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It is incongruous that the number of British institutions offering MBA courses should have grown by ...
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以下程序段的输出结果是【15】 num=0 Whilenum
下列程序的输出结果为【】 num=2 Whilenum
下列程序段运行结果是______ DimcAsIntegernumAsInteger Num=2
以下程序段的输出结果是【15】 num=0 Whilenum＜=5 num=num+1 We
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以下程序段的输出结果是【】 num=0 Whilenum＜=2 num=num+1 Wend
用程序计算一个整数的各位数字的乘积在下划线处应填写的语句是INPUTNUM=TOnum cj=1D
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num=num-INT(num/10)
num=INT(num%10)
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以下程序段的输出结果是______ num=0 Whilenum＜=2 num=num+1
下列程序的输出结果为______num=2Whilenum＜=3num=num+1PrintnumW
用程序计算一个整数的各位数字的乘积在下划线处应填写的语句是INPUTNUM=TOflUEcj=1DO
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用程序计算一个整数的各位数字的乘积在下划线处应填写的语句是INPUTNUM=TOnumcj=1DOW
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Directions:Aforeigndelegationistovisityouruniversity.Youareassignedtomakeawelcomespeechonbehalfofthewholeuniversitystudents.Nowwriteawelcomespeechtoexpressyourwelcomeandmakebbriefintroductionofyouruniversity.Writeyourletterwithnolessthan100words.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Concreteisprobablyusedmorewidelythananyothersubstanceexceptwateryetitremainslargelyunappreciated.Somepeopleviewthe20thcenturyastheatomicagethespaceagethecomputerage—butanargumentcanbemadethatitwastheconcreteagesayscementspecialistHendrikVanOss.It’samiraclematerial.IndeedmorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeachyearforeverymanwomanandchildonEarth.Yetconcreteisgenerallyignoredoutsidetheengineeringworldavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopment.Nowthankstoenvironmentalpressuresandentrepreneurialinnovationanewgenerationofconcretesisemerging.Thishigh-techassortmentofconcreteconfectionspromisestobestrongerlighterandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythaneverbefore.Concreteisalsoaclimate-changevillain.Itismadebymixingwaterwithanaggregatesuchassandorgravelandcement.Cementisusuallymadebyheatinglimestoneandclaytoover2500degreesF.Theresultingchemicalreactionalongwithfuelburnedtoheatthekilnproducesbetween7%and10%ofglobalcarbon-dioxideemissions.Whenwehavetorepeatedlyregeneratethesematerialsbecausethey’renotdurablewereleasemoreemissionssaysVictorLiwhohascreatedaconcretesuffusedbysyntheticfibersthatmakeitstrongermoredurableandabletobendlikeametal.Li’screationdoesnotrequirereinforcementapropertysharedbyotherconcretesthatusechemicaladditives.UsinglesswatermakesconcretestrongerbutuntilthedevelopmentofplasticizersitalsomadeconcretestickydryandhardtohandlesaysChristianMeyeracivilengineeringprofessoratColumbiaUniversity.MakingstrongerconcretessaysLiallowslesstobeusedreducingwasteandgivingarchitectsmorefreedom.Youcanhavesuchfuturisticdesignsifyoudon’thavetoputrebarinthereorstructuralbeamssaysVanOss.Amoredirectlygreenc6neretehasbeendevelopedbytheAustraliancompanyTecEeo.Theyaddmagnesiumtotheircementformingaporousconcretethatactuallyscrubscarbondioxidefromtheair.Whileexpertsagreethatthesenewconcretewillsomedaybewidelyusedthetimetableisuncertain.Concretecompaniesareresponsivetoenvironmentalconcernsandarealwayslookingtostretchtheutilityoftheirproductbuttheconstructionindustryisslowtochange.WhenyoustartmonkeyingaroundwithmaterialsthegoverningbodiesthebuildingdepartmentsareverycautiousbeforetheyletyouuseanunprovenmaterialMeyersays.InthenextfewdecadessaysVanOssbuildingcodeswillchangeopeningthewayforinnovativematerials.Butwhilenewconcretesmaybestrongerandmoredurabletheyarealsomoreexpensive—andwhetherthetendencyofdevelopersandthepublictofocusonshort-termratherthanlong-termcostswillalsochangeisanothermatter.BysayingitwastheconcreteageLine3Para.1VanOssmeansthat
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 45
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 9
InthelasttenyearstheInternethasopenedupincredibleamountsofinformationtoordinarycitizens.ButusingtheInternetcanhelikewalkingintoalibrarywherethebooksarealllyingonthefloorinpiles.WhiletoolslikeGoogleallowsomestructuredsearchmuchofthedatafromsuchsearchesisoutdatedorofquestionablevalue.SomewebenthusiastshavetakenupthetaskoforganizinginformationthroughademocraticmeansthatonlytheInternetallows:anencyclopediaofthepeoplebythepeopleandcompletelyfreetocopyanddistribute.This‘people’sencyclopedia’oftheWeb—afreesitecalledWikipedia—hasprovidedauniquesolutionbyinvitingindividualstoparticipateintheprocessofrationalizingandupdatingwebcontent.Attheheartofthismovementarewikiswebsitesthatallowuserstodirectlyeditanywebpagewithoneclickofthemouse.Wikipedia—thelargestexampleofthesecollaborativeefforts—isafunctioninguser-contributedonlineencyclopediathathasbecomeapopularandhighlyregardedreferenceinjustthreeyearsofexistence.ThegoalofWikipediawastocreateanencyclopediathatcouldhesharedandcopiedfreelywhileencouragingpeopletochangeandimprovethecontent.EachandeveryarticlehasanEditthispagebuttonallowinganyoneevenanonymouspassersbytoaddordeleteanycontentonthepage.Itseemslikearecipefordisasterandchaosbutithasproducedsurprisinglycrediblecontentthathasbeenevaluatedandrevisedbythethousandsofinternationalvisitorstothesite.FormanyitfinallyrealizestheoriginalconceptofWorldWideWebcreatorTimBerners-Lee—anonlineenvironmentwherepeoplenotonlybrowsecontentbutfreelyandactivelyexchangeinformation.TheWikipediaprojectwasstartedbyJimmyWalesheadofInternetstartupBomis.comafterhisoriginalprojectforavolunteerhutstrictlycontrolledfreeencyclopediaranoutofmoneyandresourcesaftertwoyears.EditorswithPhDdegreeswereatthehelmoftheprojectthenbutitproducedonlyafewhundredarticles.NotwantingthecontenttolanguishWalesplacedthepagesonawikiwebsiteinJanuary2001andinvitedanyInternetvisitorstoeditoraddtothecollection.Thesitebecamearunawaysuccessinthefirstyearandgainedaloyalfollowinggeneratingover20000articlesandspawningoveradozenlanguagetranslations.Aftertwoyearsithad100000articlesandinApril2004itexceeded250000articlesinEnglishand600000articlesin50otherlanguages.Over2000newarticlesareaddedeachdayacrossallthevariouslanguages.AndaccordingtowebsiterankingsatAlexa.comithasbecomemorepopularthantraditionalonlineencyclopediassuchasBritannica.comandisoneofthetop600mostheavilyvisitedwebsitesontheinternet.ThewordlanguishLine4Para.4isclosestinmeaningto
ThatLouiseNevelsonisbelievedbymanycriticstobethegreatesttwentieth-centurysculptorisallthemoreremarkablebecausethegreatestresistancetowomenartistshasbeenuntilrecentlyinthefieldofsculpture.SinceNeolithictimessculpturehasbeenconsideredtheprerogativeofmenpartlyperhapsforpurelyphysicalreasons:itwaserroneouslyassumedthatwomenwerenotsuitedforthehardmanuallaborrequiredinsculptingstonecarvingwoodorworkinginmetal.IthasbeenonlyduringthetwentiethcenturythatwomensculptorshavebeenrecognizedasmajorartistsandithasbeenintheUnitedStatesespeciallysincethedecadesofthefiftiesandsixtiesthatwomensculptorshaveshownthegreatestoriginalityandcreativepower.TheirrisetoprominenceparallelsthedevelopmentofsculptureitselfintheUnitedStates:whiletherehadbeenafewtalentedsculptorsintheUnitedStatesbeforethe1940’sitwasonlyafter1945—whenNewYorkwasrapidlybecomingtheartcapitaloftheworld—thatmajorsculpturewasproducedintheUnitedStates.Someofthebestwastheworkofwomen.ByfarthemostoutstandingofthesewomenisLouiseNevelsonwhointheeyesofmanycriticsisthemostoriginalfemaleartistalivetoday.OnefamousandinfluentialcriticHiltonKramersaidofherworkFormyselfIthinkMs.Nevelsonsucceedswherethepaintersoftenfail.HerworkshavebeencomparedtotheCubistconstructionsofPicassotheSurrealisticobjectsofMiroandtheMerzbauofSchwitters.NevelsonwouldbethefirsttoadmitthatshehasbeeninfluencedbyalloftheseaswellasbyAfricansculptureandbyNativeAmericanandpre-Columbianartbutshehasabsorbedalltheseinfluencesandstillcreatedadistinctiveartthatexpressestheurbanlandscapeandtheaestheticsensibilityofthetwentiethcentury.NevelsonsaysIhavealwayswantedtoshowtheworldthatartiseverywhereexceptthatithastopassthroughacreativemind.Usingmostlydiscardedwoodenobjectslikepackingcratesbrokenpiecesoffurnitureandabandonedarchitecturalornamentsallofwhichshehashoardedforyearssheassemblesarchitecturalconstructionsofgreatbeautyandpower.Creatingveryfreelywithnosketchesshegluesandnailsobjectstogetherpaintsthemblackormorerarelywhiteorgoldandplacestheminboxes.Theseassemblageswallsevenentireenvironmentscreateamysteriousalmostawe-inspiringatmosphere.Althoughshehasdeniedanysymbolicorreligiousintentinherworkstheirthree-dimensionalgrandeurandeventheirtitlessuchasSkyCathedralandNightCathedralsuggestsuchconnotations.InsomewayshermostambitiousworksareclosertoarchitecturethantotraditionalsculpturebutthenneitherLouiseNevelsonnorherartfitsintoanyneatcategory.WhichofthefollowingstatementaboutNevelson’sculpturecanbeinferredfromthepassage
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 19
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 1
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 11
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 15
ThatLouiseNevelsonisbelievedbymanycriticstobethegreatesttwentieth-centurysculptorisallthemoreremarkablebecausethegreatestresistancetowomenartistshasbeenuntilrecentlyinthefieldofsculpture.SinceNeolithictimessculpturehasbeenconsideredtheprerogativeofmenpartlyperhapsforpurelyphysicalreasons:itwaserroneouslyassumedthatwomenwerenotsuitedforthehardmanuallaborrequiredinsculptingstonecarvingwoodorworkinginmetal.IthasbeenonlyduringthetwentiethcenturythatwomensculptorshavebeenrecognizedasmajorartistsandithasbeenintheUnitedStatesespeciallysincethedecadesofthefiftiesandsixtiesthatwomensculptorshaveshownthegreatestoriginalityandcreativepower.TheirrisetoprominenceparallelsthedevelopmentofsculptureitselfintheUnitedStates:whiletherehadbeenafewtalentedsculptorsintheUnitedStatesbeforethe1940’sitwasonlyafter1945—whenNewYorkwasrapidlybecomingtheartcapitaloftheworld—thatmajorsculpturewasproducedintheUnitedStates.Someofthebestwastheworkofwomen.ByfarthemostoutstandingofthesewomenisLouiseNevelsonwhointheeyesofmanycriticsisthemostoriginalfemaleartistalivetoday.OnefamousandinfluentialcriticHiltonKramersaidofherworkFormyselfIthinkMs.Nevelsonsucceedswherethepaintersoftenfail.HerworkshavebeencomparedtotheCubistconstructionsofPicassotheSurrealisticobjectsofMiroandtheMerzbauofSchwitters.NevelsonwouldbethefirsttoadmitthatshehasbeeninfluencedbyalloftheseaswellasbyAfricansculptureandbyNativeAmericanandpre-Columbianartbutshehasabsorbedalltheseinfluencesandstillcreatedadistinctiveartthatexpressestheurbanlandscapeandtheaestheticsensibilityofthetwentiethcentury.NevelsonsaysIhavealwayswantedtoshowtheworldthatartiseverywhereexceptthatithastopassthroughacreativemind.Usingmostlydiscardedwoodenobjectslikepackingcratesbrokenpiecesoffurnitureandabandonedarchitecturalornamentsallofwhichshehashoardedforyearssheassemblesarchitecturalconstructionsofgreatbeautyandpower.Creatingveryfreelywithnosketchesshegluesandnailsobjectstogetherpaintsthemblackormorerarelywhiteorgoldandplacestheminboxes.Theseassemblageswallsevenentireenvironmentscreateamysteriousalmostawe-inspiringatmosphere.Althoughshehasdeniedanysymbolicorreligiousintentinherworkstheirthree-dimensionalgrandeurandeventheirtitlessuchasSkyCathedralandNightCathedralsuggestsuchconnotations.InsomewayshermostambitiousworksareclosertoarchitecturethantotraditionalsculpturebutthenneitherLouiseNevelsonnorherartfitsintoanyneatcategory.ThewordassemblagesLine4Para4isclosestinmeaningto
ManypeopleconsiderthewideruseofbiofuelsapromisingwayofreducingtheamountofsurpluscarbondioxideCO2beingpumpedintotheairbytheworld’smechanizedtransport.ThetheoryisthatplantssuchassugarcanemaizecorntoAmericansoilseedrapeandwheattakeupCO2duringtheirgrowthsoburningfuelsmadefromthemshouldhavenoneteffectontheamountofthatgasintheatmosphere.Theorythoughdoesnotalwaystranslateintopracticeandjustasgovernmentshavecommittedthemselvestothegreateruseofbiofuelsquestionsarebeingraisedabouthowgreenthisformofenergyreallyis.ThelatestcomesfromtheInternationalCouncilforScienceICSUbasedinParis.TheICSUreportconcludesthatsofartheproductionofbiofuelshasaggravatedratherthanamelioratedglobalwarming.Inparticularitsupportssomecontroversialfindingspublishedin2007byPaulCrutzenoftheMaxPlanckInstituteforChemistryinGermany.Dr.CrutzenconcludedthatmostanalyseshadunderestimatedtheimportancetoglobalwarmingofagascallednitrousoxideN2O.TheamountofthisgasreleasedbyfarmingbiofuelcropssuchasmaizeandrapeprobablynegatesbyitselfanyadvantageofferedbyreducedemissionsofCO2.AlthoughN2OisnotcommonintheEarth’satmosphereitisamorepotentgreenhousegasthanCO2andithangsaroundlonger.Theresultisthatoverthecourseofacenturyitsabilitytowarmtheplanetisalmost300timesthatofanequivalentmassofCO2.N2Oismadebybacteriathatliveinsoilandwaterandthesedaystheirrawmaterialisoftenthenitrogen-richfertiliserthatmodernfarmingrequires.Sincethe1960stheamountoffertiliserusedbyfarmershasincreasedsixfoldandnotallofthatextranitrogenendsupintheircrops.Maizeinparticularisdescribedbyexpertsinthefieldasanitrogen-leakyplantbecauseithasshallowrootsandtakesupnitrogenforonlyafewmonthsoftheyear.ThiswouldmakemaizewhichisoneofthemainsourcesofbiofuelaparticularlybadcontributortoglobalN2Oemissions.Butitisnotjustbiofuelsthataretoblame.TheICSUreportsuggestsN2Oemissionsingeneralareprobablymoreimportantthanhadbeenrealised.PreviousstudiesincludingthosebytheInternationalPanelonClimateChangeIPCCaUnitedNations-appointedbodyofexpertsmayhavemiscalculatedtheirsignificance—andaccordingtoAdrianWilliamsofCranfieldUniversityinBritaineventheIPCC’sapproachsuggeststhattheglobal-warmingpotentialofmostofBritain’sannualcropsisdominatedbyN2Oemissions.Itcanbeinferredfromthethirdparagraphthat
Thequestionofwhereinsightscomefromhasbecomeahottopicinneurosciencedespitethefactthattheyarenoteasytoinduceexperimentallyinalaboratory.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Shethhavetakenacreativeapproach.Theyhaveselectedsomebrain-teasingbutpracticalproblemsinthehopethatthesewouldgetclosertomimickingrealinsight:Toqualifyapuzzlehadtobesimplenottoowidelyknownandwithoutamethodicalsolution.Theresearchersthenasked18youngadultstotrytosolvetheseproblemswhiletheirbrainwavesweremonitoredusinganelectroencephalographEEG.Atypicalbrain-teaserwentlikethis.Therearethreelightswitchesontheground-floorwallofathree-storeyhouse.Twooftheswitchesdonothingbutoneofthemcontrolsabulbonthesecondfloor.Whenyoubeginthebulbisoff.Youcanonlymakeonevisittothesecondfloor.HowdoyouworkoutwhichswitchistheonethatcontrolsthelightThisproblemoroneequivalenttoitwaspresentedonacomputerscreentoavolunteerwhenthatvolunteerpressedabutton.Theelectricalactivityofthevolunteer’sbrainhisbrainwavepatternwasrecordedbytheEEGfromthebutton’spress.Eachvolunteerwasgiven30secondstoreadthepuzzleandanother60to90secondstosolveit.Somepeopleworkeditout;othersdidnot.ThesignificantpointthoughwasthattheEEGpredictedwhowouldfallwhere.Thosevolunteerswhowentontohaveaninsightinthiscasethatontheironeandonlyvisittothesecondfloortheycouldusenotjustthelighthuttheheatproducedbyabulbasevidenceofanactiveswitchhadhaddifferentbrainwaveactivityfromthosewhonevergotit.Intherightfrontalcortexapartofthebrainassociatedwithshiftingmentalstatestherewasanincreaseinhigh-frequencygammawavesthosewith47-48cyclesasecond.Moreoverthedifferencewasnoticeableuptoeightsecondsbeforethevolunteerrealisedhehadfoundthesolution.Dr.Sheththinksthismayhecapturingthetransformationalthoughtinactionbeforethebrain’sownerisconsciouslyawareofit.Thisfindingposesfascinatingquestionsabouthowthebrainreallyworks.Consciousthoughtitseemsdoesnotsolveproblems.Insteadunconsciousprocessinghappensinthebackgroundandonlydeliverstheanswertoconsciousnessonceithasbeenarrivedat.Foodforfurtherthoughtindeed.Throughwhichcharacterofthebraindidthescientistsstudythebrain
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 3
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 7
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 5
ThatLouiseNevelsonisbelievedbymanycriticstobethegreatesttwentieth-centurysculptorisallthemoreremarkablebecausethegreatestresistancetowomenartistshasbeenuntilrecentlyinthefieldofsculpture.SinceNeolithictimessculpturehasbeenconsideredtheprerogativeofmenpartlyperhapsforpurelyphysicalreasons:itwaserroneouslyassumedthatwomenwerenotsuitedforthehardmanuallaborrequiredinsculptingstonecarvingwoodorworkinginmetal.IthasbeenonlyduringthetwentiethcenturythatwomensculptorshavebeenrecognizedasmajorartistsandithasbeenintheUnitedStatesespeciallysincethedecadesofthefiftiesandsixtiesthatwomensculptorshaveshownthegreatestoriginalityandcreativepower.TheirrisetoprominenceparallelsthedevelopmentofsculptureitselfintheUnitedStates:whiletherehadbeenafewtalentedsculptorsintheUnitedStatesbeforethe1940’sitwasonlyafter1945—whenNewYorkwasrapidlybecomingtheartcapitaloftheworld—thatmajorsculpturewasproducedintheUnitedStates.Someofthebestwastheworkofwomen.ByfarthemostoutstandingofthesewomenisLouiseNevelsonwhointheeyesofmanycriticsisthemostoriginalfemaleartistalivetoday.OnefamousandinfluentialcriticHiltonKramersaidofherworkFormyselfIthinkMs.Nevelsonsucceedswherethepaintersoftenfail.HerworkshavebeencomparedtotheCubistconstructionsofPicassotheSurrealisticobjectsofMiroandtheMerzbauofSchwitters.NevelsonwouldbethefirsttoadmitthatshehasbeeninfluencedbyalloftheseaswellasbyAfricansculptureandbyNativeAmericanandpre-Columbianartbutshehasabsorbedalltheseinfluencesandstillcreatedadistinctiveartthatexpressestheurbanlandscapeandtheaestheticsensibilityofthetwentiethcentury.NevelsonsaysIhavealwayswantedtoshowtheworldthatartiseverywhereexceptthatithastopassthroughacreativemind.Usingmostlydiscardedwoodenobjectslikepackingcratesbrokenpiecesoffurnitureandabandonedarchitecturalornamentsallofwhichshehashoardedforyearssheassemblesarchitecturalconstructionsofgreatbeautyandpower.Creatingveryfreelywithnosketchesshegluesandnailsobjectstogetherpaintsthemblackormorerarelywhiteorgoldandplacestheminboxes.Theseassemblageswallsevenentireenvironmentscreateamysteriousalmostawe-inspiringatmosphere.Althoughshehasdeniedanysymbolicorreligiousintentinherworkstheirthree-dimensionalgrandeurandeventheirtitlessuchasSkyCathedralandNightCathedralsuggestsuchconnotations.InsomewayshermostambitiousworksareclosertoarchitecturethantotraditionalsculpturebutthenneitherLouiseNevelsonnorherartfitsintoanyneatcategory.Thewriterimpliesinthefirstparagraphthat
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 41
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 17
InthelasttenyearstheInternethasopenedupincredibleamountsofinformationtoordinarycitizens.ButusingtheInternetcanhelikewalkingintoalibrarywherethebooksarealllyingonthefloorinpiles.WhiletoolslikeGoogleallowsomestructuredsearchmuchofthedatafromsuchsearchesisoutdatedorofquestionablevalue.SomewebenthusiastshavetakenupthetaskoforganizinginformationthroughademocraticmeansthatonlytheInternetallows:anencyclopediaofthepeoplebythepeopleandcompletelyfreetocopyanddistribute.This‘people’sencyclopedia’oftheWeb—afreesitecalledWikipedia—hasprovidedauniquesolutionbyinvitingindividualstoparticipateintheprocessofrationalizingandupdatingwebcontent.Attheheartofthismovementarewikiswebsitesthatallowuserstodirectlyeditanywebpagewithoneclickofthemouse.Wikipedia—thelargestexampleofthesecollaborativeefforts—isafunctioninguser-contributedonlineencyclopediathathasbecomeapopularandhighlyregardedreferenceinjustthreeyearsofexistence.ThegoalofWikipediawastocreateanencyclopediathatcouldhesharedandcopiedfreelywhileencouragingpeopletochangeandimprovethecontent.EachandeveryarticlehasanEditthispagebuttonallowinganyoneevenanonymouspassersbytoaddordeleteanycontentonthepage.Itseemslikearecipefordisasterandchaosbutithasproducedsurprisinglycrediblecontentthathasbeenevaluatedandrevisedbythethousandsofinternationalvisitorstothesite.FormanyitfinallyrealizestheoriginalconceptofWorldWideWebcreatorTimBerners-Lee—anonlineenvironmentwherepeoplenotonlybrowsecontentbutfreelyandactivelyexchangeinformation.TheWikipediaprojectwasstartedbyJimmyWalesheadofInternetstartupBomis.comafterhisoriginalprojectforavolunteerhutstrictlycontrolledfreeencyclopediaranoutofmoneyandresourcesaftertwoyears.EditorswithPhDdegreeswereatthehelmoftheprojectthenbutitproducedonlyafewhundredarticles.NotwantingthecontenttolanguishWalesplacedthepagesonawikiwebsiteinJanuary2001andinvitedanyInternetvisitorstoeditoraddtothecollection.Thesitebecamearunawaysuccessinthefirstyearandgainedaloyalfollowinggeneratingover20000articlesandspawningoveradozenlanguagetranslations.Aftertwoyearsithad100000articlesandinApril2004itexceeded250000articlesinEnglishand600000articlesin50otherlanguages.Over2000newarticlesareaddedeachdayacrossallthevariouslanguages.AndaccordingtowebsiterankingsatAlexa.comithasbecomemorepopularthantraditionalonlineencyclopediassuchasBritannica.comandisoneofthetop600mostheavilyvisitedwebsitesontheinternet.TheauthorcalledWikipedia‘people’sencyclopedia’because
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.
Thequestionofwhereinsightscomefromhasbecomeahottopicinneurosciencedespitethefactthattheyarenoteasytoinduceexperimentallyinalaboratory.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Shethhavetakenacreativeapproach.Theyhaveselectedsomebrain-teasingbutpracticalproblemsinthehopethatthesewouldgetclosertomimickingrealinsight:Toqualifyapuzzlehadtobesimplenottoowidelyknownandwithoutamethodicalsolution.Theresearchersthenasked18youngadultstotrytosolvetheseproblemswhiletheirbrainwavesweremonitoredusinganelectroencephalographEEG.Atypicalbrain-teaserwentlikethis.Therearethreelightswitchesontheground-floorwallofathree-storeyhouse.Twooftheswitchesdonothingbutoneofthemcontrolsabulbonthesecondfloor.Whenyoubeginthebulbisoff.Youcanonlymakeonevisittothesecondfloor.HowdoyouworkoutwhichswitchistheonethatcontrolsthelightThisproblemoroneequivalenttoitwaspresentedonacomputerscreentoavolunteerwhenthatvolunteerpressedabutton.Theelectricalactivityofthevolunteer’sbrainhisbrainwavepatternwasrecordedbytheEEGfromthebutton’spress.Eachvolunteerwasgiven30secondstoreadthepuzzleandanother60to90secondstosolveit.Somepeopleworkeditout;othersdidnot.ThesignificantpointthoughwasthattheEEGpredictedwhowouldfallwhere.Thosevolunteerswhowentontohaveaninsightinthiscasethatontheironeandonlyvisittothesecondfloortheycouldusenotjustthelighthuttheheatproducedbyabulbasevidenceofanactiveswitchhadhaddifferentbrainwaveactivityfromthosewhonevergotit.Intherightfrontalcortexapartofthebrainassociatedwithshiftingmentalstatestherewasanincreaseinhigh-frequencygammawavesthosewith47-48cyclesasecond.Moreoverthedifferencewasnoticeableuptoeightsecondsbeforethevolunteerrealisedhehadfoundthesolution.Dr.Sheththinksthismayhecapturingthetransformationalthoughtinactionbeforethebrain’sownerisconsciouslyawareofit.Thisfindingposesfascinatingquestionsabouthowthebrainreallyworks.Consciousthoughtitseemsdoesnotsolveproblems.Insteadunconsciousprocessinghappensinthebackgroundandonlydeliverstheanswertoconsciousnessonceithasbeenarrivedat.Foodforfurtherthoughtindeed.Howdobrainsworkaccordingtothepassage
With22yearsonthejobJackieBraceycouldbeconsideredacareeremployeeoftheInternalRevenueService.Butshedefiesanystereotypeofanover-eageragentrunningdownareluctanttaxpayer.Insteadshespendshertimedefendingpeoplewhoowethegovernmentmoney.Ms.BraceybasedinGreensboroN.C.isataxpayeradvocateacreatedbyCongressin1998aspartofthekindergentlerthemeadoptedbythetaxcollectionagency.Braceyandadvocatesat73Otherofficesnationwidebackedby2100fieldworkersandstaffgotobatfortaxpayerswhoareinfinancialstraitsbecauseofsomethingtheagencyhasdoneorisabouttodo.ThoughitmayseemcontrarytotheIRStheadvocateservicenotonlyhelpstaxpayersbutidentifiesproceduralproblems.ThemaingoalthoughisfortheombudsmantostepintoadisputeataxpayerishavingwiththeIRSwhenitappearsthatsomethingtheIRSisdoingorplanningwouldcreateanunduehardshiponthetaxpayer.ThiscanrangefromspeedingupresolutionofadisputethathasdraggedontoolongtodemandingthattheIRShaltacollectionactionthatthetaxpayercanshowheorsheissufferingorisabouttosufferasignificanthardship.Taxpayerombudsmenhavebeenaroundinoneformoranothersince1979saysNinaOlsonthenationaltaxpayeradvocate.Buttheyweregivenmuchmorepowerin1998whenCongressdecidedthattheworkerswouldnolongerreporttoregionaldirectorsbuttoheroffice.Whilethisgavethemagreatdealmoreauthorityoutsidewatchdogssaymorecanbedone.ThereisalongwaytogotogetanagencythatfeelsindependentandemboldenedtoworkfortaxpayerssaysJoeSeepavicepresidentoftheWashington-basedtax-advocacygroup.ThetaxpayersunionalsohascomplainedthatCongressandtheBushadministrationdon’tseemtobetakingtheadvocatesseriouslyenough.EachyeartheIRSgroupreportstoCongressonthetopproblemsthatadvocatessee.ManyofthesearesystemicproblemsthatcangumuptheworksforbothtaxpayerandcollectorsuchasaDecembernoticefromMs.OlsonthattheIRSshouldhavejustonedefinitionofadependentchildratherthanthethreedefinitionscurrentlyused.Whiletaxpayeradvocatescanhelpsmooththingsoutinmanycasestheycannotignorelaws.Iftaxpayershaven’tmadelegitimateclaimsforcreditsthere’snothingtheadvocatecandotoreversethatcourse.AndOlsonsaysthatwhiletaxpayersarefreetouseherservicetheyshouldkeepinmindthatitdoesnotreplacethenormalappealsprocessandshouldbethelastplaceacitizencallsuponforhelpnotthefirst.We’rereallytherefor.whentheprocessesfalldownshesays.Everystatehasatleastonetaxpayer-advocateserviceoffice.TheadvocateservicemayseemcontrarytotheIRSLine1Para.2because
In1999thepriceofoilhoveredaround$16abarrel.By2008ithad1the$100abarrelmark.Thereasonsforthesurge2fromthedramaticgrowthoftheeconomiesofChinaandIndiatowidespread3inoil-producingregionsincludingIraqandNigeria’sdeltaregion.Triple-digitoilpriceshave4theeconomicandpoliticalmapoftheworld5someoldnotionsofpower.Oil-richnationsareenjoyinghistoricgainsandopportunities6majorimporters—includingChinaandIndiahometoathirdoftheworld’spopulation—7risingeconomicandsocialcosts. Managingthisneworderisfastbecomingacentral8ofglobalpolitics.Countriesthatneedoilareclawingateachotherto9scarcesuppliesandarewillingtodealwithanygovernment10howunpleasanttodoit. Inmanypoornationswithoiltheprofitsarebeinglosttocorruption11thesecountriesoftheirbesthopefordevelopment.Andoilisfuelingenormousinvestmentfundsrunbyforeigngovernments12someinthewestseeasanewthreat. CountrieslikeRussiaVenezuelaandIranarewellsuppliedwithrisingoil13achangereflectedinnewlyaggressiveforeignpolicies.Butsomeunexpectedcountriesarereapingbenefits14costsfromhigherprices.ConsiderGermany.15itimportsvirtuallyallitsoilithasprosperedfromextensivetradewithaboomingRussiaandtheMiddleEast.GermanexportstoRussia16128percentfrom2001to2006. IntheUnitedStatesasalreadyhighgaspricesrose17higherinthespringof2008theissuecroppedupinthepresidentialcampaignwithSenatorsMcCainandObama18forafederalgastaxholidayduringthepeaksummerdrivingmonths.Anddrivinghabitsbeganto19assalesofsmallcarsjumpedandmasstransportsystems20thecountryreportedasharpincreaseinriders. 13
Concreteisprobablyusedmorewidelythananyothersubstanceexceptwateryetitremainslargelyunappreciated.Somepeopleviewthe20thcenturyastheatomicagethespaceagethecomputerage—butanargumentcanbemadethatitwastheconcreteagesayscementspecialistHendrikVanOss.It’samiraclematerial.IndeedmorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeachyearforeverymanwomanandchildonEarth.Yetconcreteisgenerallyignoredoutsidetheengineeringworldavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopment.Nowthankstoenvironmentalpressuresandentrepreneurialinnovationanewgenerationofconcretesisemerging.Thishigh-techassortmentofconcreteconfectionspromisestobestrongerlighterandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythaneverbefore.Concreteisalsoaclimate-changevillain.Itismadebymixingwaterwithanaggregatesuchassandorgravelandcement.Cementisusuallymadebyheatinglimestoneandclaytoover2500degreesF.Theresultingchemicalreactionalongwithfuelburnedtoheatthekilnproducesbetween7%and10%ofglobalcarbon-dioxideemissions.Whenwehavetorepeatedlyregeneratethesematerialsbecausethey’renotdurablewereleasemoreemissionssaysVictorLiwhohascreatedaconcretesuffusedbysyntheticfibersthatmakeitstrongermoredurableandabletobendlikeametal.Li’screationdoesnotrequirereinforcementapropertysharedbyotherconcretesthatusechemicaladditives.UsinglesswatermakesconcretestrongerbutuntilthedevelopmentofplasticizersitalsomadeconcretestickydryandhardtohandlesaysChristianMeyeracivilengineeringprofessoratColumbiaUniversity.MakingstrongerconcretessaysLiallowslesstobeusedreducingwasteandgivingarchitectsmorefreedom.Youcanhavesuchfuturisticdesignsifyoudon’thavetoputrebarinthereorstructuralbeamssaysVanOss.Amoredirectlygreenc6neretehasbeendevelopedbytheAustraliancompanyTecEeo.Theyaddmagnesiumtotheircementformingaporousconcretethatactuallyscrubscarbondioxidefromtheair.Whileexpertsagreethatthesenewconcretewillsomedaybewidelyusedthetimetableisuncertain.Concretecompaniesareresponsivetoenvironmentalconcernsandarealwayslookingtostretchtheutilityoftheirproductbuttheconstructionindustryisslowtochange.WhenyoustartmonkeyingaroundwithmaterialsthegoverningbodiesthebuildingdepartmentsareverycautiousbeforetheyletyouuseanunprovenmaterialMeyersays.InthenextfewdecadessaysVanOssbuildingcodeswillchangeopeningthewayforinnovativematerials.Butwhilenewconcretesmaybestrongerandmoredurabletheyarealsomoreexpensive—andwhetherthetendencyofdevelopersandthepublictofocusonshort-termratherthanlong-termcostswillalsochangeisanothermatter.Accordingtothetextconcreteisalsoaclimate-changevillainmainlybecause
InthelasttenyearstheInternethasopenedupincredibleamountsofinformationtoordinarycitizens.ButusingtheInternetcanhelikewalkingintoalibrarywherethebooksarealllyingonthefloorinpiles.WhiletoolslikeGoogleallowsomestructuredsearchmuchofthedatafromsuchsearchesisoutdatedorofquestionablevalue.SomewebenthusiastshavetakenupthetaskoforganizinginformationthroughademocraticmeansthatonlytheInternetallows:anencyclopediaofthepeoplebythepeopleandcompletelyfreetocopyanddistribute.This‘people’sencyclopedia’oftheWeb—afreesitecalledWikipedia—hasprovidedauniquesolutionbyinvitingindividualstoparticipateintheprocessofrationalizingandupdatingwebcontent.Attheheartofthismovementarewikiswebsitesthatallowuserstodirectlyeditanywebpagewithoneclickofthemouse.Wikipedia—thelargestexampleofthesecollaborativeefforts—isafunctioninguser-contributedonlineencyclopediathathasbecomeapopularandhighlyregardedreferenceinjustthreeyearsofexistence.ThegoalofWikipediawastocreateanencyclopediathatcouldhesharedandcopiedfreelywhileencouragingpeopletochangeandimprovethecontent.EachandeveryarticlehasanEditthispagebuttonallowinganyoneevenanonymouspassersbytoaddordeleteanycontentonthepage.Itseemslikearecipefordisasterandchaosbutithasproducedsurprisinglycrediblecontentthathasbeenevaluatedandrevisedbythethousandsofinternationalvisitorstothesite.FormanyitfinallyrealizestheoriginalconceptofWorldWideWebcreatorTimBerners-Lee—anonlineenvironmentwherepeoplenotonlybrowsecontentbutfreelyandactivelyexchangeinformation.TheWikipediaprojectwasstartedbyJimmyWalesheadofInternetstartupBomis.comafterhisoriginalprojectforavolunteerhutstrictlycontrolledfreeencyclopediaranoutofmoneyandresourcesaftertwoyears.EditorswithPhDdegreeswereatthehelmoftheprojectthenbutitproducedonlyafewhundredarticles.NotwantingthecontenttolanguishWalesplacedthepagesonawikiwebsiteinJanuary2001andinvitedanyInternetvisitorstoeditoraddtothecollection.Thesitebecamearunawaysuccessinthefirstyearandgainedaloyalfollowinggeneratingover20000articlesandspawningoveradozenlanguagetranslations.Aftertwoyearsithad100000articlesandinApril2004itexceeded250000articlesinEnglishand600000articlesin50otherlanguages.Over2000newarticlesareaddedeachdayacrossallthevariouslanguages.AndaccordingtowebsiterankingsatAlexa.comithasbecomemorepopularthantraditionalonlineencyclopediassuchasBritannica.comandisoneofthetop600mostheavilyvisitedwebsitesontheinternet.WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutWikipedia
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 43
With22yearsonthejobJackieBraceycouldbeconsideredacareeremployeeoftheInternalRevenueService.Butshedefiesanystereotypeofanover-eageragentrunningdownareluctanttaxpayer.Insteadshespendshertimedefendingpeoplewhoowethegovernmentmoney.Ms.BraceybasedinGreensboroN.C.isataxpayeradvocateacreatedbyCongressin1998aspartofthekindergentlerthemeadoptedbythetaxcollectionagency.Braceyandadvocatesat73Otherofficesnationwidebackedby2100fieldworkersandstaffgotobatfortaxpayerswhoareinfinancialstraitsbecauseofsomethingtheagencyhasdoneorisabouttodo.ThoughitmayseemcontrarytotheIRStheadvocateservicenotonlyhelpstaxpayersbutidentifiesproceduralproblems.ThemaingoalthoughisfortheombudsmantostepintoadisputeataxpayerishavingwiththeIRSwhenitappearsthatsomethingtheIRSisdoingorplanningwouldcreateanunduehardshiponthetaxpayer.ThiscanrangefromspeedingupresolutionofadisputethathasdraggedontoolongtodemandingthattheIRShaltacollectionactionthatthetaxpayercanshowheorsheissufferingorisabouttosufferasignificanthardship.Taxpayerombudsmenhavebeenaroundinoneformoranothersince1979saysNinaOlsonthenationaltaxpayeradvocate.Buttheyweregivenmuchmorepowerin1998whenCongressdecidedthattheworkerswouldnolongerreporttoregionaldirectorsbuttoheroffice.Whilethisgavethemagreatdealmoreauthorityoutsidewatchdogssaymorecanbedone.ThereisalongwaytogotogetanagencythatfeelsindependentandemboldenedtoworkfortaxpayerssaysJoeSeepavicepresidentoftheWashington-basedtax-advocacygroup.ThetaxpayersunionalsohascomplainedthatCongressandtheBushadministrationdon’tseemtobetakingtheadvocatesseriouslyenough.EachyeartheIRSgroupreportstoCongressonthetopproblemsthatadvocatessee.ManyofthesearesystemicproblemsthatcangumuptheworksforbothtaxpayerandcollectorsuchasaDecembernoticefromMs.OlsonthattheIRSshouldhavejustonedefinitionofadependentchildratherthanthethreedefinitionscurrentlyused.Whiletaxpayeradvocatescanhelpsmooththingsoutinmanycasestheycannotignorelaws.Iftaxpayershaven’tmadelegitimateclaimsforcreditsthere’snothingtheadvocatecandotoreversethatcourse.AndOlsonsaysthatwhiletaxpayersarefreetouseherservicetheyshouldkeepinmindthatitdoesnotreplacethenormalappealsprocessandshouldbethelastplaceacitizencallsuponforhelpnotthefirst.We’rereallytherefor.whentheprocessesfalldownshesays.Everystatehasatleastonetaxpayer-advocateserviceoffice.ThephrasegumuptheworksLine3Para.4probablymean
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe
Concreteisprobablyusedmorewidelythananyothersubstanceexceptwateryetitremainslargelyunappreciated.Somepeopleviewthe20thcenturyastheatomicagethespaceagethecomputerage—butanargumentcanbemadethatitwastheconcreteagesayscementspecialistHendrikVanOss.It’samiraclematerial.IndeedmorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeachyearforeverymanwomanandchildonEarth.Yetconcreteisgenerallyignoredoutsidetheengineeringworldavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopment.Nowthankstoenvironmentalpressuresandentrepreneurialinnovationanewgenerationofconcretesisemerging.Thishigh-techassortmentofconcreteconfectionspromisestobestrongerlighterandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythaneverbefore.Concreteisalsoaclimate-changevillain.Itismadebymixingwaterwithanaggregatesuchassandorgravelandcement.Cementisusuallymadebyheatinglimestoneandclaytoover2500degreesF.Theresultingchemicalreactionalongwithfuelburnedtoheatthekilnproducesbetween7%and10%ofglobalcarbon-dioxideemissions.Whenwehavetorepeatedlyregeneratethesematerialsbecausethey’renotdurablewereleasemoreemissionssaysVictorLiwhohascreatedaconcretesuffusedbysyntheticfibersthatmakeitstrongermoredurableandabletobendlikeametal.Li’screationdoesnotrequirereinforcementapropertysharedbyotherconcretesthatusechemicaladditives.UsinglesswatermakesconcretestrongerbutuntilthedevelopmentofplasticizersitalsomadeconcretestickydryandhardtohandlesaysChristianMeyeracivilengineeringprofessoratColumbiaUniversity.MakingstrongerconcretessaysLiallowslesstobeusedreducingwasteandgivingarchitectsmorefreedom.Youcanhavesuchfuturisticdesignsifyoudon’thavetoputrebarinthereorstructuralbeamssaysVanOss.Amoredirectlygreenc6neretehasbeendevelopedbytheAustraliancompanyTecEeo.Theyaddmagnesiumtotheircementformingaporousconcretethatactuallyscrubscarbondioxidefromtheair.Whileexpertsagreethatthesenewconcretewillsomedaybewidelyusedthetimetableisuncertain.Concretecompaniesareresponsivetoenvironmentalconcernsandarealwayslookingtostretchtheutilityoftheirproductbuttheconstructionindustryisslowtochange.WhenyoustartmonkeyingaroundwithmaterialsthegoverningbodiesthebuildingdepartmentsareverycautiousbeforetheyletyouuseanunprovenmaterialMeyersays.InthenextfewdecadessaysVanOssbuildingcodeswillchangeopeningthewayforinnovativematerials.Butwhilenewconcretesmaybestrongerandmoredurabletheyarealsomoreexpensive—andwhetherthetendencyofdevelopersandthepublictofocusonshort-termratherthanlong-termcostswillalsochangeisanothermatter.Thelastsentenceofthetextshowsthat
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