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简述主要的情绪理论。
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认为心理学的研究方法主要有内省法实验法比较法他是双重记忆理论的最初提出者他的情绪理论又叫詹姆士—兰格
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人是因为哭了才发愁因为动手打了才生气因为发抖才害怕这是情绪的理论的观点
情绪的外周理论
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阿诺德的情绪理论
情绪刺激引起身体的生理反应而生理反应进一步导致情绪
情绪的外周理论
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情绪的认知理论
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简述詹姆士的情绪理论
下列有关情绪的主要理论正确的是
詹姆斯—兰格的丘脑情绪理论
坎农—巴德的激活归因情绪理论
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沙赫特-辛格的情绪理论
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SeenfromthisperspectivetheswingingsinglescomplexesthatattractedsomuchgossipafewyearslaterareanelaborationontheSunCityconcept—theclusteringtogetherofpeopleofsimilaragesoroutlooks.
TextC Theconceptofobtainingfreshwaterfromicebergsthataretowedtopopulatedareasandaridregionsoftheworldwasoncetreatedasajokemoreappropriatetocartoonsthanreallife.Butnowitisbeingconsideredquiteseriouslybymanynationsespeciallysincescientistshavewarnedthatthehumanracewilloutgrowitsfreshwatersupplyfasterthanitrunsoutoffood. Glaciersareapossiblesourceoffreshwaterthathavebeenoverlookeduntilrecently.Three-quartersoftheEarth’sfreshwatersupplyisstilltiedupinglacialiceareservoirofuntappedfreshwatersoimmensethatitcouldsustainalltheriversoftheworldfor1000years.Floatingontheoceanseveryyearare7659trillionmetrictonsoficeencasedin10000icebergsthatbreakawayfromthepolaricecapsmorethanninetypercentofthemfromAntarctica. Hugeglaciersthatstretchovertheshallowcontinentalshelfgivebirthtoicebergsthroughouttheyear.Icebergsarenotlikeseaicewhichisformedwhentheseaitselffreezes;rathertheyareformedentirelyonlandbreakingoffwhenglaciersspreadoverthesea.Astheydriftawayfromthepolarregionicebergssometimesmovemysteriouslyinadirectionoppositetothewindpulledbysubsurfacecurrents.Becausetheymeltmoreslowlythansmallerpiecesoficeicebergshavebeenknowntodriftasfarnorthas35degreessouthoftheequatorintheAtlanticOcean.Tocorralthemandsteerthemtopartsoftheworldwheretheyareneededwouldnotbetoodifficult. Thedifficultyarisesinothertechnicalmatterssuchasthepreventionofrapidmeltinginwarmerclimatesandthefunnelingoffreshwatertoshoreingreatvolume.Buteveniftheicebergslosthalfoftheirvolumeintowingthewatertheycouldprovidewouldbefarcheaperthanthatproducedbydesalinationorremovingsaltfromwater. Whatisthemaintopicofthepassage
TextB InrecentyearsAmericansocietyhasbecomeincreasinglydependentonitsuniversitiestofindsolutionstoitsmajorproblems.Itistheuniversitiesthathavebeenchargedwiththeprincipalresponsibilityfordevelopingtheexpertisetoplacemenonthemoon;fordealingwithoururbanproblemsandwithourdeterioratingenvironment;fordevelopingthemeanstofeedtheworld’srapidlyincreasingpopulation.Theeffortinvolvedinmeetingthesedemandspresentsitsownproblems.Inadditionthisconcentrationonthecreationofnewknowledgesignificantlyimpingesontheuniversities’effortstoperformtheirotherprincipalfunctionsthetransmissionandinterpretationofknowledge----theimpartingoftheheritageofthepastandthepreparingofthenextgenerationtocarryitforward. Withregardtothisperhapstheirmosttraditionallysanctionedtaskcollegesanduniversitiestodayfindthemselvesinaseriousbindgenerally.OntheonehandthereistheAmericancommitmententeredintoespeciallysinceWorldWarIItoprovidehighereducationforallyoungpeoplewhocanprofitfromit.Theresultofthecommitmenthasbeenadramaticriseinenrollmentsinouruniversitiescoupledwitharadicalshiftfromtheprivatetothepublicsectorofhighereducation.Ontheotherhandthereareseriousandcontinuinglimitationsontheresourcesavailableforhighereducation. Whilehighereducationhasbecomeagreatgrowthindustryitisalsosimultaneouslyatremendousdrainontheresourcesofthenation.Withthevastincreaseinenrollmentandtheshiftinprioritiesawayfromeducationinstateandfederalbudgetsthereisinmostofourpublicinstitutionsasignificantdecreaseinpercapitaoutlayfortheirstudents.Onecrucialaspectofthisdrainonresourcesliesinthepersistentshortageoftrainedfacultywhichhasledinturntoadecliningstandardofcompetenceininstruction. Intensifyingthesedifficultiesisasindicatedabovetheconcernwithresearchwithitscompetingclaimsonresourcesandtheattentionofthefaculty.Inadditionthereisastrongtendencyfortheinstitutions’organizationandfunctioningtoconformtothedemandsofresearchratherthanthoseofteaching. AccordingtothepassageoneofthecausesforthedifficultiesofAmericanhighereducationisthat_________.
TEXTA Intoday’ssocietywearenowseeingmorechildrenundertheageoftwelvedevelopingeatingdisorders.Itisestimatedthat40%ofnineyearoldshavealreadydietedandwearebeginningtoseefourandfiveyearoldsexpressingtheneedtodiet.It’sashamethatchildrensoyoungarebeingrobbedoftheirchildhoods.WhyisitthatsomanyyoungchildrenarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweightIfeelthefamilyenvironmenthasalottodowithitalongwiththefactthatchildrenareconstantlybeingexposedtothemessagesocietygivesabouttheimportanceofbeingthin. Childrenraisedinadysfunctionalfamilyareatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder.Inahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplacethechildmayturntoaneatingdisordertogainasenseofcontrol.Iftheycan’tcontrolwhatishappeningtotheirbodiesduringtheabusetheycancontroltheirfoodintakeortheirweight.Selfimposedstarvationmayalsobetheirwayoftryingtodisappearsotheynolongerhavetosufferthroughtheabuse. Childrenmayalsodevelopeatingdisordersasawayofdealingwiththemanyemotionsthattheyfeelespeciallyiftheyareraisedinahomethatdoesnotallowfeelingstobeexpressed.Childrenwhoarecompulsiveeatersareusuallyusingfoodtohelpthemdealwithfeelingsofangersadnesshurtlonelinessabandonmentfearandpain.Ifchildrenarenotallowedtoexpresstheiremotionstheymaybecomeemotionaleaters.Alsoifparentsaretooinvolvedintheirownproblemsthechildmayturntofoodforcomfort. Childrenareatariskfordevelopinganeatingdisorderiftheparentsthemselvesaretoopreoccupiedwithappearanceandweight.Iftheparentsareconstantlydietingandexpressingdisliketowardstheirownbodiesthechildwillreceivethemessagethatappearanceisveryimportant.Insomefamiliestheparentsmistakebabyfatforactualfatandmaytrytoimposeadietonthechild.Notonlyisthatnotrightit’scruel. Asparentsyouneedtosetagoodexampleforyourchildrenwhichmeansthatyouyourselfshouldbeinvolvedinhealthyeatingpatterns.Anotherthingtorememberaboutchildrenisthattheyeatwhentheyarehungryandtheystopwhentheyarefull.Neverforceachildtoeatiftheydon’twantto.Toomanyfamiliesstillforcechildrentoremainatthetableuntiltheyhaveeateneverythingontheirplate.Doingthatcouldcausethechildtohatemealtimesanddevelopanunhealthyattitudetowardsfood. Exerciseisalsoanimportantpartofeveryone’slifeandweneedtohelpourchildrenbecomeinvolvedinphysicalactivitywhichmeanstheparentsthemselvesshouldparticipateinhealthyexercise.Helpthechildtofindactivitiestheyenjoyandactivitiesthewholefamilycanenjoy.Theyshouldbetaughtthatphysicalactivityisimportantinmaintainingastrongandhealthybodybuttheyshouldnotbegiventhemessagethatexerciseisimportantinmaintainingaslimfigure. Whatkindofmessagedoesthesocietygivetothechildrenwhoarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweight
Thedecisiontobuildanucleardisposalcentrehastriggeredoffagreatdealofprotestfromlocalresidents.aprofusionof
TextC Theconceptofobtainingfreshwaterfromicebergsthataretowedtopopulatedareasandaridregionsoftheworldwasoncetreatedasajokemoreappropriatetocartoonsthanreallife.Butnowitisbeingconsideredquiteseriouslybymanynationsespeciallysincescientistshavewarnedthatthehumanracewilloutgrowitsfreshwatersupplyfasterthanitrunsoutoffood. Glaciersareapossiblesourceoffreshwaterthathavebeenoverlookeduntilrecently.Three-quartersoftheEarth’sfreshwatersupplyisstilltiedupinglacialiceareservoirofuntappedfreshwatersoimmensethatitcouldsustainalltheriversoftheworldfor1000years.Floatingontheoceanseveryyearare7659trillionmetrictonsoficeencasedin10000icebergsthatbreakawayfromthepolaricecapsmorethanninetypercentofthemfromAntarctica. Hugeglaciersthatstretchovertheshallowcontinentalshelfgivebirthtoicebergsthroughouttheyear.Icebergsarenotlikeseaicewhichisformedwhentheseaitselffreezes;rathertheyareformedentirelyonlandbreakingoffwhenglaciersspreadoverthesea.Astheydriftawayfromthepolarregionicebergssometimesmovemysteriouslyinadirectionoppositetothewindpulledbysubsurfacecurrents.Becausetheymeltmoreslowlythansmallerpiecesoficeicebergshavebeenknowntodriftasfarnorthas35degreessouthoftheequatorintheAtlanticOcean.Tocorralthemandsteerthemtopartsoftheworldwheretheyareneededwouldnotbetoodifficult. Thedifficultyarisesinothertechnicalmatterssuchasthepreventionofrapidmeltinginwarmerclimatesandthefunnelingoffreshwatertoshoreingreatvolume.Buteveniftheicebergslosthalfoftheirvolumeintowingthewatertheycouldprovidewouldbefarcheaperthanthatproducedbydesalinationorremovingsaltfromwater. Withwhichofthefollowingideaswouldtheauthorbelikelytoagree
Text4Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch.Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult.AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho“questionourmotives.”Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbygrouppolitelycalls“theuseofjudgmentbymanagement.”EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid“notliveinapoliticalvacuum”but“intherealword”andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules.Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains.Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityformspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. AccordingtotheauthortherulechangesoftheFASBmayresultin
Text4Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch.Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult.AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho“questionourmotives.”Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbygrouppolitelycalls“theuseofjudgmentbymanagement.”EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid“notliveinapoliticalvacuum”but“intherealword”andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules.Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains.Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityformspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. Theauthorthinksthebankswereonthewrongplanetinthatthey
TextD TheecosystemsoftheEarthprovideanarrayoffreepublicservicesthatareessentialthesupportofcivilizations.Theymaintainthequalityoftheatmosphereprovidefoodfromtheseamanufactureandreplenishsoilsrecyclewastesandnutrientscontroltheoverwhelmingmajorityofcroppestsanddiseasevectorsandsoon.Peoplehavenoideahowtotakeovertheseactivitiessatisfactorily.Theydoknowhoweverthatthetheoryonceadvancedinthenineteenthcentury---thattheproductivityofthelandcanbeindefinitelyincreasedbytheapplicationofcapitallaborandscience---iswrong.Historyhasshownthatoncethenaturallife-supportsystemsofacivilizationhavebeensufficientlydamagedtheycannotusuallyberepaired.TheancientdeforestationandovergrazingoftheMediterraneanregionisafamousexample.Andtodayaglobalcivilizationisruiningtheglobalenvironment. Thewordarrayinthefirstsentenceisclosesetinmeaningto
[A]Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkinplacesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearacrossEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglargepeoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative. [B]RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstillleavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytriede-commercewithlimitedsuccessandexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebigprofitableopportunityintheirownbackyard:thewholesalefoodanddrinktradewhichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed. [C]WillsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarketDefinitelynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwordsitisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimatelybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold. [D]Allinallthisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailerscouldprofitablyapplytheirscaleexistinginfrastructureandprovenskillsinthemanagementofproductrangeslogisticsandmarketingintelligence.RetailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleastthatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportantdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarketsespeciallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructuresaswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichtheirparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo. [E]Despitevariationsindetailwholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—FranceGermanyItalyandSpain—aremadeoutofthesamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmom-and-popgrocerystoreswhichunlikelargeretailchainsaretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducersandfoodserviceoperatorsthatcatertoconsumerswhentheydon’teatathome.Suchfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventuresbutmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”:hotelsrestaurantsandcafes.OverallEurope’swholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarketbutthefigureswhenaddedtogethermasktwoopposingtrends. [F]Forexamplewholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFranceGermanyItalySpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000—morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreoveraverageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsolidate. [G]HowevernoneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailersandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhandforthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains. 41→42→43→44→E→45 41
Text3InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompellingbutitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.AnecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrendsIntheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey—whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence—eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”–thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks–isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbutratherofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeopleeachofwhomadoptssayalookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocallyheorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction. BycitingthebookTheTippingPointtheauthorintendsto
Onebasicweaknessinaconservationsystembasedwhollyoneconomicmotivesisthatmostmembersofthelandcommunityhavenoeconomicvalue.Yetthesecreaturesaremembersofthebioticcommunityandifitsstabilitydependsonitsintegritytheyareentitledtocontinuance.Whenoneofthesenoneconomiccategoriesisthreatenedandifwehappentoloveit.Weinvertexcusestogiveiteconomicimportance.Atthebeginningofcenturysongbirdsweresupposedtobedisappearing.46Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthemtheevidencehadtobeeconomicinordertobevalid.Itispainfultoreadtheseroundaboutaccountstoday.Wehavenolandethicyet47butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Aparallelsituationexistsinrespectofpredatorymammalsandfish-eatingbirds.48Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyon“worthless”species.Somespeciesoftreehavebeenreadoutofthepartybyeconomics-mindedforestersbecausetheygrowtooslowlyorhavetoolowasalevaletopayasimebercrops49InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.Tosumup:asystemofconservationbasedsolelyoneconomicself-interestishopelesslylopsided.50Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.Withouttheuneconomicpats. butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.
TEXTA Intoday’ssocietywearenowseeingmorechildrenundertheageoftwelvedevelopingeatingdisorders.Itisestimatedthat40%ofnineyearoldshavealreadydietedandwearebeginningtoseefourandfiveyearoldsexpressingtheneedtodiet.It’sashamethatchildrensoyoungarebeingrobbedoftheirchildhoods.WhyisitthatsomanyyoungchildrenarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweightIfeelthefamilyenvironmenthasalottodowithitalongwiththefactthatchildrenareconstantlybeingexposedtothemessagesocietygivesabouttheimportanceofbeingthin. Childrenraisedinadysfunctionalfamilyareatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder.Inahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplacethechildmayturntoaneatingdisordertogainasenseofcontrol.Iftheycan’tcontrolwhatishappeningtotheirbodiesduringtheabusetheycancontroltheirfoodintakeortheirweight.Selfimposedstarvationmayalsobetheirwayoftryingtodisappearsotheynolongerhavetosufferthroughtheabuse. Childrenmayalsodevelopeatingdisordersasawayofdealingwiththemanyemotionsthattheyfeelespeciallyiftheyareraisedinahomethatdoesnotallowfeelingstobeexpressed.Childrenwhoarecompulsiveeatersareusuallyusingfoodtohelpthemdealwithfeelingsofangersadnesshurtlonelinessabandonmentfearandpain.Ifchildrenarenotallowedtoexpresstheiremotionstheymaybecomeemotionaleaters.Alsoifparentsaretooinvolvedintheirownproblemsthechildmayturntofoodforcomfort. Childrenareatariskfordevelopinganeatingdisorderiftheparentsthemselvesaretoopreoccupiedwithappearanceandweight.Iftheparentsareconstantlydietingandexpressingdisliketowardstheirownbodiesthechildwillreceivethemessagethatappearanceisveryimportant.Insomefamiliestheparentsmistakebabyfatforactualfatandmaytrytoimposeadietonthechild.Notonlyisthatnotrightit’scruel. Asparentsyouneedtosetagoodexampleforyourchildrenwhichmeansthatyouyourselfshouldbeinvolvedinhealthyeatingpatterns.Anotherthingtorememberaboutchildrenisthattheyeatwhentheyarehungryandtheystopwhentheyarefull.Neverforceachildtoeatiftheydon’twantto.Toomanyfamiliesstillforcechildrentoremainatthetableuntiltheyhaveeateneverythingontheirplate.Doingthatcouldcausethechildtohatemealtimesanddevelopanunhealthyattitudetowardsfood. Exerciseisalsoanimportantpartofeveryone’slifeandweneedtohelpourchildrenbecomeinvolvedinphysicalactivitywhichmeanstheparentsthemselvesshouldparticipateinhealthyexercise.Helpthechildtofindactivitiestheyenjoyandactivitiesthewholefamilycanenjoy.Theyshouldbetaughtthatphysicalactivityisimportantinmaintainingastrongandhealthybodybuttheyshouldnotbegiventhemessagethatexerciseisimportantinmaintainingaslimfigure. Whichofthefollowingisthesuggestionthattheauthorgivestotheparents
[A]Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkinplacesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearacrossEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglargepeoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative. [B]RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstillleavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytriede-commercewithlimitedsuccessandexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebigprofitableopportunityintheirownbackyard:thewholesalefoodanddrinktradewhichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed. [C]WillsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarketDefinitelynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwordsitisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimatelybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold. [D]Allinallthisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailerscouldprofitablyapplytheirscaleexistinginfrastructureandprovenskillsinthemanagementofproductrangeslogisticsandmarketingintelligence.RetailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleastthatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportantdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarketsespeciallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructuresaswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichtheirparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo. [E]Despitevariationsindetailwholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—FranceGermanyItalyandSpain—aremadeoutofthesamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmom-and-popgrocerystoreswhichunlikelargeretailchainsaretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducersandfoodserviceoperatorsthatcatertoconsumerswhentheydon’teatathome.Suchfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventuresbutmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”:hotelsrestaurantsandcafes.OverallEurope’swholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarketbutthefigureswhenaddedtogethermasktwoopposingtrends. [F]Forexamplewholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFranceGermanyItalySpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000—morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreoveraverageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsolidate. [G]HowevernoneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailersandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhandforthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains. 41→42→43→44→E→45 45
Directions: Youaresupposedtowriteforthepostgraduateassociationanoticetorecruitvolunteersforaninternationalconferenceonglobalizationyoushouldconcludethebasicqualificationofapplicantandtheotherinformationyouthinkrelative. Youshouldwriteabout100words.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use“postgraduateassociation”instead. 以研究生会的名义写一封通知通知的内容是为全球一体化的国际会议招募志愿者这个通知必须包aa括申请者的基本职位要求及你认为相关的其他信息写100个字左右不要在通知末尾写你自己的名字用“Postgraduates’Association”代替审题谋篇本次小作文考察“通知”这一事务公文“通知”的目的在于督促对方参加活动具体来讲是招募志愿者结构上只需写题目正文署名以及时间即可语言上语言应直截了当简洁明了可适当使用被动句表达内容上题目要求写招募职位以及相关信息关于职位可写涉及前台接待会场指引乘车指引英文翻译等服务的岗位此外还可以对志愿者提出要求志愿者应该工作认真负责积极主动具有团队合作精神的另外还需要沟通能力强具有较好的英语口语和听力水平等其他相关信息可以提及会议时间地点将怎样安排志愿者等
Howtoreformthecountry’seducationalsystemhasbasicallybecomeasocialandpoliticalproblem.inessence
Thepowertoproducegreatartisveryoftenthoughbynomeansalwaysassociatedwithatemperamentalunhappinesssogreatthatbutforthejoywhichtheartistderivesfromhisworkhewouldbedriventosuicide.
TextC Theconceptofobtainingfreshwaterfromicebergsthataretowedtopopulatedareasandaridregionsoftheworldwasoncetreatedasajokemoreappropriatetocartoonsthanreallife.Butnowitisbeingconsideredquiteseriouslybymanynationsespeciallysincescientistshavewarnedthatthehumanracewilloutgrowitsfreshwatersupplyfasterthanitrunsoutoffood. Glaciersareapossiblesourceoffreshwaterthathavebeenoverlookeduntilrecently.Three-quartersoftheEarth’sfreshwatersupplyisstilltiedupinglacialiceareservoirofuntappedfreshwatersoimmensethatitcouldsustainalltheriversoftheworldfor1000years.Floatingontheoceanseveryyearare7659trillionmetrictonsoficeencasedin10000icebergsthatbreakawayfromthepolaricecapsmorethanninetypercentofthemfromAntarctica. Hugeglaciersthatstretchovertheshallowcontinentalshelfgivebirthtoicebergsthroughouttheyear.Icebergsarenotlikeseaicewhichisformedwhentheseaitselffreezes;rathertheyareformedentirelyonlandbreakingoffwhenglaciersspreadoverthesea.Astheydriftawayfromthepolarregionicebergssometimesmovemysteriouslyinadirectionoppositetothewindpulledbysubsurfacecurrents.Becausetheymeltmoreslowlythansmallerpiecesoficeicebergshavebeenknowntodriftasfarnorthas35degreessouthoftheequatorintheAtlanticOcean.Tocorralthemandsteerthemtopartsoftheworldwheretheyareneededwouldnotbetoodifficult. Thedifficultyarisesinothertechnicalmatterssuchasthepreventionofrapidmeltinginwarmerclimatesandthefunnelingoffreshwatertoshoreingreatvolume.Buteveniftheicebergslosthalfoftheirvolumeintowingthewatertheycouldprovidewouldbefarcheaperthanthatproducedbydesalinationorremovingsaltfromwater. Accordingtotheauthormostoftheworld’sfreshwateristobefoundin
Onebasicweaknessinaconservationsystembasedwhollyoneconomicmotivesisthatmostmembersofthelandcommunityhavenoeconomicvalue.Yetthesecreaturesaremembersofthebioticcommunityandifitsstabilitydependsonitsintegritytheyareentitledtocontinuance.Whenoneofthesenoneconomiccategoriesisthreatenedandifwehappentoloveit.Weinvertexcusestogiveiteconomicimportance.Atthebeginningofcenturysongbirdsweresupposedtobedisappearing.46Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthemtheevidencehadtobeeconomicinordertobevalid.Itispainfultoreadtheseroundaboutaccountstoday.Wehavenolandethicyet47butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Aparallelsituationexistsinrespectofpredatorymammalsandfish-eatingbirds.48Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyon“worthless”species.Somespeciesoftreehavebeenreadoutofthepartybyeconomics-mindedforestersbecausetheygrowtooslowlyorhavetoolowasalevaletopayasimebercrops49InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.Tosumup:asystemofconservationbasedsolelyoneconomicself-interestishopelesslylopsided.50Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.Withouttheuneconomicpats. InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.
Thesuccessfulreleaseofherdebutalbumgavethesingermuchconfidenceandencouragedhertoachievemore.propelsomebodytodo
Text3InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompellingbutitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.AnecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrendsIntheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey—whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence—eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”–thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks–isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbutratherofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeopleeachofwhomadoptssayalookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocallyheorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction. whattheresearchershaveobservedrecentlyshowsthat
TextB InrecentyearsAmericansocietyhasbecomeincreasinglydependentonitsuniversitiestofindsolutionstoitsmajorproblems.Itistheuniversitiesthathavebeenchargedwiththeprincipalresponsibilityfordevelopingtheexpertisetoplacemenonthemoon;fordealingwithoururbanproblemsandwithourdeterioratingenvironment;fordevelopingthemeanstofeedtheworld’srapidlyincreasingpopulation.Theeffortinvolvedinmeetingthesedemandspresentsitsownproblems.Inadditionthisconcentrationonthecreationofnewknowledgesignificantlyimpingesontheuniversities’effortstoperformtheirotherprincipalfunctionsthetransmissionandinterpretationofknowledge----theimpartingoftheheritageofthepastandthepreparingofthenextgenerationtocarryitforward. Withregardtothisperhapstheirmosttraditionallysanctionedtaskcollegesanduniversitiestodayfindthemselvesinaseriousbindgenerally.OntheonehandthereistheAmericancommitmententeredintoespeciallysinceWorldWarIItoprovidehighereducationforallyoungpeoplewhocanprofitfromit.Theresultofthecommitmenthasbeenadramaticriseinenrollmentsinouruniversitiescoupledwitharadicalshiftfromtheprivatetothepublicsectorofhighereducation.Ontheotherhandthereareseriousandcontinuinglimitationsontheresourcesavailableforhighereducation. Whilehighereducationhasbecomeagreatgrowthindustryitisalsosimultaneouslyatremendousdrainontheresourcesofthenation.Withthevastincreaseinenrollmentandtheshiftinprioritiesawayfromeducationinstateandfederalbudgetsthereisinmostofourpublicinstitutionsasignificantdecreaseinpercapitaoutlayfortheirstudents.Onecrucialaspectofthisdrainonresourcesliesinthepersistentshortageoftrainedfacultywhichhasledinturntoadecliningstandardofcompetenceininstruction. Intensifyingthesedifficultiesisasindicatedabovetheconcernwithresearchwithitscompetingclaimsonresourcesandtheattentionofthefaculty.Inadditionthereisastrongtendencyfortheinstitutions’organizationandfunctioningtoconformtothedemandsofresearchratherthanthoseofteaching. Aseriousoutcomebroughtoutbytheshortageofresourcesisthat_________.
Text3InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompellingbutitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.AnecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrendsIntheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey—whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence—eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”–thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks–isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbutratherofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeopleeachofwhomadoptssayalookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocallyheorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction. whatistheessentialelementinthedynamicsofsocialinfluence
[A]Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkinplacesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearacrossEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglargepeoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative. [B]RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstillleavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytriede-commercewithlimitedsuccessandexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebigprofitableopportunityintheirownbackyard:thewholesalefoodanddrinktradewhichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed. [C]WillsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarketDefinitelynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwordsitisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimatelybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold. [D]Allinallthisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailerscouldprofitablyapplytheirscaleexistinginfrastructureandprovenskillsinthemanagementofproductrangeslogisticsandmarketingintelligence.RetailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleastthatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportantdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarketsespeciallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructuresaswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichtheirparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo. [E]Despitevariationsindetailwholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—FranceGermanyItalyandSpain—aremadeoutofthesamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmom-and-popgrocerystoreswhichunlikelargeretailchainsaretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducersandfoodserviceoperatorsthatcatertoconsumerswhentheydon’teatathome.Suchfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventuresbutmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”:hotelsrestaurantsandcafes.OverallEurope’swholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarketbutthefigureswhenaddedtogethermasktwoopposingtrends. [F]Forexamplewholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFranceGermanyItalySpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000—morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreoveraverageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsolidate. [G]HowevernoneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailersandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhandforthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains. 41→42→43→44→E→45 43
TEXTA Intoday’ssocietywearenowseeingmorechildrenundertheageoftwelvedevelopingeatingdisorders.Itisestimatedthat40%ofnineyearoldshavealreadydietedandwearebeginningtoseefourandfiveyearoldsexpressingtheneedtodiet.It’sashamethatchildrensoyoungarebeingrobbedoftheirchildhoods.WhyisitthatsomanyyoungchildrenarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweightIfeelthefamilyenvironmenthasalottodowithitalongwiththefactthatchildrenareconstantlybeingexposedtothemessagesocietygivesabouttheimportanceofbeingthin. Childrenraisedinadysfunctionalfamilyareatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder.Inahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplacethechildmayturntoaneatingdisordertogainasenseofcontrol.Iftheycan’tcontrolwhatishappeningtotheirbodiesduringtheabusetheycancontroltheirfoodintakeortheirweight.Selfimposedstarvationmayalsobetheirwayoftryingtodisappearsotheynolongerhavetosufferthroughtheabuse. Childrenmayalsodevelopeatingdisordersasawayofdealingwiththemanyemotionsthattheyfeelespeciallyiftheyareraisedinahomethatdoesnotallowfeelingstobeexpressed.Childrenwhoarecompulsiveeatersareusuallyusingfoodtohelpthemdealwithfeelingsofangersadnesshurtlonelinessabandonmentfearandpain.Ifchildrenarenotallowedtoexpresstheiremotionstheymaybecomeemotionaleaters.Alsoifparentsaretooinvolvedintheirownproblemsthechildmayturntofoodforcomfort. Childrenareatariskfordevelopinganeatingdisorderiftheparentsthemselvesaretoopreoccupiedwithappearanceandweight.Iftheparentsareconstantlydietingandexpressingdisliketowardstheirownbodiesthechildwillreceivethemessagethatappearanceisveryimportant.Insomefamiliestheparentsmistakebabyfatforactualfatandmaytrytoimposeadietonthechild.Notonlyisthatnotrightit’scruel. Asparentsyouneedtosetagoodexampleforyourchildrenwhichmeansthatyouyourselfshouldbeinvolvedinhealthyeatingpatterns.Anotherthingtorememberaboutchildrenisthattheyeatwhentheyarehungryandtheystopwhentheyarefull.Neverforceachildtoeatiftheydon’twantto.Toomanyfamiliesstillforcechildrentoremainatthetableuntiltheyhaveeateneverythingontheirplate.Doingthatcouldcausethechildtohatemealtimesanddevelopanunhealthyattitudetowardsfood. Exerciseisalsoanimportantpartofeveryone’slifeandweneedtohelpourchildrenbecomeinvolvedinphysicalactivitywhichmeanstheparentsthemselvesshouldparticipateinhealthyexercise.Helpthechildtofindactivitiestheyenjoyandactivitiesthewholefamilycanenjoy.Theyshouldbetaughtthatphysicalactivityisimportantinmaintainingastrongandhealthybodybuttheyshouldnotbegiventhemessagethatexerciseisimportantinmaintainingaslimfigure. Thepassagemainlytalksabout__________.
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