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Henri Matisse originally trained as a lawyer, turning to art whilst recovering from appendicitis....
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DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown. Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently. Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse. Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit. 46
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 6
1interpretthefollowingpicture. 2possiblereasonsforthephenomenon. 3yourcomments. YouressaymustbewrittenneatlyontheANSWERSHEET2.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 8
1interpretthefollowingcartoon. 2possiblereasonsforthephenomenon. 3yourcomments. YouressaymustbewrittenneatlyontheANSWERSHEET2.
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.Thewaythatfableswereusedinthepastismostsimilartotoday’s
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 4
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown. Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently. Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse. Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit. 50
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 18
Therearestillsignificantgapsbetweenwomenandmenintermsoftheirinvolvementinfamilylifethetaskstheyperformandtheresponsibilitiestheytake.YetatleastindevelopedWesterncountriesbothwomenandmenexpressadesireforgreaterequalityinfamilylife.Itisevidentthatintermsofattitudesandbeliefstheproblemcannotsimplybethoughtofintermsofwomenwantingmentosharemoreequallyandmenbeingreluctanttodoso.Thechallengenowistodeveloppoliciesandpracticesbasedonapresumptionofsharedresponsibilitybetweenmenandwomenandapresumptionthattherearepotentialbenefitsformenandwomenaswellasforfamiliesandthecommunityifthereisgreatergenderequalityintheresponsibilitiesandpleasuresoffamilylife.Thesearebecomingkeyconcernsofresearcherspolicymakerscommunityworkersandmoreimportantlyfamilymembersthemselves. 41.______ DespitethesignificantincreaseinthenumberofwomenwithdependentchildrenwhoareinthepaidworkforceAustralianresearchstudiesoverthelast15yearsareconsistentinshowingthatdivisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareveryrigidindeedWatson1991.Intermsoftimewomenperformapproximately90percentofchildcaretasksand70percentofallfamilyworkandonly14percentoffathersarehighlyparticipantintermsoftimespentonfamilyworkRussell1983.DemoandAcock1993inarecentUSstudyalsofoundthatwomencontinuetoperformaConstantandmajorproportionofhouseholdlabour68percentto95percentacrossallfamilytypesfirstmarriagedivorcedstep-familyornevermarriedregardlessofwhethertheyareemployedornon-employedinpaidwork. 42.______ Divisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareparticularlyproblematicinfamiliesinwhichbothparentsareemployedoutsidethehomedual-workerfamilies.Employedmothersadjusttheirjobsandpersonallivestoaccommodatefamilycommitmentsmorethanemployedfathersdo.Mothersarelesslikelytoworkovertimeandaremorelikelytotaketimeoffworktoattendtochildren’sneedsVandenHeuvel1993.MothersspendlesstimeonpersonalleisureactivitiesthantheirpartnersafactorthatoftenleadstoresentmentDemoandAcock1993. 43.______ Theparentalroleiscentraltothestress-relatedanxietyreportedbyemployedmothersandamajorcontributortosuchstressistheirtakingagreaterroleinchildcareVandenHenvel1993.EdgarandGiezer1992foundthatcloseto90percentofbothhusbandsandwivesagreedthatthemanshouldshareequallyinchildcareyet55percentofhusbandsandwivesclaimedthatthemenactuallydidthis.Theseclaimsaredespitethefindingsmentionedearlierthatpointtoamuchlowerparticipationratebyfathers.Amother’swantingherpartnertodomorehouseworkandchildcareisabetterpredictorofpoorfamilyadjustmentthanisactualtimespentbyfathersinthesetasksDemoandAcock1993.Itisthisdesiretogetherwithitslackoffulfillmentinmostfamiliesthatbringaboutstressinthefemaleparent. 44.______ FamilytherapistsandsocialworkresearchersareincreasinglydefiningfamilyproblemsintermsofalackofinvolvementandsupportfromfathersandareconcernedwithdifficultiesinvolvedinhavingfatherstakeresponsibilityforthesolutionoffamilyandchildbehaviourproblemsEdgarandGlezer1986.Yetafatheracceptingresponsibilityforbehaviourproblemsislinkedwithpositiveoutcomes. 45.______ Researchstudieslendstrongsupporttotheargumentthattherearebenefitsforfamiliesconsideringachangetoafairerormoreequitabledivisionofthepleasuresandpainsoffamilylife.Greaterequalityintheperformanceoffamilyworkisassociatedwithlowerlevelsoffamilystressandhigherself-esteembetterhealthandhighermaritalsatisfactionformothers.Thereisalsohighermaritalsatisfactionoffathersespeciallywhentheytakemoreresponsibilityfortheneedsoftheirchildren--fathersarehappierwhentheyaremoreinvolvedRussell1984. [A]Originsofanxietyinworkingmothers [B]Thepresumptionsofpolicymakers [C]Theexperts’viewofthemaleparent’srole [D]Comparisonofemployedandnon-employedmothers [E]Thebenefitsofbalancedresponsibility [F]Theunchangedroleofthefemaleparent [G]Theimpactofdualemployment 42
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 12
IfBillGateseverhadreasontodoubtthatthebrashyoungbillionairesofGooglewereouttogethimthetimeforsuchuncertaintyisnowofficiallyover.Lastmonth’sdramaticallyrevisedversionofitsprogramGoogleDesktopisagloveslapacrossthefaceofMicrosoft’sfabledchiefsoftwarearchitect.ObviouslyGoogle’supdatetoaprevioustoolthatsearchedpeople’sharddrivesinadditiontotheusuallightning-quicksurveyoftheentireWorldWideWebGoogleDesktop2turnsouttobeanot-so-stealthyattempttohijackthedesktopfromMicrosoft.AndinamovethatmustbeparticularlygallingtoGatestheprogramdoesitinawaythatdirectlystealsthunderfromMicrosoft’supcomingWindowsupdateVista.SpecificallyI’mtalkingaboutGoogle’sfeaturecalledSidebarastackofsmallwindowsthatsitonthesideofthescreenanddynamicallydrawonWebandpersonalinformationtotrackthingslikeweatherstockpricesyoure-mailyourphotosrecentlyopeneddocumentsandWebdestinations.SeveralyearsagodemonstratinganearlyversionofVistaMicrosoftproudlyshowedacolumnofon-screentilesthatdidthesamekindsofthings.Microsoft’snameforthisupcomingfeaturewhichitstillplanstoincludeinVistawhenitshipsinlate2006:Sidebar.That’snotall.GoogleproductmanagerNakhilBhatlaexplainsthatanotherpurposeofDesktopistousethesearchboxtoquicklylocateprogramsandfilesthatyouwanttoopen--bypassingtheWindowswayofclickingonaniconorusingtheStartmenu.ClearlyGoogleissquattingonMicrosoft’sturfaskinguserstoliveinitsenvironmentasopposedtoBill’s.Microsoftstillbelievesthatthecentralpointofpersonalcomputingisproductivity.That’swhythedesktopsearchinVistawilllimititselftoprobingtheuser’sharddisk.Microsoft’sexplanationforthisapproachisthatmixingWeb-searchresultswithhitsfromyourowninformationisjusttooconfusing.Thingsgomoreefficientlythetheorygoeswhenyourpersonaldatapondissegregatedfromtheoceanofinformationdatalocatedelsewhereintheworld.MicrosoftoffersWebsearchasaseparateprogram.IncontrastGoogleDesktopsearchesbringresultsfromeverywhere--yourharddiskyouremailandbillionsofWebsites.That’sbecausetheGooglemissionisorganizingandmanagingalltheworld’sinformation.Youshouldn’thavetothinkaboutwheretheinformationcomesfromsaysGoogleVPSusanWojcicki.ThoughGoogle-sitesacknowledgedifficultiesinmergingthepersonalwiththepublictheircorebeliefisthattheessenceof21st-centurycomputingspringsfromtheconnectivitythatallowsallhumanknowledgefrombookstoinstantmessagestobepotentiallyshared.AsGoogletriestoannexnewinformationflowsitincreasinglyrunssmackagainstissuesofprivacycopyrightandcensorship.That’sonepartofGoogle’schallenge.TheotherwillbefendingoffBillGatesundoubtedlydeterminedtoprovethathisvisionofcomputingstilldominates.WhichoneistrueaboutGoogleDesktopsearch
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 14
Ifyouhaveeverlongedforameatsubstitutethatsmeltandtastedliketherealthingbutdidnotinvolvekillingananimalthenyourordercouldbereadysoon.Researchersbelieveitwillsoonbepossibletogrowculturedmeatinquantitieslargeenoughtoofferthemeatindustryanalternativesourceofsupply.Growingmusclecellsthemaincomponentofmeatinanutrientbrothiseasy.Thedifficultyispersuadingthosecellstoformsomethingthatresemblesrealmeat.PaulKosniktheheadofengineeringatafirmcalledTissueGenesisishopingtodoitbystretchingthecellswithmechanicalanchors.Thisencouragesthemtoformsmallbundlessurroundedbyconnectivetissueanarrangementsimilartorealmuscle.RobertDennisabiomedicalengineerattheUniversityofNorthCarolinabelievesthesecretofgrowinghealthymuscletissueinalaboratoryistounderstandhowitinteractswithitssurroundings.Innaturetissuesexistaselementsinalargersystemandtheydependonothertissuesfortheirsurvival.Withoutappropriatestimulifromtheirneighbourstheydegenerate.DrDennisandhisteamhavebeenworkingontheseneighbourlyinteractionsforthepastthreeyearsandreportsomesuccessinengineeringtwoofthemostimportant--thosebetweenmusclesandtendonsandmusclesandnerves.AttheTouroCollegeSchoolofHealthSciencesinNewYorkMorrisBenjaminsonandhisteamareworkingonremovinglivingtissuefromfishandthengrowingitinculture.Thisapproachhastheadvantagethatthetissuehasafunctioningsystemofbloodvesselstodelivernutrientssoitshouldbepossibletogrowtissueculturesmorethanamillimetrethick--thecurrentlimit.HenkHaagsmanameatscientistattheUniversityofUtrechtintheNetherlandsistryingtomakemincedporkfromculturedstemcellswiththebackingofStegemanasausagecompany.Itcouldbeusedinsausagesburgersandsauces.ButwhywouldanyonewanttoeatculturedmeatratherthansomethingfreshlyslaughteredandjustofftheboneOneanswertomixmetaphorsisthatitwouldallowvegetarianstohavetheirmeatloafandeatittoo.Butthesausage-meatprojectsuggestsanotherreason:hygiene.AsIngridNewkirkofPETAananimal-rightsgroupputsitnoonewhoconsiderswhat’sinameathotdogcouldgenuinelyexpressanyreluctanceateatingacleanclonedmeatproduct.CulturedmeatcouldbegrowninsterileconditionsavoidingSalmonellaE.coliandothernasties.Itcouldalsobemadehealthierbyadjustingitscomposition--introducing.heart-friendlyomega-3fattyacidsforexample.Youcouldeventakeacellfromanendangeredanimalandwithoutthreateningitsextinctionmakemeatfromit.RobertDennisthinksthat
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 2
46.Theclassicdifficultyfeltwithdemocracyarisesfromthefactthatdemocracycanneverexpressthewillofthewholepeoplebecausethereneverexistsanysuchunchangingwillatleastinanysocietythatcallitselfdemocratic.Theconceptofgovernmentofthewholepeoplebythewholepeoplemustbelookedonasbeinginthepoetryratherthanintheproseofdemocracy;thefactofproseisthatrealdemocracymeansgovernmentbysomekindofdominantmajority. 47.Andtheever-presentdangerrepeatedlyrealizedinfactisthatthisdominantmajoritymaybehavetowardthosewhoarenotofthemajorityinsuchamannerastounderminethemoralbasisoftherightofpeoplebecausetheyarepeopletohavesomeimportantsayinthesettingoftheirowncourseandinuseoftheirownfaculties.Otherformsofgovernmentmaysimilarlyfailtorespecthumanindependence.Butthereisatleastnocontradictioninthat;theunderlyingassumptionofeverykindofgovernmentbywiserandbettersisthatpeopleonthewholearenotfittomanagetheirownaffairsbutmusthavesomeoneelsedoitforthemandthereisnoparadoxwhensuchatreatsitssubjectswithoutrespectordealswiththemonthebasisoftheirhavingnorightsthatthegovernmentmusttakeintoaccount. 48.Butdemocracyaffirmsthatpeoplearefittocontrolthemselvesanditcannotliveinthesameairwiththetheorythatthereisnolimittotheextenttowhichpublicpower--eventhepowerofamajoritycaninterferewiththelivesofpeople. Rationallimitationonpoweristhereforenotacontradictiontodemocracybutisoftheveryessenceofdemocracyassuch.Othersortsofgovernmentmayimposesuchlimitationsonthemselvesasanactofgrace.49.Democracyisunderthemoraldutyoflimitingitselfbecausesuchlimitationisessentialtothesurvivalofthatrespectforhumankindwhichisinthefoundationsofdemocracy.Respectforthefreedomofallpeoplecannotofcoursebetheonlyguidefortherewouldthenbenogovernment.Delicateongoingcompromiseiswhatmustbelookedfor.50.Butdemocracyunlessitistodenyitsownmoralbasismustacceptthenecessityformakingthiscompromiseandforgivingrealweighttotheclaimsofthosewithoutthepresentlyeffectivepoliticalpowertomaketheirclaimsprevailinelections. 48
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.TheRomanAztecandEuropeanculturesarementionedinorderto
46.Theclassicdifficultyfeltwithdemocracyarisesfromthefactthatdemocracycanneverexpressthewillofthewholepeoplebecausethereneverexistsanysuchunchangingwillatleastinanysocietythatcallitselfdemocratic.Theconceptofgovernmentofthewholepeoplebythewholepeoplemustbelookedonasbeinginthepoetryratherthanintheproseofdemocracy;thefactofproseisthatrealdemocracymeansgovernmentbysomekindofdominantmajority. 47.Andtheever-presentdangerrepeatedlyrealizedinfactisthatthisdominantmajoritymaybehavetowardthosewhoarenotofthemajorityinsuchamannerastounderminethemoralbasisoftherightofpeoplebecausetheyarepeopletohavesomeimportantsayinthesettingoftheirowncourseandinuseoftheirownfaculties.Otherformsofgovernmentmaysimilarlyfailtorespecthumanindependence.Butthereisatleastnocontradictioninthat;theunderlyingassumptionofeverykindofgovernmentbywiserandbettersisthatpeopleonthewholearenotfittomanagetheirownaffairsbutmusthavesomeoneelsedoitforthemandthereisnoparadoxwhensuchatreatsitssubjectswithoutrespectordealswiththemonthebasisoftheirhavingnorightsthatthegovernmentmusttakeintoaccount. 48.Butdemocracyaffirmsthatpeoplearefittocontrolthemselvesanditcannotliveinthesameairwiththetheorythatthereisnolimittotheextenttowhichpublicpower--eventhepowerofamajoritycaninterferewiththelivesofpeople. Rationallimitationonpoweristhereforenotacontradictiontodemocracybutisoftheveryessenceofdemocracyassuch.Othersortsofgovernmentmayimposesuchlimitationsonthemselvesasanactofgrace.49.Democracyisunderthemoraldutyoflimitingitselfbecausesuchlimitationisessentialtothesurvivalofthatrespectforhumankindwhichisinthefoundationsofdemocracy.Respectforthefreedomofallpeoplecannotofcoursebetheonlyguidefortherewouldthenbenogovernment.Delicateongoingcompromiseiswhatmustbelookedfor.50.Butdemocracyunlessitistodenyitsownmoralbasismustacceptthenecessityformakingthiscompromiseandforgivingrealweighttotheclaimsofthosewithoutthepresentlyeffectivepoliticalpowertomaketheirclaimsprevailinelections. 50
Whatadifferenceawordmakes.Theissueofsemanticshasbeenanongoingcomplainagainstthemediawhichhasbeencharacterizedbyanincreasinglevelofsensationalismandirresponsiblereportingovertheyearsfosteredbyincreasinglyfiercecompetitionandstruggleforwiderdistributionsandreaderships.Afocalpointforthecriticismisthecoverageofhigh-profilecriminalcases.WithsuchheadlinesasMr.XArrestforFirst-DegreeMurderprominentlydisplayedacrossthefrontpageithasbeenarguedthatsuchprovocativelanguageinfluencespublicopinioncausingprematureassumptionsofguiltbeforethemattercanbeproperlyandlegallydecidedinacourtoflaw.Thepowerofthemediatoinfluencepublicopinionandbyextensionlegalandpoliticalperceptionshaslongbeenestablishedandrecognizedspurringoutcrieswheninaccurateoroverlyembellishedstoriesresultinunwarranteddestructionofpublicimageorintrusionintoprivacyofunwillingindividuals.Reportersandeditorstaketheutmostcareintheirchoiceofwordsforuseintheirarticlesbutwithconstantpressuretocreateprovocativeheadlinesinordertoselltheirpapersthedistinctionbetweenrespectableperiodicalsandtrashytabloidsisbecomingthinnereveryday.Thedilemmaisexacerbatedbythepublic’sseemingshortattentionspanputtingthepapersunderpressuretomaketheirstoriesasattention-grabbingastheyareaccurate.Furtherobfuscatingthesituationisthefactthatthesamephrasecanbeinterpretedinamyriadofdifferentwaysdependingonwhoreadsitmakingithardforonetojudgewhetheralineisexcessiveornot.WhateverthecausesandeffectshoweverthefreedomofpreslawsintheUnitedStatesmeanthatanychangetothestyleemployedbythemediamustbeself-imposed.Inthatrespectitappearsthatnothingwillbechanginginthenearfuturesincethepublic’sinsatiablehungerforcontroversyandscandalcontinuestodominateandsetthepaceformarketablereporting.Asthesensationalismanditsrelatedeffectscontinueintothelongertermhowevertherewillnodoubtbemoreoutcryasthetrendcontinues.Thiswillpossiblyresultinanupheavalofthesystem;favoringmoreaccurateunembellishedreportingconsistingofhardfactswithaminimumofsuppositionorcommentaryanddevoidofrumorsandotherquestionablesourcesofinformation.Ifandwhenthatoccurswecantrulystatewithpridethatourmediaindustryisonlyafreeonebataresponsibleandreliableone.Attractivebutmisleadingheadlinesareusedbysomemediasourcesto
Ifyouhaveeverlongedforameatsubstitutethatsmeltandtastedliketherealthingbutdidnotinvolvekillingananimalthenyourordercouldbereadysoon.Researchersbelieveitwillsoonbepossibletogrowculturedmeatinquantitieslargeenoughtoofferthemeatindustryanalternativesourceofsupply.Growingmusclecellsthemaincomponentofmeatinanutrientbrothiseasy.Thedifficultyispersuadingthosecellstoformsomethingthatresemblesrealmeat.PaulKosniktheheadofengineeringatafirmcalledTissueGenesisishopingtodoitbystretchingthecellswithmechanicalanchors.Thisencouragesthemtoformsmallbundlessurroundedbyconnectivetissueanarrangementsimilartorealmuscle.RobertDennisabiomedicalengineerattheUniversityofNorthCarolinabelievesthesecretofgrowinghealthymuscletissueinalaboratoryistounderstandhowitinteractswithitssurroundings.Innaturetissuesexistaselementsinalargersystemandtheydependonothertissuesfortheirsurvival.Withoutappropriatestimulifromtheirneighbourstheydegenerate.DrDennisandhisteamhavebeenworkingontheseneighbourlyinteractionsforthepastthreeyearsandreportsomesuccessinengineeringtwoofthemostimportant--thosebetweenmusclesandtendonsandmusclesandnerves.AttheTouroCollegeSchoolofHealthSciencesinNewYorkMorrisBenjaminsonandhisteamareworkingonremovinglivingtissuefromfishandthengrowingitinculture.Thisapproachhastheadvantagethatthetissuehasafunctioningsystemofbloodvesselstodelivernutrientssoitshouldbepossibletogrowtissueculturesmorethanamillimetrethick--thecurrentlimit.HenkHaagsmanameatscientistattheUniversityofUtrechtintheNetherlandsistryingtomakemincedporkfromculturedstemcellswiththebackingofStegemanasausagecompany.Itcouldbeusedinsausagesburgersandsauces.ButwhywouldanyonewanttoeatculturedmeatratherthansomethingfreshlyslaughteredandjustofftheboneOneanswertomixmetaphorsisthatitwouldallowvegetarianstohavetheirmeatloafandeatittoo.Butthesausage-meatprojectsuggestsanotherreason:hygiene.AsIngridNewkirkofPETAananimal-rightsgroupputsitnoonewhoconsiderswhat’sinameathotdogcouldgenuinelyexpressanyreluctanceateatingacleanclonedmeatproduct.CulturedmeatcouldbegrowninsterileconditionsavoidingSalmonellaE.coliandothernasties.Itcouldalsobemadehealthierbyadjustingitscomposition--introducing.heart-friendlyomega-3fattyacidsforexample.Youcouldeventakeacellfromanendangeredanimalandwithoutthreateningitsextinctionmakemeatfromit.Whatcanbethereasonofpeopleeatingculturedmeatinsteadoftherealthing
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 16
Whatadifferenceawordmakes.Theissueofsemanticshasbeenanongoingcomplainagainstthemediawhichhasbeencharacterizedbyanincreasinglevelofsensationalismandirresponsiblereportingovertheyearsfosteredbyincreasinglyfiercecompetitionandstruggleforwiderdistributionsandreaderships.Afocalpointforthecriticismisthecoverageofhigh-profilecriminalcases.WithsuchheadlinesasMr.XArrestforFirst-DegreeMurderprominentlydisplayedacrossthefrontpageithasbeenarguedthatsuchprovocativelanguageinfluencespublicopinioncausingprematureassumptionsofguiltbeforethemattercanbeproperlyandlegallydecidedinacourtoflaw.Thepowerofthemediatoinfluencepublicopinionandbyextensionlegalandpoliticalperceptionshaslongbeenestablishedandrecognizedspurringoutcrieswheninaccurateoroverlyembellishedstoriesresultinunwarranteddestructionofpublicimageorintrusionintoprivacyofunwillingindividuals.Reportersandeditorstaketheutmostcareintheirchoiceofwordsforuseintheirarticlesbutwithconstantpressuretocreateprovocativeheadlinesinordertoselltheirpapersthedistinctionbetweenrespectableperiodicalsandtrashytabloidsisbecomingthinnereveryday.Thedilemmaisexacerbatedbythepublic’sseemingshortattentionspanputtingthepapersunderpressuretomaketheirstoriesasattention-grabbingastheyareaccurate.Furtherobfuscatingthesituationisthefactthatthesamephrasecanbeinterpretedinamyriadofdifferentwaysdependingonwhoreadsitmakingithardforonetojudgewhetheralineisexcessiveornot.WhateverthecausesandeffectshoweverthefreedomofpreslawsintheUnitedStatesmeanthatanychangetothestyleemployedbythemediamustbeself-imposed.Inthatrespectitappearsthatnothingwillbechanginginthenearfuturesincethepublic’sinsatiablehungerforcontroversyandscandalcontinuestodominateandsetthepaceformarketablereporting.Asthesensationalismanditsrelatedeffectscontinueintothelongertermhowevertherewillnodoubtbemoreoutcryasthetrendcontinues.Thiswillpossiblyresultinanupheavalofthesystem;favoringmoreaccurateunembellishedreportingconsistingofhardfactswithaminimumofsuppositionorcommentaryanddevoidofrumorsandotherquestionablesourcesofinformation.Ifandwhenthatoccurswecantrulystatewithpridethatourmediaindustryisonlyafreeonebataresponsibleandreliableone.Whichofthefollowingstatementsrepresentstheauthor’sopinion
Whatadifferenceawordmakes.Theissueofsemanticshasbeenanongoingcomplainagainstthemediawhichhasbeencharacterizedbyanincreasinglevelofsensationalismandirresponsiblereportingovertheyearsfosteredbyincreasinglyfiercecompetitionandstruggleforwiderdistributionsandreaderships.Afocalpointforthecriticismisthecoverageofhigh-profilecriminalcases.WithsuchheadlinesasMr.XArrestforFirst-DegreeMurderprominentlydisplayedacrossthefrontpageithasbeenarguedthatsuchprovocativelanguageinfluencespublicopinioncausingprematureassumptionsofguiltbeforethemattercanbeproperlyandlegallydecidedinacourtoflaw.Thepowerofthemediatoinfluencepublicopinionandbyextensionlegalandpoliticalperceptionshaslongbeenestablishedandrecognizedspurringoutcrieswheninaccurateoroverlyembellishedstoriesresultinunwarranteddestructionofpublicimageorintrusionintoprivacyofunwillingindividuals.Reportersandeditorstaketheutmostcareintheirchoiceofwordsforuseintheirarticlesbutwithconstantpressuretocreateprovocativeheadlinesinordertoselltheirpapersthedistinctionbetweenrespectableperiodicalsandtrashytabloidsisbecomingthinnereveryday.Thedilemmaisexacerbatedbythepublic’sseemingshortattentionspanputtingthepapersunderpressuretomaketheirstoriesasattention-grabbingastheyareaccurate.Furtherobfuscatingthesituationisthefactthatthesamephrasecanbeinterpretedinamyriadofdifferentwaysdependingonwhoreadsitmakingithardforonetojudgewhetheralineisexcessiveornot.WhateverthecausesandeffectshoweverthefreedomofpreslawsintheUnitedStatesmeanthatanychangetothestyleemployedbythemediamustbeself-imposed.Inthatrespectitappearsthatnothingwillbechanginginthenearfuturesincethepublic’sinsatiablehungerforcontroversyandscandalcontinuestodominateandsetthepaceformarketablereporting.Asthesensationalismanditsrelatedeffectscontinueintothelongertermhowevertherewillnodoubtbemoreoutcryasthetrendcontinues.Thiswillpossiblyresultinanupheavalofthesystem;favoringmoreaccurateunembellishedreportingconsistingofhardfactswithaminimumofsuppositionorcommentaryanddevoidofrumorsandotherquestionablesourcesofinformation.Ifandwhenthatoccurswecantrulystatewithpridethatourmediaindustryisonlyafreeonebataresponsibleandreliableone.Thewordexacerbateline4paragraph3hassimilarmeaningwith
46.Theclassicdifficultyfeltwithdemocracyarisesfromthefactthatdemocracycanneverexpressthewillofthewholepeoplebecausethereneverexistsanysuchunchangingwillatleastinanysocietythatcallitselfdemocratic.Theconceptofgovernmentofthewholepeoplebythewholepeoplemustbelookedonasbeinginthepoetryratherthanintheproseofdemocracy;thefactofproseisthatrealdemocracymeansgovernmentbysomekindofdominantmajority. 47.Andtheever-presentdangerrepeatedlyrealizedinfactisthatthisdominantmajoritymaybehavetowardthosewhoarenotofthemajorityinsuchamannerastounderminethemoralbasisoftherightofpeoplebecausetheyarepeopletohavesomeimportantsayinthesettingoftheirowncourseandinuseoftheirownfaculties.Otherformsofgovernmentmaysimilarlyfailtorespecthumanindependence.Butthereisatleastnocontradictioninthat;theunderlyingassumptionofeverykindofgovernmentbywiserandbettersisthatpeopleonthewholearenotfittomanagetheirownaffairsbutmusthavesomeoneelsedoitforthemandthereisnoparadoxwhensuchatreatsitssubjectswithoutrespectordealswiththemonthebasisoftheirhavingnorightsthatthegovernmentmusttakeintoaccount. 48.Butdemocracyaffirmsthatpeoplearefittocontrolthemselvesanditcannotliveinthesameairwiththetheorythatthereisnolimittotheextenttowhichpublicpower--eventhepowerofamajoritycaninterferewiththelivesofpeople. Rationallimitationonpoweristhereforenotacontradictiontodemocracybutisoftheveryessenceofdemocracyassuch.Othersortsofgovernmentmayimposesuchlimitationsonthemselvesasanactofgrace.49.Democracyisunderthemoraldutyoflimitingitselfbecausesuchlimitationisessentialtothesurvivalofthatrespectforhumankindwhichisinthefoundationsofdemocracy.Respectforthefreedomofallpeoplecannotofcoursebetheonlyguidefortherewouldthenbenogovernment.Delicateongoingcompromiseiswhatmustbelookedfor.50.Butdemocracyunlessitistodenyitsownmoralbasismustacceptthenecessityformakingthiscompromiseandforgivingrealweighttotheclaimsofthosewithoutthepresentlyeffectivepoliticalpowertomaketheirclaimsprevailinelections. 46
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 10
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidelyregardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisatpresentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotakeacommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthofthis. Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheirnewspapersordozinginacomer;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbeconsideredquite4. 5thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhichoncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6. IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivenachancehewilltalkaboutit8. SomepeoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9forecastaddhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10toeveryone. Thismaybeso.11aBritishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafterpromisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoalldistricts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate--orasinaccurateastheweathermeninhis14. Foreignersmaybesurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthattheBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday.Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentsontheweather."Nicedayisn’tit""Beautiful!"maywellbeheardinsteadof"Goodmorninghowareyou"Althoughtheforeignermayconsiderthisexaggeratedandcomicitis18pointingoutthatitcouldbeusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbutisatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowelltomentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20ananswerfromeventhemostreservedoftheBritish. 20
IfBillGateseverhadreasontodoubtthatthebrashyoungbillionairesofGooglewereouttogethimthetimeforsuchuncertaintyisnowofficiallyover.Lastmonth’sdramaticallyrevisedversionofitsprogramGoogleDesktopisagloveslapacrossthefaceofMicrosoft’sfabledchiefsoftwarearchitect.ObviouslyGoogle’supdatetoaprevioustoolthatsearchedpeople’sharddrivesinadditiontotheusuallightning-quicksurveyoftheentireWorldWideWebGoogleDesktop2turnsouttobeanot-so-stealthyattempttohijackthedesktopfromMicrosoft.AndinamovethatmustbeparticularlygallingtoGatestheprogramdoesitinawaythatdirectlystealsthunderfromMicrosoft’supcomingWindowsupdateVista.SpecificallyI’mtalkingaboutGoogle’sfeaturecalledSidebarastackofsmallwindowsthatsitonthesideofthescreenanddynamicallydrawonWebandpersonalinformationtotrackthingslikeweatherstockpricesyoure-mailyourphotosrecentlyopeneddocumentsandWebdestinations.SeveralyearsagodemonstratinganearlyversionofVistaMicrosoftproudlyshowedacolumnofon-screentilesthatdidthesamekindsofthings.Microsoft’snameforthisupcomingfeaturewhichitstillplanstoincludeinVistawhenitshipsinlate2006:Sidebar.That’snotall.GoogleproductmanagerNakhilBhatlaexplainsthatanotherpurposeofDesktopistousethesearchboxtoquicklylocateprogramsandfilesthatyouwanttoopen--bypassingtheWindowswayofclickingonaniconorusingtheStartmenu.ClearlyGoogleissquattingonMicrosoft’sturfaskinguserstoliveinitsenvironmentasopposedtoBill’s.Microsoftstillbelievesthatthecentralpointofpersonalcomputingisproductivity.That’swhythedesktopsearchinVistawilllimititselftoprobingtheuser’sharddisk.Microsoft’sexplanationforthisapproachisthatmixingWeb-searchresultswithhitsfromyourowninformationisjusttooconfusing.Thingsgomoreefficientlythetheorygoeswhenyourpersonaldatapondissegregatedfromtheoceanofinformationdatalocatedelsewhereintheworld.MicrosoftoffersWebsearchasaseparateprogram.IncontrastGoogleDesktopsearchesbringresultsfromeverywhere--yourharddiskyouremailandbillionsofWebsites.That’sbecausetheGooglemissionisorganizingandmanagingalltheworld’sinformation.Youshouldn’thavetothinkaboutwheretheinformationcomesfromsaysGoogleVPSusanWojcicki.ThoughGoogle-sitesacknowledgedifficultiesinmergingthepersonalwiththepublictheircorebeliefisthattheessenceof21st-centurycomputingspringsfromtheconnectivitythatallowsallhumanknowledgefrombookstoinstantmessagestobepotentiallyshared.AsGoogletriestoannexnewinformationflowsitincreasinglyrunssmackagainstissuesofprivacycopyrightandcensorship.That’sonepartofGoogle’schallenge.TheotherwillbefendingoffBillGatesundoubtedlydeterminedtoprovethathisvisionofcomputingstilldominates.WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutSidebar
Therearestillsignificantgapsbetweenwomenandmenintermsoftheirinvolvementinfamilylifethetaskstheyperformandtheresponsibilitiestheytake.YetatleastindevelopedWesterncountriesbothwomenandmenexpressadesireforgreaterequalityinfamilylife.Itisevidentthatintermsofattitudesandbeliefstheproblemcannotsimplybethoughtofintermsofwomenwantingmentosharemoreequallyandmenbeingreluctanttodoso.Thechallengenowistodeveloppoliciesandpracticesbasedonapresumptionofsharedresponsibilitybetweenmenandwomenandapresumptionthattherearepotentialbenefitsformenandwomenaswellasforfamiliesandthecommunityifthereisgreatergenderequalityintheresponsibilitiesandpleasuresoffamilylife.Thesearebecomingkeyconcernsofresearcherspolicymakerscommunityworkersandmoreimportantlyfamilymembersthemselves. 41.______ DespitethesignificantincreaseinthenumberofwomenwithdependentchildrenwhoareinthepaidworkforceAustralianresearchstudiesoverthelast15yearsareconsistentinshowingthatdivisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareveryrigidindeedWatson1991.Intermsoftimewomenperformapproximately90percentofchildcaretasksand70percentofallfamilyworkandonly14percentoffathersarehighlyparticipantintermsoftimespentonfamilyworkRussell1983.DemoandAcock1993inarecentUSstudyalsofoundthatwomencontinuetoperformaConstantandmajorproportionofhouseholdlabour68percentto95percentacrossallfamilytypesfirstmarriagedivorcedstep-familyornevermarriedregardlessofwhethertheyareemployedornon-employedinpaidwork. 42.______ Divisionsoflabourforfamilyworkareparticularlyproblematicinfamiliesinwhichbothparentsareemployedoutsidethehomedual-workerfamilies.Employedmothersadjusttheirjobsandpersonallivestoaccommodatefamilycommitmentsmorethanemployedfathersdo.Mothersarelesslikelytoworkovertimeandaremorelikelytotaketimeoffworktoattendtochildren’sneedsVandenHeuvel1993.MothersspendlesstimeonpersonalleisureactivitiesthantheirpartnersafactorthatoftenleadstoresentmentDemoandAcock1993. 43.______ Theparentalroleiscentraltothestress-relatedanxietyreportedbyemployedmothersandamajorcontributortosuchstressistheirtakingagreaterroleinchildcareVandenHenvel1993.EdgarandGiezer1992foundthatcloseto90percentofbothhusbandsandwivesagreedthatthemanshouldshareequallyinchildcareyet55percentofhusbandsandwivesclaimedthatthemenactuallydidthis.Theseclaimsaredespitethefindingsmentionedearlierthatpointtoamuchlowerparticipationratebyfathers.Amother’swantingherpartnertodomorehouseworkandchildcareisabetterpredictorofpoorfamilyadjustmentthanisactualtimespentbyfathersinthesetasksDemoandAcock1993.Itisthisdesiretogetherwithitslackoffulfillmentinmostfamiliesthatbringaboutstressinthefemaleparent. 44.______ FamilytherapistsandsocialworkresearchersareincreasinglydefiningfamilyproblemsintermsofalackofinvolvementandsupportfromfathersandareconcernedwithdifficultiesinvolvedinhavingfatherstakeresponsibilityforthesolutionoffamilyandchildbehaviourproblemsEdgarandGlezer1986.Yetafatheracceptingresponsibilityforbehaviourproblemsislinkedwithpositiveoutcomes. 45.______ Researchstudieslendstrongsupporttotheargumentthattherearebenefitsforfamiliesconsideringachangetoafairerormoreequitabledivisionofthepleasuresandpainsoffamilylife.Greaterequalityintheperformanceoffamilyworkisassociatedwithlowerlevelsoffamilystressandhigherself-esteembetterhealthandhighermaritalsatisfactionformothers.Thereisalsohighermaritalsatisfactionoffathersespeciallywhentheytakemoreresponsibilityfortheneedsoftheirchildren--fathersarehappierwhentheyaremoreinvolvedRussell1984. [A]Originsofanxietyinworkingmothers [B]Thepresumptionsofpolicymakers [C]Theexperts’viewofthemaleparent’srole [D]Comparisonofemployedandnon-employedmothers [E]Thebenefitsofbalancedresponsibility [F]Theunchangedroleofthefemaleparent [G]Theimpactofdualemployment 44
IfBillGateseverhadreasontodoubtthatthebrashyoungbillionairesofGooglewereouttogethimthetimeforsuchuncertaintyisnowofficiallyover.Lastmonth’sdramaticallyrevisedversionofitsprogramGoogleDesktopisagloveslapacrossthefaceofMicrosoft’sfabledchiefsoftwarearchitect.ObviouslyGoogle’supdatetoaprevioustoolthatsearchedpeople’sharddrivesinadditiontotheusuallightning-quicksurveyoftheentireWorldWideWebGoogleDesktop2turnsouttobeanot-so-stealthyattempttohijackthedesktopfromMicrosoft.AndinamovethatmustbeparticularlygallingtoGatestheprogramdoesitinawaythatdirectlystealsthunderfromMicrosoft’supcomingWindowsupdateVista.SpecificallyI’mtalkingaboutGoogle’sfeaturecalledSidebarastackofsmallwindowsthatsitonthesideofthescreenanddynamicallydrawonWebandpersonalinformationtotrackthingslikeweatherstockpricesyoure-mailyourphotosrecentlyopeneddocumentsandWebdestinations.SeveralyearsagodemonstratinganearlyversionofVistaMicrosoftproudlyshowedacolumnofon-screentilesthatdidthesamekindsofthings.Microsoft’snameforthisupcomingfeaturewhichitstillplanstoincludeinVistawhenitshipsinlate2006:Sidebar.That’snotall.GoogleproductmanagerNakhilBhatlaexplainsthatanotherpurposeofDesktopistousethesearchboxtoquicklylocateprogramsandfilesthatyouwanttoopen--bypassingtheWindowswayofclickingonaniconorusingtheStartmenu.ClearlyGoogleissquattingonMicrosoft’sturfaskinguserstoliveinitsenvironmentasopposedtoBill’s.Microsoftstillbelievesthatthecentralpointofpersonalcomputingisproductivity.That’swhythedesktopsearchinVistawilllimititselftoprobingtheuser’sharddisk.Microsoft’sexplanationforthisapproachisthatmixingWeb-searchresultswithhitsfromyourowninformationisjusttooconfusing.Thingsgomoreefficientlythetheorygoeswhenyourpersonaldatapondissegregatedfromtheoceanofinformationdatalocatedelsewhereintheworld.MicrosoftoffersWebsearchasaseparateprogram.IncontrastGoogleDesktopsearchesbringresultsfromeverywhere--yourharddiskyouremailandbillionsofWebsites.That’sbecausetheGooglemissionisorganizingandmanagingalltheworld’sinformation.Youshouldn’thavetothinkaboutwheretheinformationcomesfromsaysGoogleVPSusanWojcicki.ThoughGoogle-sitesacknowledgedifficultiesinmergingthepersonalwiththepublictheircorebeliefisthattheessenceof21st-centurycomputingspringsfromtheconnectivitythatallowsallhumanknowledgefrombookstoinstantmessagestobepotentiallyshared.AsGoogletriestoannexnewinformationflowsitincreasinglyrunssmackagainstissuesofprivacycopyrightandcensorship.That’sonepartofGoogle’schallenge.TheotherwillbefendingoffBillGatesundoubtedlydeterminedtoprovethathisvisionofcomputingstilldominates.Fromthefirstsentencewecaninferthat
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown. Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently. Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse. Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit. 48
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