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Foryoungchildrengettingdressedisacomplicatedbusiness.
Theroomwasfurnishedwiththesimplestessentialsabedachairandatable.
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 52
Heemphasizedafeasibleplanwhichcanbeacceptedbythebothsides.
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 58
Thereisanabundantsupplyofcheaplaborinthiscountry.
{{*HTML*}}A.Airportservices??B.Trainingofpilots??C.Beginningperiod??D.RapidgrowthintheU.S.??E.Development??F.CompetitionParagraph4______
MakingLightofSleep Allwehaveaclocklocatedinsideourbrains.Similartoyourbedsidealarmclockyourinternalclockrunsona24-hourcycle.Thiscyclecalledacircadianrhythmhelpscontrolwhenyouwakewhenyoueatandwhenyousleep. Somewherearoundpubertysomethinghappensinthetimingofthebiologicalclock.Theclockpushesforwardsoadolescentsandteenagersareunabletofallasleepasearlyastheyusedto.Whenyourmothertellsyouit’stimeforbedyourbodymaybepushingyoutostayupforseveralhoursmore.AndthelightcomingfromyourcomputerscreenorTVcouldbepushingyoutostayupevenlater. Thisshiftisnaturalforteenagers.Butstayingupverylateandsleepinglatecangetyourbody’sclockoutofsyncwiththecycleoflightanddark.Itcanalsomakeithardtogetoutofbedinthemorningandmaybringotherproblemstoo.Teenagersareputinakindofagraycloudwhentheydon’tgetenoughsleepsaysMaryCarskadonasleepresearcheratBrownUniversityinProvidenceRI.Itaffectstheirmoodandtheirabilitytothinkandlearn. Butjustlikeyouralarmclockyourinternalclockcanbereset.Infactitautomaticallyresetsitselfeveryday.HowByusingthelightitgetsthroughyoureyes. Scientistshaveknownforalongtimethatthelightofdayandthedarkofnightplayimportantrolesinsettingourinternalclocks.Foryearsresearchersthoughtthatthesignalsthatsynchronizethebody’sclockwerehandledthroughthesamepathwaysthatweusetosee. Butrecentdiscoveriesshowthatthehumaneyehastwoseparatelight-sensingsystems.Onesystemallowsustosee.Thesecondsystemtellsourbodywhetherit’sdayornight. Theclocklocatedinsideourbrainsissimilartoourbedsidealarmclockbecause
{{*HTML*}}WhyWouldTheyFalselyConfess???Whyonearthwouldaninnocentpersonfalselyconfesstocommittingacrime?Tomostpeopleitjustdoesn’tseemlogical.Butitislogicalsayexpertsifyouunderstandwhatcanhappeninapoliceinterrogation审讯room.??Undertherightconditionspeople’smindsaresusceptible易受影响的toinfluenceandthepressureputonsuspectsduringpolicegrillings盘问isenormous.?46?Thepressureisimportanttounderstandbecauseotherwiseit’simpossibletounderstandwhysomeonewouldsayhedidsomethinghedidn’tdo.Theansweris.toputanendtoanuncomfortablesituationthatwillcontinueuntilhedoesconfess.??DevelopmentalpsychologistAllisonRedlichrecentlyconductedalaboratorystudytodeterminehowlikelypeoplearetoconfesstothingstheydidn’tdo.?47?Theresearchersthenintentionallycrashedthecomputersandaccusedtheparticipantsofhittingthealtkeytoseeiftheywouldsignastatementfalselytakingresponsibility.??Redlich’sfindingsclearlydemonstratehoweasyitcanbetogetpeopletofalselyconfess:59percentoftheyoungadultsintheexperimentimmediatelyconfessed.?48?Ofthe15-to16-year-olds72percentsignedconfessionsasdid78percentofthe12-to13-year-olds.??There’snoquestionthatyoungpeoplearemoreatrisksaysSaulKassinapsychologyprofessoratWilliamsCollegewhohasdonesimilarstudieswithsimilarresults.?49???BothKassinandRedlichnotethattheentireinterrogationintheirexperimentsconsistedofasimpleaccusation—nothoursofaggressivequestioning—andstillmostparticipantsfalselyconfessed.??Becauseofthestressofapoliceinterrogationtheyconcludesuspectscanbecomeconvincedthatfalselyconfessingistheeasiestwayoutofabadsituation.?50???A.Inherexperimentparticipantswereseatedatcomputersandtoldnottohitthealtkeybecausedoingsowouldcrashthesystems.??B.InsomewayssaysKassinfalseconfessionbecomesarationaldecision.??C.It’salittlelikesomebody’sworkingonthemwithadental牙齿的drillsaysFranklinZimringalawprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.??D.Butadultsarehighlyvulnerabletoo.??E.Howcouldaninnocentpersonadmittodoingsomethinghedidn’tdo???F.Redlichalsofoundthattheyoungertheparticipantthemorelikelyafalseconfession.
TooPoliteforWords AJapanesecolleaguetheotherdaywastalkingaboutameetingwithamanwhomsheabruptlydescribedusingtheEnglishword"jerk".IthoughtshewastoningdownherJapaneseformybenefitsoIaskedherhowtosay"jerk"inJapanese. "There’snosuchword"sheansweredhelplessly."Wehavetouse’jerk’".Heavenknowsit’snotasiftherearenojerksinJapan.ButtheJapaneselanguageisjustnotmadeforsnipingatpeople.AtfirstIthoughtmaybemyJapaneseteachershadbeentoopolitetoteachmethereallingosoIwatchedtoseewhatJapanesedriverswouldsaytoeachotherafteracaraccident.Itturnedoutthattheysay:"I’msorry."GraduallyIcametorealizethatthereisperhapsnolanguagesoillsuitedtoinvectiveasJapanese.Linguisticallytheseguysarewimps. TaketheviciousJapaneseinsult"kisama"whichisdeeplyoffensive.Itmeans:"yourhonorableself."That’sright.InsteadofusingallkindsofdirtywordstheJapaneseinsulteachotherbyfrowningandgrowling."Yourhonorableself." Likewiseanastyexpressionforawomanis"ama’anothertermnottotrywiththenicewomanatthesushirestaurant.Butliterallyitmeans"nun".Suresarcasmmaybeintendedhutstillmostwomenwouldprobablyprefertobecharacterizedasanunthanasafemaledog. Sincepeopleareleastinhibitedwhentheyareshakingtheirfistsateachotherinsultsofferawindowintoaculture.I’vebeeninterestedinsuchtermseversinceIarrivedinCairoadozenyearsagotostudyArabicanddiscoveredthatmynamewasacurse."Nick"soundsverymuchliketheimperativeofanextremelyvulgarverbforsex.IwouldintroducemyselfinArabicandmynewacquaintancewouldfleeinhorror. There’snosuchdangerinJapanese.Thereareexplicittermsforsexandforbodypartscrudeaswellasclinicalbuttheyaredescriptiveratherthaninsulting. Thereisoneexception.OneofthemeanestthingsoneJapanesechildcansaytoanotheris:"Omaenokaachandebeso."Thatmeans."Yourmom’sbellybuttonsticksout."ThishasnodeepFreudianmeaning;itsimplymeansthatyourmotherisrudeandugly. ThewordNickintheArabiclanguageisacurse.
{{*HTML*}}A.inthedevelopmentofairtransportation??B.theearliestpassengerflightsweresuccessfullyoperated??C.tomaketraveleasyandpleasantforthepassengers??D.toprovidedifferentservices??E.theshortageofqualifiedpilots??F.travellingbyairwasverycheapThefortyyearsfromthe1930stothe1970swasanimportantperiod______.
{{*HTML*}}A.inthedevelopmentofairtransportation??B.theearliestpassengerflightsweresuccessfullyoperated??C.tomaketraveleasyandpleasantforthepassengers??D.toprovidedifferentservices??E.theshortageofqualifiedpilots??F.travellingbyairwasverycheapAirtransportcompaniesusedifferentplanes______.
Hemadeanimmenseamountofmoneyinbusiness.
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 54
{{*HTML*}}WhyWouldTheyFalselyConfess???Whyonearthwouldaninnocentpersonfalselyconfesstocommittingacrime?Tomostpeopleitjustdoesn’tseemlogical.Butitislogicalsayexpertsifyouunderstandwhatcanhappeninapoliceinterrogation审讯room.??Undertherightconditionspeople’smindsaresusceptible易受影响的toinfluenceandthepressureputonsuspectsduringpolicegrillings盘问isenormous.?46?Thepressureisimportanttounderstandbecauseotherwiseit’simpossibletounderstandwhysomeonewouldsayhedidsomethinghedidn’tdo.Theansweris.toputanendtoanuncomfortablesituationthatwillcontinueuntilhedoesconfess.??DevelopmentalpsychologistAllisonRedlichrecentlyconductedalaboratorystudytodeterminehowlikelypeoplearetoconfesstothingstheydidn’tdo.?47?Theresearchersthenintentionallycrashedthecomputersandaccusedtheparticipantsofhittingthealtkeytoseeiftheywouldsignastatementfalselytakingresponsibility.??Redlich’sfindingsclearlydemonstratehoweasyitcanbetogetpeopletofalselyconfess:59percentoftheyoungadultsintheexperimentimmediatelyconfessed.?48?Ofthe15-to16-year-olds72percentsignedconfessionsasdid78percentofthe12-to13-year-olds.??There’snoquestionthatyoungpeoplearemoreatrisksaysSaulKassinapsychologyprofessoratWilliamsCollegewhohasdonesimilarstudieswithsimilarresults.?49???BothKassinandRedlichnotethattheentireinterrogationintheirexperimentsconsistedofasimpleaccusation—nothoursofaggressivequestioning—andstillmostparticipantsfalselyconfessed.??Becauseofthestressofapoliceinterrogationtheyconcludesuspectscanbecomeconvincedthatfalselyconfessingistheeasiestwayoutofabadsituation.?50???A.Inherexperimentparticipantswereseatedatcomputersandtoldnottohitthealtkeybecausedoingsowouldcrashthesystems.??B.InsomewayssaysKassinfalseconfessionbecomesarationaldecision.??C.It’salittlelikesomebody’sworkingonthemwithadental牙齿的drillsaysFranklinZimringalawprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.??D.Butadultsarehighlyvulnerabletoo.??E.Howcouldaninnocentpersonadmittodoingsomethinghedidn’tdo???F.Redlichalsofoundthattheyoungertheparticipantthemorelikelyafalseconfession.
EgyptfelledbyFamine EvenancientEgypt’smightypyramidbuilderswerepowerlessinthefaceofthefaminethathelpedbringdowntheircivilizationaround2180BC.NowevidencegleanedfrommuddepositedbytheRiverNilesuggeststhatashiftinclimatethousandsofkilometerstothesouthwasultimatelytoblame-andthesameorworsecouldhappentoday. TheancientEgyptiansdependedontheNile’sannualfloodstoirrigatetheircrops.ButanychangeinclimatethatpushedtheAfricanmonsoonssouthwardsoutofEthiopiawouldhavebeendiminishedthesefloods. DwindlingrainsintheEthiopianhighlandswouldhavemeantfewerplantstostablisethesoil.WhenraindidfallitwouldhavewashedlargeamountsofsoilintotheBlueNileandintoEgyptalongwithsedimentfromtheWhiteNile. TheBlueNilemudhasadifferentisotopesignaturefromthatoftheWhiteNile.SobyanalyzingisotopedifferencesinmuddepositedintheNileDeltaMichaelKromofLeedsUniversityworkedoutwhatproportionofsedimentcamefromeachbranchoftheriver. KromreasonsthatduringperiodsofdroughttheamountoftheBlueNilemudintheriverwouldberelativelyhigh.Hefoundthatoneoftheseperiodsfrom4500to4200yearsagoimmediatelypredatesthefalloftheEgypt’sOldKingdom. TheweakenedwaterswouldhavebeencatastrophicfortheEgyptians."Changesthataffectfoodsupplydon’thavetobeverylargetohavearippleeffectinsocieties"saysBillRyanoftheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryinNewYork. SimilareventstodaycouldbeevenmoredevastatingsaysteammemberDanielStanleyageoarchaeologistfromtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashingtonD.C."anythinghumansdotoshifttheclimatebeltswouldhaveanevenworseeffectalongtheNilesystemtodaybecausethepopulationshaveincreaseddramatically./ WhichofthefollowingfactorswasultimatelyresponsibleforthefallofthecivilizationofancientEgypt
TheSea WhatdoyouknowabouttheseaWeknowthatitlooksveryprettywhenthesunisshiningonit.Wealsoknowthatitcanbeveryroughwhenthereisastrongwind.Whatotherthingsdoweknowaboutit Thefirstthing—torememberisthattheseaisverybig.Whenyoulookatthemapoftheworldyouwillfindthereismorewaterthanland.Theseacoversthreequartersoftheworld. Theseaisalsoverydeepinsomeplaces.Itisnotdeepeverywhere.Somepartsoftheseaareveryshallow.Butinsomeplacesthedepthoftheseaisverygreat.ThereisonespotnearJapanwheretheseaisnearly11kilometresdeep!Thehighestmountainintheworldisabout9kilometreshigh.Ifthatmountainwereputintotheseaatthatplacetherewouldbe2kilometresofwateraboveit!Whatadeepplace! Ifyouhaveswumintheseayouknowthatitissalty.Youcantastethesalt.Riverswhichflowintotheseacarrysaltfromthelandintothesea.Somepartsoftheseaaremoresaltythanotherparts.ThereisoneseacalledtheDeadSeawhichisverysalty.Itissosaltythatswimmerscannotsink!FishcannotliveintheDeadSea! Inmostpartsoftheseathereareplentyoffishesandplants.Somelivenearthetopofthesea.Otherslivedeepdown.Therearealsomillionsoftinylivingthingsthatfloatinthesea.Thesefloatingthingsaresosmallthatitishardtoseethem.Manyfishlivebyeatingthese. Theseacanbeverycold.Diverswhogodeepdownintheseaknowthis.Onthetopthewatermaybewarm.Whenthedivergoesdownwardstheseabecomescolderandcolder.Anotherthinghappens.Whenthedivergoesdeeperthewaterabovepressesdownonhim.Itsqueezeshim.Thenthediverhastowearclothesmadeofmetal.Buthecannotgoverydeep.Somepeoplewhowantedtogoverydeepusedaverystrongdivingship!Theywentdowntothedeepestpartoftheseainit.Theywentdowntoadepthofelevenkilometres! Whycan’tpeoplegoverydeepinthesea
TooPoliteforWords AJapanesecolleaguetheotherdaywastalkingaboutameetingwithamanwhomsheabruptlydescribedusingtheEnglishword"jerk".IthoughtshewastoningdownherJapaneseformybenefitsoIaskedherhowtosay"jerk"inJapanese. "There’snosuchword"sheansweredhelplessly."Wehavetouse’jerk’".Heavenknowsit’snotasiftherearenojerksinJapan.ButtheJapaneselanguageisjustnotmadeforsnipingatpeople.AtfirstIthoughtmaybemyJapaneseteachershadbeentoopolitetoteachmethereallingosoIwatchedtoseewhatJapanesedriverswouldsaytoeachotherafteracaraccident.Itturnedoutthattheysay:"I’msorry."GraduallyIcametorealizethatthereisperhapsnolanguagesoillsuitedtoinvectiveasJapanese.Linguisticallytheseguysarewimps. TaketheviciousJapaneseinsult"kisama"whichisdeeplyoffensive.Itmeans:"yourhonorableself."That’sright.InsteadofusingallkindsofdirtywordstheJapaneseinsulteachotherbyfrowningandgrowling."Yourhonorableself." Likewiseanastyexpressionforawomanis"ama’anothertermnottotrywiththenicewomanatthesushirestaurant.Butliterallyitmeans"nun".Suresarcasmmaybeintendedhutstillmostwomenwouldprobablyprefertobecharacterizedasanunthanasafemaledog. Sincepeopleareleastinhibitedwhentheyareshakingtheirfistsateachotherinsultsofferawindowintoaculture.I’vebeeninterestedinsuchtermseversinceIarrivedinCairoadozenyearsagotostudyArabicanddiscoveredthatmynamewasacurse."Nick"soundsverymuchliketheimperativeofanextremelyvulgarverbforsex.IwouldintroducemyselfinArabicandmynewacquaintancewouldfleeinhorror. There’snosuchdangerinJapanese.Thereareexplicittermsforsexandforbodypartscrudeaswellasclinicalbuttheyaredescriptiveratherthaninsulting. Thereisoneexception.OneofthemeanestthingsoneJapanesechildcansaytoanotheris:"Omaenokaachandebeso."Thatmeans."Yourmom’sbellybuttonsticksout."ThishasnodeepFreudianmeaning;itsimplymeansthatyourmotherisrudeandugly. TheJapaneseinsulteachotherbyshowingtheirrespectinanironicway.
MakingLightofSleep Allwehaveaclocklocatedinsideourbrains.Similartoyourbedsidealarmclockyourinternalclockrunsona24-hourcycle.Thiscyclecalledacircadianrhythmhelpscontrolwhenyouwakewhenyoueatandwhenyousleep. Somewherearoundpubertysomethinghappensinthetimingofthebiologicalclock.Theclockpushesforwardsoadolescentsandteenagersareunabletofallasleepasearlyastheyusedto.Whenyourmothertellsyouit’stimeforbedyourbodymaybepushingyoutostayupforseveralhoursmore.AndthelightcomingfromyourcomputerscreenorTVcouldbepushingyoutostayupevenlater. Thisshiftisnaturalforteenagers.Butstayingupverylateandsleepinglatecangetyourbody’sclockoutofsyncwiththecycleoflightanddark.Itcanalsomakeithardtogetoutofbedinthemorningandmaybringotherproblemstoo.Teenagersareputinakindofagraycloudwhentheydon’tgetenoughsleepsaysMaryCarskadonasleepresearcheratBrownUniversityinProvidenceRI.Itaffectstheirmoodandtheirabilitytothinkandlearn. Butjustlikeyouralarmclockyourinternalclockcanbereset.Infactitautomaticallyresetsitselfeveryday.HowByusingthelightitgetsthroughyoureyes. Scientistshaveknownforalongtimethatthelightofdayandthedarkofnightplayimportantrolesinsettingourinternalclocks.Foryearsresearchersthoughtthatthesignalsthatsynchronizethebody’sclockwerehandledthroughthesamepathwaysthatweusetosee. Butrecentdiscoveriesshowthatthehumaneyehastwoseparatelight-sensingsystems.Onesystemallowsustosee.Thesecondsystemtellsourbodywhetherit’sdayornight. Inthethirdparagraphtheauthorwantstotellthereaderthat.
Thecityhasdecidedtodoawaywithalltheoldbuildingsinitscenter.
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 56
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 60
Thegovernmentisdebatingtheeducationlaws.
TheSea WhatdoyouknowabouttheseaWeknowthatitlooksveryprettywhenthesunisshiningonit.Wealsoknowthatitcanbeveryroughwhenthereisastrongwind.Whatotherthingsdoweknowaboutit Thefirstthing—torememberisthattheseaisverybig.Whenyoulookatthemapoftheworldyouwillfindthereismorewaterthanland.Theseacoversthreequartersoftheworld. Theseaisalsoverydeepinsomeplaces.Itisnotdeepeverywhere.Somepartsoftheseaareveryshallow.Butinsomeplacesthedepthoftheseaisverygreat.ThereisonespotnearJapanwheretheseaisnearly11kilometresdeep!Thehighestmountainintheworldisabout9kilometreshigh.Ifthatmountainwereputintotheseaatthatplacetherewouldbe2kilometresofwateraboveit!Whatadeepplace! Ifyouhaveswumintheseayouknowthatitissalty.Youcantastethesalt.Riverswhichflowintotheseacarrysaltfromthelandintothesea.Somepartsoftheseaaremoresaltythanotherparts.ThereisoneseacalledtheDeadSeawhichisverysalty.Itissosaltythatswimmerscannotsink!FishcannotliveintheDeadSea! Inmostpartsoftheseathereareplentyoffishesandplants.Somelivenearthetopofthesea.Otherslivedeepdown.Therearealsomillionsoftinylivingthingsthatfloatinthesea.Thesefloatingthingsaresosmallthatitishardtoseethem.Manyfishlivebyeatingthese. Theseacanbeverycold.Diverswhogodeepdownintheseaknowthis.Onthetopthewatermaybewarm.Whenthedivergoesdownwardstheseabecomescolderandcolder.Anotherthinghappens.Whenthedivergoesdeeperthewaterabovepressesdownonhim.Itsqueezeshim.Thenthediverhastowearclothesmadeofmetal.Buthecannotgoverydeep.Somepeoplewhowantedtogoverydeepusedaverystrongdivingship!Theywentdowntothedeepestpartoftheseainit.Theywentdowntoadepthofelevenkilometres! WhydoestheauthorcitetheseasomewherenearJapan
MakingLightofSleep Allwehaveaclocklocatedinsideourbrains.Similartoyourbedsidealarmclockyourinternalclockrunsona24-hourcycle.Thiscyclecalledacircadianrhythmhelpscontrolwhenyouwakewhenyoueatandwhenyousleep. Somewherearoundpubertysomethinghappensinthetimingofthebiologicalclock.Theclockpushesforwardsoadolescentsandteenagersareunabletofallasleepasearlyastheyusedto.Whenyourmothertellsyouit’stimeforbedyourbodymaybepushingyoutostayupforseveralhoursmore.AndthelightcomingfromyourcomputerscreenorTVcouldbepushingyoutostayupevenlater. Thisshiftisnaturalforteenagers.Butstayingupverylateandsleepinglatecangetyourbody’sclockoutofsyncwiththecycleoflightanddark.Itcanalsomakeithardtogetoutofbedinthemorningandmaybringotherproblemstoo.Teenagersareputinakindofagraycloudwhentheydon’tgetenoughsleepsaysMaryCarskadonasleepresearcheratBrownUniversityinProvidenceRI.Itaffectstheirmoodandtheirabilitytothinkandlearn. Butjustlikeyouralarmclockyourinternalclockcanbereset.Infactitautomaticallyresetsitselfeveryday.HowByusingthelightitgetsthroughyoureyes. Scientistshaveknownforalongtimethatthelightofdayandthedarkofnightplayimportantrolesinsettingourinternalclocks.Foryearsresearchersthoughtthatthesignalsthatsynchronizethebody’sclockwerehandledthroughthesamepathwaysthatweusetosee. Butrecentdiscoveriesshowthatthehumaneyehastwoseparatelight-sensingsystems.Onesystemallowsustosee.Thesecondsystemtellsourbodywhetherit’sdayornight. Accordingtothelasttwoparagraphswhatdidthepreviousresearchersthinkaboutthehumaneye’slight-sensingsystem
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 64
GermsonBanknotes Peopleindifferentcountriesusedifferenttypesofmoney:yuaninChinapesosinMexicopoundsintheUnitedKingdom51intheUnitedStatesAustraliaandNewZealand.Theymayusedifferentcurrenciesbutthesecountriesandprobablyallcountriesstillhaveonething52:Germsonthebanknotes. Scientistshavebeenstudyingthegermsonmoneyforwellover2100years.53theturnofthe20thcenturysomeresearchersbegantosuspectthatgermslivingonmoneycouldspreaddisease. Moststudiesofgermymoneyhavelookedatthegermsonthecurrencywithinonecountry.InanewstudyFrankVriesekoopandotherresearcherscomparedthegerm54foundonbillsofdifferentcountries. VriesekoopisamicrobiologistattheUniversityofBallaratinAustralia.Heledthestudywhich55thegermpopulationsfoundonmoneygatheredfrom10nations.Thescientistsstudied1280banknotes56;allcamefromplaceswherepeoplebuyfoodlikesupermarketsstreetvendorsandcafesbecausethosebusinessesoften57cash. OveralltheAustraliandollarshostedthefewestlivebacteria—-nomorethan10persquarecentimeter.Chineseyuanhadthemost—about100persquarecentimeter.Mostofthegermsonmoneyprobablywouldnot58harm. Whatwecall"papermoney"usuallyisn’tmade59paper.TheU.S.dollarforexampleisprintedonfabricthatismostlycottonDifferentcountriesmayusedifferentmaterialstoprinttheirmoney.SomeofthecurrenciesstudiedbyVriesekoopandhisteamsuchastheAmericandollarweremadefromcotton.60weremadefrompolymers. Thethreecurrencieswith61numbersofbacteriawereallprintedonpolymers.TheyincludedtheAustraliandollartheNewZealanddollarandsomeMexicanpesos. Theothercurrencieswereprintedonfabricmademostlyofcotton.Fewergermslivedonthepolymernotes.Thisconnectionsuggests62germshaveahardertimestayingaliveonpolymersurfaces.Scientistsneedtodomorestudiestounderstandhowgermsliveonmoneyand63ornotweneedtobeconcerned.Vriesekoopisnowstartingastudythatwillcomparetheamountsoftimebacteriacanstayaliveondifferenttypesofbills. WhateverVriesekoopfindsthefact64:Papermoneyharborsgerms.Weshouldwashourhandsaftertouchingit;65youneverknowwhereyourmoney’sbeen.Orwhat’slivingonit. 62
{{*HTML*}}A.Airportservices??B.Trainingofpilots??C.Beginningperiod??D.RapidgrowthintheU.S.??E.Development??F.CompetitionParagraph2______
EgyptfelledbyFamine EvenancientEgypt’smightypyramidbuilderswerepowerlessinthefaceofthefaminethathelpedbringdowntheircivilizationaround2180BC.NowevidencegleanedfrommuddepositedbytheRiverNilesuggeststhatashiftinclimatethousandsofkilometerstothesouthwasultimatelytoblame-andthesameorworsecouldhappentoday. TheancientEgyptiansdependedontheNile’sannualfloodstoirrigatetheircrops.ButanychangeinclimatethatpushedtheAfricanmonsoonssouthwardsoutofEthiopiawouldhavebeendiminishedthesefloods. DwindlingrainsintheEthiopianhighlandswouldhavemeantfewerplantstostablisethesoil.WhenraindidfallitwouldhavewashedlargeamountsofsoilintotheBlueNileandintoEgyptalongwithsedimentfromtheWhiteNile. TheBlueNilemudhasadifferentisotopesignaturefromthatoftheWhiteNile.SobyanalyzingisotopedifferencesinmuddepositedintheNileDeltaMichaelKromofLeedsUniversityworkedoutwhatproportionofsedimentcamefromeachbranchoftheriver. KromreasonsthatduringperiodsofdroughttheamountoftheBlueNilemudintheriverwouldberelativelyhigh.Hefoundthatoneoftheseperiodsfrom4500to4200yearsagoimmediatelypredatesthefalloftheEgypt’sOldKingdom. TheweakenedwaterswouldhavebeencatastrophicfortheEgyptians."Changesthataffectfoodsupplydon’thavetobeverylargetohavearippleeffectinsocieties"saysBillRyanoftheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryinNewYork. SimilareventstodaycouldbeevenmoredevastatingsaysteammemberDanielStanleyageoarchaeologistfromtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashingtonD.C."anythinghumansdotoshifttheclimatebeltswouldhaveanevenworseeffectalongtheNilesystemtodaybecausethepopulationshaveincreaseddramatically./ AccordingtoKromEgypt’sOldKingdomfell
{{*HTML*}}WhyWouldTheyFalselyConfess???Whyonearthwouldaninnocentpersonfalselyconfesstocommittingacrime?Tomostpeopleitjustdoesn’tseemlogical.Butitislogicalsayexpertsifyouunderstandwhatcanhappeninapoliceinterrogation审讯room.??Undertherightconditionspeople’smindsaresusceptible易受影响的toinfluenceandthepressureputonsuspectsduringpolicegrillings盘问isenormous.?46?Thepressureisimportanttounderstandbecauseotherwiseit’simpossibletounderstandwhysomeonewouldsayhedidsomethinghedidn’tdo.Theansweris.toputanendtoanuncomfortablesituationthatwillcontinueuntilhedoesconfess.??DevelopmentalpsychologistAllisonRedlichrecentlyconductedalaboratorystudytodeterminehowlikelypeoplearetoconfesstothingstheydidn’tdo.?47?Theresearchersthenintentionallycrashedthecomputersandaccusedtheparticipantsofhittingthealtkeytoseeiftheywouldsignastatementfalselytakingresponsibility.??Redlich’sfindingsclearlydemonstratehoweasyitcanbetogetpeopletofalselyconfess:59percentoftheyoungadultsintheexperimentimmediatelyconfessed.?48?Ofthe15-to16-year-olds72percentsignedconfessionsasdid78percentofthe12-to13-year-olds.??There’snoquestionthatyoungpeoplearemoreatrisksaysSaulKassinapsychologyprofessoratWilliamsCollegewhohasdonesimilarstudieswithsimilarresults.?49???BothKassinandRedlichnotethattheentireinterrogationintheirexperimentsconsistedofasimpleaccusation—nothoursofaggressivequestioning—andstillmostparticipantsfalselyconfessed.??Becauseofthestressofapoliceinterrogationtheyconcludesuspectscanbecomeconvincedthatfalselyconfessingistheeasiestwayoutofabadsituation.?50???A.Inherexperimentparticipantswereseatedatcomputersandtoldnottohitthealtkeybecausedoingsowouldcrashthesystems.??B.InsomewayssaysKassinfalseconfessionbecomesarationaldecision.??C.It’salittlelikesomebody’sworkingonthemwithadental牙齿的drillsaysFranklinZimringalawprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.??D.Butadultsarehighlyvulnerabletoo.??E.Howcouldaninnocentpersonadmittodoingsomethinghedidn’tdo???F.Redlichalsofoundthattheyoungertheparticipantthemorelikelyafalseconfession.
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