilizingtheunharvestedfishinUnitedStateswatersaloneenoughfishproteinconcentratecanbeobtainedtoprovidesupplementalanimalproteinformorethanonebillionpeopleforoneyearatthecostoflessthanhalfacentperdayperperson.ThemalnutritionofchildrenisterriblytragicButthecrimeliesinsociety’sunrestrainedbreedingnotinitsnegligenceinproducingfishpowder.Butwhereverthepopulationprojectsarecarefullyconsideredtheanswertotheproblemissomethinglikethis:Therearefewprojectsthatcoulddomoretoraisethenutritionallevelofmankindthanafull-scalescientificefforttodeveloptheresourcesofthesea.Eachyearsomethirtymilliontonsoffoodproductsaretakenfromtheseawhichaccountfor12percentoftheworld’sanimalproteins.Nationswiththeirswellingpopulationsmustpushforwardintotheseafrontiersforfoodsupplies.Privateindustrymuststepupitsmarineresearchandthefederalgovernmentmustmakenewattacksontheproblemsofmarineresearchdevelopment.Thereisatoneofdesperatenessinallthesedesignsonthesea. Butwhatismoststartlingistheassumptionthattheseasareanuntouchedresource.Thefactisthattheseashavebeenandarebeinghurtdirectlyandindirectlybythesameforcesthathaveabusedtheland.Inthebroadpatternofecologicalrelationshipstheseasarenotseparablefromwhathappensontheland.Thepoisonsthatpollutethesoilandtheairbringinmassivedosesintothe"continentalshelf"waters.Thedirtandpollutionthatspillsfromoururbansewersandindustrialoutfallsdespoilourbaysandcoastalwaters.Alltheborderseasarealreadyheavilypollutedbythesameexploitationdrivesthathaveunderminedthequalityoflifeonland. Notes:sewers下水道 Theauthor'sprimaryconcernisthat
Text1 ThestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselectingassigningorpromotingstudentsemployeesandmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooksmagazinesthedailypressandeveninCongress.Thetargetiswrongforinattackingthetests;criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytoolswithcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluablemeaninglessorevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser. Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance.HowWellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamountreliabilityandappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandWisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror. Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquickobjectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhatapersonhaslearnedtheskillshehasdevelopedorthekindofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhasqualitativelythesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.Whethertousetestsotherkindsofinformationorbothinaparticularsituationdependsthereforeupontheempirical.evidenceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability. Ingeneralthetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthetraitsorqualitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedforexampleabilitytodowellinaparticularcourseoftrainingprogramandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefinedforexamplepersonalityorcreativity.Properlyusedtheyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognizedbuttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.Forexampletheydon’tcompensateforgrosssocialinequalityandthusdon’ttellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances. Thethirdparagraphiswrittenmainlytostate
Text3 Within80yearssomescientistsestimatetheworldmustproducemorethaneighttimesthepresentworldfoodsupply.Theproductivenessofthesearaisesourhopesforanadequatefoodsupplyinthefuture.Aidedbymenofsciencewehavesetforthtofindout that70percentoftheearthremainsunexplored--theoceandepths.Thuswemaybetterdiscoverandutilizethesea’snaturalproductsfortheworld’shungry. Itisfishproteinconcentratethatissought.fromtheseas.ByutilizingtheunharvestedfishinUnitedStateswatersaloneenoughfishproteinconcentratecanbeobtainedtoprovidesupplementalanimalproteinformorethanonebillionpeopleforoneyearatthecostoflessthanhalfacentperdayperperson.ThemalnutritionofchildrenisterriblytragicButthecrimeliesinsociety’sunrestrainedbreedingnotinitsnegligenceinproducingfishpowder.Butwhereverthepopulationprojectsarecarefullyconsideredtheanswertotheproblemissomethinglikethis:Therearefewprojectsthatcoulddomoretoraisethenutritionallevelofmankindthanafull-scalescientificefforttodeveloptheresourcesofthesea.Eachyearsomethirtymilliontonsoffoodproductsaretakenfromtheseawhichaccountfor12percentoftheworld’sanimalproteins.Nationswiththeirswellingpopulationsmustpushforwardintotheseafrontiersforfoodsupplies.Privateindustrymuststepupitsmarineresearchandthefederalgovernmentmustmakenewattacksontheproblemsofmarineresearchdevelopment.Thereisatoneofdesperatenessinallthesedesignsonthesea. Butwhatismoststartlingistheassumptionthattheseasareanuntouchedresource.Thefactisthattheseashavebeenandarebeinghurtdirectlyandindirectlybythesameforcesthathaveabusedtheland.Inthebroadpatternofecologicalrelationshipstheseasarenotseparablefromwhathappensontheland.Thepoisonsthatpollutethesoilandtheairbringinmassivedosesintothe"continentalshelf"waters.Thedirtandpollutionthatspillsfromoururbansewersandindustrialoutfallsdespoilourbaysandcoastalwaters.Alltheborderseasarealreadyheavilypollutedbythesameexploitationdrivesthathaveunderminedthequalityoflifeonland. Notes:sewers下水道 Theauthorofthetextismostprohablyoftheopinionthat
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 14
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 4
Text2 MannersnowadaysinmetropolitancitieslikeLondonarepracticallynon-existent.Itisnothingforabigstrongschoolboytoelbowanelderlywomanasideinthedashforthelastremainingseatonthetubeorbusmuchlessstandupandofferhisseattoherasheought.InfactitissaddeningtonotethatifamandoesofferhisseattoanolderwomanitisnearlyalwaysaContinentalmanoronefromtheoldergeneration. Thisquestionofgivingupseatsinpublictransportismucharguedaboutbyyoungmenwhosaythatsincewomenhaveclaimedequalitytheynolongerdeservetobetreatedwithcourtesyandthatthosewhogoouttoworkshouldtaketheirturnintheratracelikeanyoneelse.Womenhaveneverclaimedtobephysicallyasstrongasmen.Evenifitisnotagreedhoweverthatyoungmenshouldstandupforyoungerwomenthefactremainsthatcourtesyshouldbeshowntotheoldthesickandtheburdened. Conditionsintravelarereallyveryhardoneveryoneweknowbuthardshipissurelynoexcuse.Sometimesonewonderswhatwouldhavebeenthebehaviorofthesestoutyoungmeninapackedrefugeetrainoratrainonitswaytoaprisoner-campduringtheWar.Wouldtheyhaveconsidereditonlyrightandtheirproperduetokeepthebestplacesforthemselvesthen Olderpeopletiredandirritablefromaday’sworkarenotangelseither—farfromit.Manyabriskargumentoraninsultingquarrelbreaksoutasthewearyqueuespushandshoveeachothertogetonbusesandtubes.Onecannotcommendthisofcoursebutonedoesfeelthereisjustalittlemoreexcuse. Ifcitiesaretoremainpleasantplacestoliveinatallhoweveritseemsurgentnotonlythatcommunicationsintransportshouldbeimprovedbutalsothatcommunicationbetweenhumanbeingsshouldbekeptsmoothandpolite.Allovercitiesit.seemsthatpeoplearetootiredandtoorushedtobepolite.Shopassistantswon’tbothertoassisttaxidriversshoutateachotherastheydashdangerouslyroundcornersbusconductorspullthebellbeforetheirdesperatepassengershavehadtimetogetonoroffthebusandsoonandsoon.Itseemstousthatitisuptotheyoungandstrongtodotheirsmallparttostopsuchdeterioration. Intheauthor'sviewthebestremedyforcopingwiththehardconditionsintravelincitieswouldbeto
Itishardlynecessarytopointoutthatweliveinaworldofincreasingindustrialization.Whilethisprocessenablesustoraiseourstandardoflivingatanever-acceleratingrateitalsoleadstoacorrespondinggrowthofinterdependencebetweenthedifferentregionsoftheworld. 41____________ WhatthenistobedoneAlthoughitisdifficulttoknowwheretobegintodealwithsuchalargesubjectthefirststepisperhapstoconsiderthemaineconomicdifficultiesanunderdevelopedoremergingregionhastoface. 42____________Anumberofquitecommonoccurrencesarethereforesufficienttocauseimmediateandseriousinterferencewiththisexportproduction:unfavorableweatherconditionsplantoranimalepidemicstheexhaustionofsoilfertilityormineraldepositsthedevelopmentofsubstituteproductsintheindustrializedregionsetc.Thesensitivityoftheeconomyisgreatlyintensifiedincaseswhereexportsareconfinedonlytooneortwo products—"monocultures"astheyaresometimescalled. 43____________Thisalsoappliestothemanufacturedgoodsrequiredtoprovidetheirpopulationswiththe"necessitiesoflife".Thiseconomicstructuremakesitdifficultforthemtoavoidbeingpoliticallydependentonthecountrieswhichabsorbtheirexportsandprovidetheiressentialimports. Sinceundermodernconditionsarapidriseinpopulationisaphenomenoncloselyassociatedwithunderdevelopment.Thiscausealonecansubjecttheeconomytosevereandcontinuousstress. 44____________Inthefirstplacetosetupmodernindustriesnecessitatescapitalonalargescalewhichonlyindustrializedregionsareabletoprovide;secondlytheylackthenecessarytrainedmanpower;thirdlytheirindustries—whenestablished—areusuallynotefficientenoughtocompetewithforeignimportsandanyrestrictionontheseimportsislikelytoleadtocounter-actionagainsttheirownexports. Fromanotherpointofviewitisnecessarytobearinmindthatthereareinvariablypoliticaleducationalsocialandpsychologicalobstacleswhichtendtointerfereseriouslywithanymeasurestakentodealwiththeeconomicdifficultiesoutlinedabove.45____________ Toconcludeitseemsclearthatifweare.tosucceedinsolvingthemanyinter-relatedproblemsofunderdevelopmentonlythefullestandmostintelligentuseoftheresourcesofallbranchesofsciencewillenableustodoso.555words Notes:beorientated..toward被引导到......monoculture单一作物耕作 [A]Forexampletheeconomiesofsuchcountriesareorientatedprimarilytowardtheproductionofrawmaterialsi.e.agriculturalandmineralproducts;thesearethenexportedtotheindustrializedcountries. [B]Giventheseconditionsitiseasytoseethatanypermanenteconomicorpoliticalinstabilityinoneareaisboundtohaveanincreasinglyseriouseffectupontherestoftheworld.Sincethemainsourceofsuchinstabilityisunderdevelopmentitisclearthatthisnowconstitutesaproblemofinternationaldimensions. [C]Asfaras"necessitiesoflife"areconcernedtheyrepresentaconceptwhich:iscontinuallybeingenlargedthroughthemassmediaofcommunicationsuchasnewspapersfilmstheradioandadvertising. [D]Althoughitisobviousthatindustrializationisthekeytodevelopmentitisusuallyverydifficultforemergingcountriestocarryoutplansofthisnature. [E]Beingunder-industrializedthesecountriesarelargelydependentonimportstosupplytheequipmentneededtoproducetherawmaterialstheyexport. [F]Toconsider.onlyonepoint:itisobviouslyuselesstodevotegreateffortsandexpensetoeducationtechnicaltrainingandplanningifforpsychologicalreasonsthepopulationasawholefailstoturntheoryintoeffectiveaction. [G]Thissuddenincreaseinthepopulationoftheunderdevelopedcountrieshascomeatadifficulttime.Eveniftheirpopulationhadnotgrownsofasttheywouldhavebeenfacingadesperatestruggletobringthestandardoflivingoftheirpeopleup. 42
Text2 MannersnowadaysinmetropolitancitieslikeLondonarepracticallynon-existent.Itisnothingforabigstrongschoolboytoelbowanelderlywomanasideinthedashforthelastremainingseatonthetubeorbusmuchlessstandupandofferhisseattoherasheought.InfactitissaddeningtonotethatifamandoesofferhisseattoanolderwomanitisnearlyalwaysaContinentalmanoronefromtheoldergeneration. Thisquestionofgivingupseatsinpublictransportismucharguedaboutbyyoungmenwhosaythatsincewomenhaveclaimedequalitytheynolongerdeservetobetreatedwithcourtesyandthatthosewhogoouttoworkshouldtaketheirturnintheratracelikeanyoneelse.Womenhaveneverclaimedtobephysicallyasstrongasmen.Evenifitisnotagreedhoweverthatyoungmenshouldstandupforyoungerwomenthefactremainsthatcourtesyshouldbeshowntotheoldthesickandtheburdened. Conditionsintravelarereallyveryhardoneveryoneweknowbuthardshipissurelynoexcuse.Sometimesonewonderswhatwouldhavebeenthebehaviorofthesestoutyoungmeninapackedrefugeetrainoratrainonitswaytoaprisoner-campduringtheWar.Wouldtheyhaveconsidereditonlyrightandtheirproperduetokeepthebestplacesforthemselvesthen Olderpeopletiredandirritablefromaday’sworkarenotangelseither—farfromit.Manyabriskargumentoraninsultingquarrelbreaksoutasthewearyqueuespushandshoveeachothertogetonbusesandtubes.Onecannotcommendthisofcoursebutonedoesfeelthereisjustalittlemoreexcuse. Ifcitiesaretoremainpleasantplacestoliveinatallhoweveritseemsurgentnotonlythatcommunicationsintransportshouldbeimprovedbutalsothatcommunicationbetweenhumanbeingsshouldbekeptsmoothandpolite.Allovercitiesit.seemsthatpeoplearetootiredandtoorushedtobepolite.Shopassistantswon’tbothertoassisttaxidriversshoutateachotherastheydashdangerouslyroundcornersbusconductorspullthebellbeforetheirdesperatepassengershavehadtimetogetonoroffthebusandsoonandsoon.Itseemstousthatitisuptotheyoungandstrongtodotheirsmallparttostopsuchdeterioration. Accordingtotheauthorcommunicationbetweenhumanbeingswouldbesmootherif
Text4 MosteconomistsintheUnitedStatesseemexcitedbythespellofthefreemarket.Consequentlynothingseemsgoodornormalthatdoesnotaccordwiththerequirementsofthefreemarket.Apricethatisdeterminedbythesellerorforthatmatterestablishedbyanyoneotherthantheaggregateofconsumersseemsharmful.Accordinglyitrequiresamajoractofwilltothinkofprice-fixingthedeterminationofpricesbythesellerasboth"normal"andhavingavaluableeconomicfunction.Infactprice-fixingisnormalinallindustrializedsocietiesbecausetheindustrialsystemitselfprovidesasaneffortlessconsequenceofitsowndevelopmenttheprice-fixingthatitrequires.Modernindustrialplanningrequiresandrewardsgreatsize.Henceacomparativelysmallnumberoflargefirmswillbecompetingforthesamegroupofconsumers.Thateachlargefirmwillactwithconsiderationofitsownneedsandthusavoidsellingitsproductsformorethanitscompetitorschargeiscommonlyrecognizedbyadvocatesoffree-marketeconomictheories.Buteachlargefirmwillalsoactwithfullconsiderationoftheneedsthatithasincommonwiththeotherlargefirmscompetingforthesamecustomers.Eachlargefirmwillthusavoidsignificantprice-cuttingbecauseprice-cuttingwouldbeprejudicialtothecommoninterestinastabledemandforproducts.Mosteconomistsdonotseeprice-fixingwhenitoccursbecause theyexpectittobebroughtaboutbyanumberofexplicitagreementsamonglargefirms;itisnot. Moreoverthoseeconomistswhoarguethatallowingthefreemarkettooperatewithoutinterferenceisthemostefficientmethodofestablishingpriceshavenotconsideredtheeconomiesofnon-socialistcountriesotherthantheUnitedStates.Theseeconomiesemployintentionalprice-fixingusuallyinanovertfashion.Formalprice-fixingbycartelandinformalprice-fixingbyagreementscoveringthemembersofanindustryarecommonplace.Weretheresomethingpeculiarlyefficientaboutthefreemarketandinefficientaboutprice-fixingthecountriesthathaveavoidedthefirstandusedthesecondwouldhavesuffereddrasticallyintheireconomicdevelopment.Thereisnoindicationthattheyhave. Socialistindustryalsoworkswithinaframeworkofcontrolledprices.In’theearly1970’stheSovietUnionbegantogivefirmsandindustriessomeoftheflexibilityinadjustingpricesthatamoreinformalevolutionhasaccordedthecapitalistsystem.EconomistsintheUnitesStateshavehailedthechangeasareturntothefreemarket.ButSovietfirmsarenomoresubjecttopricesestablishedbyafreemarketoverwhichtheyexerciselittleinfluencethanarecapitalistfirms;ratherSovietfirmshavebeengiventhepowertofixprices. Notes:spell魔力;一阵aggregate总体 Theprimarypurposeofthetextisto
Text3 Formescientificknowledgeisdividedintomathematicalsciencesnaturalsciencesorsciencesdealingwiththenaturalworldphysicalandbiologicalsciencesandsciencesdealingwithmankindpsychologysociologyallthesciencesofculturalachievementseverykindofhistoricalknowledge. Apartfromthesesciencesisphilosophyaboutwhichwewilltalklater.Inthefirstplaceallthisispureor.theoreticalknowledgesoughtonlyforthepurposeofunderstandinginordertofulfilltheneedtounderstandthatisintrinsicandcon-substantialtoman.Whatdistinguishesmanfromanimalsisthatheknowsandneedstoknow.Ifmandidnotknowthattheworldexistedandthattheworldwasofacertainkind-thatheWasintheworldandthathehimselfwasofacertainkindhewouldn’tbeman.Thetechnicalaspectsorapplicationsofknowledgeareequallynecessaryformanandareofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyalsocontributetodefininghimasmanandpermithimtopursuealifeincreasinglymoretrulyhuman. Butevenwhileenjoyingtheresultsoftechnicalprogressmanmustdefendtheprimacy andautonomyofpureknowledge.KnowledgesoughtdirectlyforitspracticalapplicationswillhaveimmediateandforeseeablesuccessbutnotthekindofimportantresultwhoserevolutionaryscopeisforthemostpartunforeseenexceptbytheimaginationoftheUtopians.Letmerecallawell-knownexample.IftheGreekmathematicianshadnotappliedthemselvestotheinvestigationofconicsectionzealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicionthatitmightsomedaybeusefulitwouldnothavebeenpossiblecenturieslatertonavigatefarfromshore.Thefirstmentostudythenatureofelectricitycouldnotimaginethattheirexperimentscarriedonbecauseofmereintellectualcuriosity’wouldeventuallyleadtomodernelectricaltechnologywithoutwhichwecanscarcelyconceiveofcontemporarylife. Pureknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsakebecausethehumanspiritcannotresignitselftoignorance.Butinadditionitisthefoundationforpracticalresultsthatwouldnothavebeenreachedifthisknowledgehadnotbeensoughtdisinterestedly. Theauthordoesnotincludeamongthesciencesthestudyof
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 2
Japanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautomobileindustry.46SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture.HoweverifthisweretruethenonewouldexpectJapaneseautoplantsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies.Thisisnotthecase.47Japanese-runautomobileplantslocatedintheUnitedStatesandstaffedbylocalworkershavedemonstratedhigherlevelsofproductivitywhencomparedwithfactoriesownedbyUnitedStatescompanies. OtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofcapitalinvestmentperworker.Butahistoricalperspectiveleadstoadifferentconclusion.48WhenthetwotopJapaneseautomobilemakersmatchedandthendoubledUnitedStatesproductivitylevelsinthemid-sixtiescapitalinvestmentperemployeewascomparabletothatofUnitedStatesfirms.FurthermorebythelateseventiestheamountoffixedassetsrequiredtoproduceonevehiclewasroughlyequivalentinJapanandintheUnitedStates.SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapanithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtohigherproductivity. AmorefruitfulexplanationmayliewithJapaneseproductiontechniques.Japaneseautomobileproducersdidnotsimplyimplementconventionalprocessesmoreeffectively;theymadecriticalchangeinUnited’Statesprocedures.49Forinstancethemass-productionphilosophyofUnitedStatesautomakersencouragedtheproductionofhugelotsofcarsinordertoutilizefullyexpensivecomponent-specificequipmentandtooccupyfullyworkerswhohavebeentrainedtoexecuteoneoperationefficiently.Japaneseautomakerschosetomakesmall-lotproductionfeasiblebyintroducingseveraldeparturesfromUnitedStatespracticesincludingtheuseofflexibleequipmentthatcouldbealteredeasilytodoseveraldifferentproductiontasksandthetrainingofworkersinmultiplejobs.50Automakerscouldscheduletheproductionofdifferentcomponentsormodelsonsinglemachinestherebyeliminatingtheneedtostorethesparestocksofextracomponentsthatresultwhenspecializedequipmentandworkersarekeptconstantlyactive. 50Automakerscouldscheduletheproductionofdifferentcomponentsormodelsonsinglemachinestherebyeliminatingtheneedtostorethesparestocksofextracomponentsthatresultwhenspecializedequipmentandworkersarekeptconstantlyactive.
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 12
Text1 ThestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselectingassigningorpromotingstudentsemployeesandmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooksmagazinesthedailypressandeveninCongress.Thetargetiswrongforinattackingthetests;criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytoolswithcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluablemeaninglessorevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser. Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance.HowWellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamountreliabilityandappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandWisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror. Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquickobjectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhatapersonhaslearnedtheskillshehasdevelopedorthekindofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhasqualitativelythesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.Whethertousetestsotherkindsofinformationorbothinaparticularsituationdependsthereforeupontheempirical.evidenceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability. Ingeneralthetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthetraitsorqualitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedforexampleabilitytodowellinaparticularcourseoftrainingprogramandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefinedforexamplepersonalityorcreativity.Properlyusedtheyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognizedbuttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.Forexampletheydon’tcompensateforgrosssocialinequalityandthusdon’ttellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances. Theselectionimpliesthatmoreoftenthevalueofaneducationaltestrestswith
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 20
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanessayto 1describethepicture 2statetherisksbroughtbyspeedingand 3suggestpossiblemeasuresagainstspeeding. Youshouldwriteabout160--200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlivesratherthanaboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories1istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto2anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:3anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide4tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheir5asaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutitandcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Notes:reminiscencen.回忆fragileadj.脆弱的impendingadj.即将发生的 10
Text3 Formescientificknowledgeisdividedintomathematicalsciencesnaturalsciencesorsciencesdealingwiththenaturalworldphysicalandbiologicalsciencesandsciencesdealingwithmankindpsychologysociologyallthesciencesofculturalachievementseverykindofhistoricalknowledge. Apartfromthesesciencesisphilosophyaboutwhichwewilltalklater.Inthefirstplaceallthisispureor.theoreticalknowledgesoughtonlyforthepurposeofunderstandinginordertofulfilltheneedtounderstandthatisintrinsicandcon-substantialtoman.Whatdistinguishesmanfromanimalsisthatheknowsandneedstoknow.Ifmandidnotknowthattheworldexistedandthattheworldwasofacertainkind-thatheWasintheworldandthathehimselfwasofacertainkindhewouldn’tbeman.Thetechnicalaspectsorapplicationsofknowledgeareequallynecessaryformanandareofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyalsocontributetodefininghimasmanandpermithimtopursuealifeincreasinglymoretrulyhuman. Butevenwhileenjoyingtheresultsoftechnicalprogressmanmustdefendtheprimacy andautonomyofpureknowledge.KnowledgesoughtdirectlyforitspracticalapplicationswillhaveimmediateandforeseeablesuccessbutnotthekindofimportantresultwhoserevolutionaryscopeisforthemostpartunforeseenexceptbytheimaginationoftheUtopians.Letmerecallawell-knownexample.IftheGreekmathematicianshadnotappliedthemselvestotheinvestigationofconicsectionzealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicionthatitmightsomedaybeusefulitwouldnothavebeenpossiblecenturieslatertonavigatefarfromshore.Thefirstmentostudythenatureofelectricitycouldnotimaginethattheirexperimentscarriedonbecauseofmereintellectualcuriosity’wouldeventuallyleadtomodernelectricaltechnologywithoutwhichwecanscarcelyconceiveofcontemporarylife. Pureknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsakebecausethehumanspiritcannotresignitselftoignorance.Butinadditionitisthefoundationforpracticalresultsthatwouldnothavebeenreachedifthisknowledgehadnotbeensoughtdisinterestedly. Whyiselectricaltechnologymentionedinthethirdparagraph
Japanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautomobileindustry.46SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture.HoweverifthisweretruethenonewouldexpectJapaneseautoplantsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies.Thisisnotthecase.47Japanese-runautomobileplantslocatedintheUnitedStatesandstaffedbylocalworkershavedemonstratedhigherlevelsofproductivitywhencomparedwithfactoriesownedbyUnitedStatescompanies. OtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofcapitalinvestmentperworker.Butahistoricalperspectiveleadstoadifferentconclusion.48WhenthetwotopJapaneseautomobilemakersmatchedandthendoubledUnitedStatesproductivitylevelsinthemid-sixtiescapitalinvestmentperemployeewascomparabletothatofUnitedStatesfirms.FurthermorebythelateseventiestheamountoffixedassetsrequiredtoproduceonevehiclewasroughlyequivalentinJapanandintheUnitedStates.SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapanithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtohigherproductivity. AmorefruitfulexplanationmayliewithJapaneseproductiontechniques.Japaneseautomobileproducersdidnotsimplyimplementconventionalprocessesmoreeffectively;theymadecriticalchangeinUnited’Statesprocedures.49Forinstancethemass-productionphilosophyofUnitedStatesautomakersencouragedtheproductionofhugelotsofcarsinordertoutilizefullyexpensivecomponent-specificequipmentandtooccupyfullyworkerswhohavebeentrainedtoexecuteoneoperationefficiently.Japaneseautomakerschosetomakesmall-lotproductionfeasiblebyintroducingseveraldeparturesfromUnitedStatespracticesincludingtheuseofflexibleequipmentthatcouldbealteredeasilytodoseveraldifferentproductiontasksandthetrainingofworkersinmultiplejobs.50Automakerscouldscheduletheproductionofdifferentcomponentsormodelsonsinglemachinestherebyeliminatingtheneedtostorethesparestocksofextracomponentsthatresultwhenspecializedequipmentandworkersarekeptconstantlyactive. 46SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture
Text2 In1575—over400yearsagotheFrenchscholarLouisLeRoypublishedalearnedbookinwhichhevoiceddespairoverthechangescausedbythesocialandtechnologicalinnovationsofhistimewhatwenowcalltheRenaissance.Wealsofeelthatourtimesareoutofjoint;weevenhavereasontobelievethatourdescendantswillbeworseoffthanweare. Theearthwillsoonbeovercrowdedanditsresourcesexhausted.Pollutionwillruintheenvironmentupsettheclimateandendangerhumanhealth.Thegapinlivingstandardsbetweentherichandthepoorwillwidenandleadtheangryhungrypeopleoftheworldtoactsofdesperationincludingtheuseofnuclearweaponsasblackmail.Sucharetheinevitableconsequencesofpopulationandtechnologicalgrowthifpresenttrendscontinue. Thefutureisneveraprojectionofthepast.Animalsprobablyhavenochancetoescapefromthetyrannyofbiologicalevolutionbuthumanbeingsareblessedwiththefreedomofsocialevolution.Forustrendisnotdestinyfate.Theescapefromexistingtrendsisnowfacilitatedbythefactthatsocietiesanticipatefuturedangersandtakepreventivestepsagainstexpectedchanges Despitethewidespreadbeliefthattheworldhasbecometoocomplexfoecomprehensionbythehumanbrainmodernsocietieshaveoftenrespondedeffectivelytocriticalsituations.Thedecreaseinbirthratesthepartialprohibitionofpesticidesandtherethinkingoftechnologiesfortheproductionanduseofenergyarebutafewexamplesillustratingasuddenreversaloftrendscausednotbypoliticalupsetsorscientificbreakthroughsbutbypublicawarenessofconsequences. Evenmorestrikingarethesituationsinwhichsocialattitudesconcerningfuturedifficultiesundergorapidchangesbeforetheproblemshavecometopass--witnesstheheatedargumentsabouttheproblemsofbehaviorcontrolandofgeneticengineeringeventhoughthereisasyetnoproofthateffectivemethodscanbedevelopedtomanipulatebehaviorandgenesonapopulationscale. Oneofthecharacteristicsofourtimesisthustherapiditywithwhichstepscanbetakentochange.theorientationofcertaintrendsandeventoreversethem.Suchchangesusuallyemergefromgrassrootmovementsratherthanfromofficialdirectives. Notes:Renaissance14世纪—16世纪欧洲文艺复兴时期tyranny暴虐统治暴虐行为areblessedwith幸有有幸得到butafew只是几个cometopass发生实现Asyet至今grassroot群众 Theauthorisinfavoroftheopinionthat
Japanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautomobileindustry.46SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture.HoweverifthisweretruethenonewouldexpectJapaneseautoplantsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies.Thisisnotthecase.47Japanese-runautomobileplantslocatedintheUnitedStatesandstaffedbylocalworkershavedemonstratedhigherlevelsofproductivitywhencomparedwithfactoriesownedbyUnitedStatescompanies. OtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofcapitalinvestmentperworker.Butahistoricalperspectiveleadstoadifferentconclusion.48WhenthetwotopJapaneseautomobilemakersmatchedandthendoubledUnitedStatesproductivitylevelsinthemid-sixtiescapitalinvestmentperemployeewascomparabletothatofUnitedStatesfirms.FurthermorebythelateseventiestheamountoffixedassetsrequiredtoproduceonevehiclewasroughlyequivalentinJapanandintheUnitedStates.SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapanithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtohigherproductivity. AmorefruitfulexplanationmayliewithJapaneseproductiontechniques.Japaneseautomobileproducersdidnotsimplyimplementconventionalprocessesmoreeffectively;theymadecriticalchangeinUnited’Statesprocedures.49Forinstancethemass-productionphilosophyofUnitedStatesautomakersencouragedtheproductionofhugelotsofcarsinordertoutilizefullyexpensivecomponent-specificequipmentandtooccupyfullyworkerswhohavebeentrainedtoexecuteoneoperationefficiently.Japaneseautomakerschosetomakesmall-lotproductionfeasiblebyintroducingseveraldeparturesfromUnitedStatespracticesincludingtheuseofflexibleequipmentthatcouldbealteredeasilytodoseveraldifferentproductiontasksandthetrainingofworkersinmultiplejobs.50Automakerscouldscheduletheproductionofdifferentcomponentsormodelsonsinglemachinestherebyeliminatingtheneedtostorethesparestocksofextracomponentsthatresultwhenspecializedequipmentandworkersarekeptconstantlyactive. 48WhenthetwotopJapaneseautomobilemakersmatchedandthendoubledUnitedStatesproductivitylevelsinthemid-sixtiescapitalinvestmentperemployeewascomparabletothatofUnitedStatesfirms.
Itishardlynecessarytopointoutthatweliveinaworldofincreasingindustrialization.Whilethisprocessenablesustoraiseourstandardoflivingatanever-acceleratingrateitalsoleadstoacorrespondinggrowthofinterdependencebetweenthedifferentregionsoftheworld. 41____________ WhatthenistobedoneAlthoughitisdifficulttoknowwheretobegintodealwithsuchalargesubjectthefirststepisperhapstoconsiderthemaineconomicdifficultiesanunderdevelopedoremergingregionhastoface. 42____________Anumberofquitecommonoccurrencesarethereforesufficienttocauseimmediateandseriousinterferencewiththisexportproduction:unfavorableweatherconditionsplantoranimalepidemicstheexhaustionofsoilfertilityormineraldepositsthedevelopmentofsubstituteproductsintheindustrializedregionsetc.Thesensitivityoftheeconomyisgreatlyintensifiedincaseswhereexportsareconfinedonlytooneortwo products—"monocultures"astheyaresometimescalled. 43____________Thisalsoappliestothemanufacturedgoodsrequiredtoprovidetheirpopulationswiththe"necessitiesoflife".Thiseconomicstructuremakesitdifficultforthemtoavoidbeingpoliticallydependentonthecountrieswhichabsorbtheirexportsandprovidetheiressentialimports. Sinceundermodernconditionsarapidriseinpopulationisaphenomenoncloselyassociatedwithunderdevelopment.Thiscausealonecansubjecttheeconomytosevereandcontinuousstress. 44____________Inthefirstplacetosetupmodernindustriesnecessitatescapitalonalargescalewhichonlyindustrializedregionsareabletoprovide;secondlytheylackthenecessarytrainedmanpower;thirdlytheirindustries—whenestablished—areusuallynotefficientenoughtocompetewithforeignimportsandanyrestrictionontheseimportsislikelytoleadtocounter-actionagainsttheirownexports. Fromanotherpointofviewitisnecessarytobearinmindthatthereareinvariablypoliticaleducationalsocialandpsychologicalobstacleswhichtendtointerfereseriouslywithanymeasurestakentodealwiththeeconomicdifficultiesoutlinedabove.45____________ Toconcludeitseemsclearthatifweare.tosucceedinsolvingthemanyinter-relatedproblemsofunderdevelopmentonlythefullestandmostintelligentuseoftheresourcesofallbranchesofsciencewillenableustodoso.555words Notes:beorientated..toward被引导到......monoculture单一作物耕作 [A]Forexampletheeconomiesofsuchcountriesareorientatedprimarilytowardtheproductionofrawmaterialsi.e.agriculturalandmineralproducts;thesearethenexportedtotheindustrializedcountries. [B]Giventheseconditionsitiseasytoseethatanypermanenteconomicorpoliticalinstabilityinoneareaisboundtohaveanincreasinglyseriouseffectupontherestoftheworld.Sincethemainsourceofsuchinstabilityisunderdevelopmentitisclearthatthisnowconstitutesaproblemofinternationaldimensions. [C]Asfaras"necessitiesoflife"areconcernedtheyrepresentaconceptwhich:iscontinuallybeingenlargedthroughthemassmediaofcommunicationsuchasnewspapersfilmstheradioandadvertising. [D]Althoughitisobviousthatindustrializationisthekeytodevelopmentitisusuallyverydifficultforemergingcountriestocarryoutplansofthisnature. [E]Beingunder-industrializedthesecountriesarelargelydependentonimportstosupplytheequipmentneededtoproducetherawmaterialstheyexport. [F]Toconsider.onlyonepoint:itisobviouslyuselesstodevotegreateffortsandexpensetoeducationtechnicaltrainingandplanningifforpsychologicalreasonsthepopulationasawholefailstoturntheoryintoeffectiveaction. [G]Thissuddenincreaseinthepopulationoftheunderdevelopedcountrieshascomeatadifficulttime.Eveniftheirpopulationhadnotgrownsofasttheywouldhavebeenfacingadesperatestruggletobringthestandardoflivingoftheirpeopleup. 44
Text2 MannersnowadaysinmetropolitancitieslikeLondonarepracticallynon-existent.Itisnothingforabigstrongschoolboytoelbowanelderlywomanasideinthedashforthelastremainingseatonthetubeorbusmuchlessstandupandofferhisseattoherasheought.InfactitissaddeningtonotethatifamandoesofferhisseattoanolderwomanitisnearlyalwaysaContinentalmanoronefromtheoldergeneration. Thisquestionofgivingupseatsinpublictransportismucharguedaboutbyyoungmenwhosaythatsincewomenhaveclaimedequalitytheynolongerdeservetobetreatedwithcourtesyandthatthosewhogoouttoworkshouldtaketheirturnintheratracelikeanyoneelse.Womenhaveneverclaimedtobephysicallyasstrongasmen.Evenifitisnotagreedhoweverthatyoungmenshouldstandupforyoungerwomenthefactremainsthatcourtesyshouldbeshowntotheoldthesickandtheburdened. Conditionsintravelarereallyveryhardoneveryoneweknowbuthardshipissurelynoexcuse.Sometimesonewonderswhatwouldhavebeenthebehaviorofthesestoutyoungmeninapackedrefugeetrainoratrainonitswaytoaprisoner-campduringtheWar.Wouldtheyhaveconsidereditonlyrightandtheirproperduetokeepthebestplacesforthemselvesthen Olderpeopletiredandirritablefromaday’sworkarenotangelseither—farfromit.Manyabriskargumentoraninsultingquarrelbreaksoutasthewearyqueuespushandshoveeachothertogetonbusesandtubes.Onecannotcommendthisofcoursebutonedoesfeelthereisjustalittlemoreexcuse. Ifcitiesaretoremainpleasantplacestoliveinatallhoweveritseemsurgentnotonlythatcommunicationsintransportshouldbeimprovedbutalsothatcommunicationbetweenhumanbeingsshouldbekeptsmoothandpolite.Allovercitiesit.seemsthatpeoplearetootiredandtoorushedtobepolite.Shopassistantswon’tbothertoassisttaxidriversshoutateachotherastheydashdangerouslyroundcornersbusconductorspullthebellbeforetheirdesperatepassengershavehadtimetogetonoroffthebusandsoonandsoon.Itseemstousthatitisuptotheyoungandstrongtodotheirsmallparttostopsuchdeterioration. Whatisthepossiblemeaningoftheworddeteriorationinthelastparagraph
Text4 MosteconomistsintheUnitedStatesseemexcitedbythespellofthefreemarket.Consequentlynothingseemsgoodornormalthatdoesnotaccordwiththerequirementsofthefreemarket.Apricethatisdeterminedbythesellerorforthatmatterestablishedbyanyoneotherthantheaggregateofconsumersseemsharmful.Accordinglyitrequiresamajoractofwilltothinkofprice-fixingthedeterminationofpricesbythesellerasboth"normal"andhavingavaluableeconomicfunction.Infactprice-fixingisnormalinallindustrializedsocietiesbecausetheindustrialsystemitselfprovidesasaneffortlessconsequenceofitsowndevelopmenttheprice-fixingthatitrequires.Modernindustrialplanningrequiresandrewardsgreatsize.Henceacomparativelysmallnumberoflargefirmswillbecompetingforthesamegroupofconsumers.Thateachlargefirmwillactwithconsiderationofitsownneedsandthusavoidsellingitsproductsformorethanitscompetitorschargeiscommonlyrecognizedbyadvocatesoffree-marketeconomictheories.Buteachlargefirmwillalsoactwithfullconsiderationoftheneedsthatithasincommonwiththeotherlargefirmscompetingforthesamecustomers.Eachlargefirmwillthusavoidsignificantprice-cuttingbecauseprice-cuttingwouldbeprejudicialtothecommoninterestinastabledemandforproducts.Mosteconomistsdonotseeprice-fixingwhenitoccursbecause theyexpectittobebroughtaboutbyanumberofexplicitagreementsamonglargefirms;itisnot. Moreoverthoseeconomistswhoarguethatallowingthefreemarkettooperatewithoutinterferenceisthemostefficientmethodofestablishingpriceshavenotconsideredtheeconomiesofnon-socialistcountriesotherthantheUnitedStates.Theseeconomiesemployintentionalprice-fixingusuallyinanovertfashion.Formalprice-fixingbycartelandinformalprice-fixingbyagreementscoveringthemembersofanindustryarecommonplace.Weretheresomethingpeculiarlyefficientaboutthefreemarketandinefficientaboutprice-fixingthecountriesthathaveavoidedthefirstandusedthesecondwouldhavesuffereddrasticallyintheireconomicdevelopment.Thereisnoindicationthattheyhave. Socialistindustryalsoworkswithinaframeworkofcontrolledprices.In’theearly1970’stheSovietUnionbegantogivefirmsandindustriessomeoftheflexibilityinadjustingpricesthatamoreinformalevolutionhasaccordedthecapitalistsystem.EconomistsintheUnitesStateshavehailedthechangeasareturntothefreemarket.ButSovietfirmsarenomoresubjecttopricesestablishedbyafreemarketoverwhichtheyexerciselittleinfluencethanarecapitalistfirms;ratherSovietfirmshavebeengiventhepowertofixprices. Notes:spell魔力;一阵aggregate总体 Thesuggestioninthetextthatprice-fixinginindustrializedsocietiesisnormalarisesfromtheauthor'sstatementthatprice-fixingis
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