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《钦定__大纲》的正文，直接抄袭于( )。
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我国历史上第一个具有__性质的文件是
《钦定__大纲》
《中华民国临时约法》
《中华民国约法》
《中华民国__大纲》
钦定__大纲
1908年8月颁发的钦定__大纲是我国第一部具有近代意义色彩的__
钦定__是指由君主授予或者以其诏令颁布的__下列属于钦定__的是
《瑞典王国__》
《美利坚合众国__》
《中华民国临时约法》
《钦定__大纲》
钦定__大纲结构上分为和两部分
中国第一部资产阶级性质的__是清末颁布的钦定__大纲
我国历史上第一部具有近代意义的__性文件是
钦定__大纲
中华民国临时约法
中华苏维埃共和国__大纲
重大信条十九条
清政府的钦定__大纲的正文只规定了
皇帝和人民的权力
君上大权
人民的权利
皇室大权
简述钦定__大纲的历史意义
钦定__大纲的正文称为
君上大权
国会
__
臣民权利义务
阅读下面几段文字分析清末钦定__大纲的实质大清皇帝统治大清帝国万世一系永永尊戴君上神圣尊严不可侵犯立
阅读下面几段文字分析清末钦定__大纲的实质 大清皇帝统治大清帝国万世一系永永尊戴君上神圣尊严不可侵
简述__重大信条十九条与钦定__大纲在国家权力结构的规定方面有何差异
1908年清王朝颁布的钦定__大纲没有法律效力
我国历史上第一个具有__性质的文件是
《钦定__大纲》
《中华民国临时约法》
《中华民国约法》
《中华民国__大纲》
简述钦定__大纲的结构及其主要内容
中国历史上的第一部__性文件是
__重大信条19条
钦定__大纲
中华民国约法
中华苏维埃共和国__大纲
中国历史上第一部具有近代意义的__性文件是
《十九信条》
《钦定__大纲》
《中华民国约法》
《中华苏维埃共和国__大纲》
钦定__大纲的正文是
君上大权
国会
__
臣民权利义务
清末所制定的钦定__大纲其渊源是
日本帝国__
德国__
美国__
法国__
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"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 12
Studythefollowinggraphcarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould1analyzethegraph;2giveyourcommentsonthetrend.[*]
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 18
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisTRUE
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 4
BeforetheeconomyfellapartitwasBritain’ssocietythatwassupposedtobeinterminaldeclineespeciallyintheeyesoftheTories.DavidCamerontheConservativePartyleaderwaswonttobemoanbrokenBritainmiredinmoraldegeneracywithhighratesofteenagepregnancylowratesofmarriageandotherlessquantifiablebreakdownsinthecivilisedschemeofthings.SuchantediluvianworrieswererakedoveragainonJuly13thwhenIainDuncanSmithaformerToryleadercalledforanofficialendorsementofmarriage.MrDuncanSmithcitesseveralreasonstoencouragewedlockincludingfamilystabilitymarriedcouplesaremuchlesslikelytosplitthancohabitingonesandhealthierchildrenwhodobetterinlaterlife.Therewastalkofstate-runcounsellingpro-marriagepropagandainschoolsandmandatorycooling-offperiodsbeforedivorces.MrDuncanSmithfavourstaxbreaksformarriedcouplessomethingthatLabourhaslongrefusedtoendorse.Itistruethatmarriageisadeclininginstitution.Marriageratesareattheirlowestsince1895．Butcuriouslythosewhodomarrynowstaytogetherforlonger.Divorceratesarefallingnotrisingandhavebeenforseveralyears.In200711.9marriedcouplesperthousanduntiedtheknotdownfrom12.2theyearbeforeandthelowestsince1981．Thetimethatdivorcingcouplesendureeachotherbeforeflingingbacktheringshaslengthenedtoo.from10.1yearsin1981to11.7in2007．Indifferencetowardsthesacramentofmarriageappearsstrongestamongtheelderlynotthefecklessyoung.Since2004whentheoveralldivorceratepeakedat14.1perthousandover-60shavebeentheonlypartofthepopulationwhoserateshavecontinuedtorise.Thereareplentyofcompetingexplanationsforthediminishingappealofdivorceandnoeasywaytodiscoverwhicharetrue.Immigrationmayhavehelpedsinceimmigrantfamiliesoftenhavemoreconservativeattitudesthanthedegeneratenatives.Accountantsanddivorcelawyersreckonastringofrecentbigsettlementsmayhaveactedasadeterrentalthoughitcouldequallyhaveencouragedthepoorerpartnersinfinanciallyunequalmarriages.FallingmarriageratesandfallingdivorceratescouldbetwosidesofthesamecoinsaysKathleenKiernanaprofessorofsocialpolicyatYorkUniversity.Theunpopularityofmarriageandtherelativeeaseofdivorcehasleftonlyahardcoreofstablecouplesboundinwedlock.Andtheriseintheaverageageatwhichpeoplegetmarriednow36formenand33forwomenishelpingtoosinceolderbridesandgroomstendtostaytogetherlongerinanycase.Ifsopoliticiansshouldbecautiousabouthandingouttaxbreaks.EveniftheyworkandMsKiernanthinkstheywouldhavetobeenormoustohavemucheffectchivvyingunmarriedcouplesintowedlockislikelytomeanmoredivorcesinthefuture.WhydidIainDuncanSmithcallforanofficialendorsementofmarriage
YamatotheancientnameofJapanessentiallymeansbigharmony.ToachievesuchbalanceJapanesesocietyhasrefinedaplethoraofculturaltraits:humilityloyaltyrespectandconsensus.Inthefieldofbusinesshoweverthisoftenresultsinalackofleaderswhoarewillingtostandoutfromthecrowdpromotethemselvesandactdecisively.ThenailthatsticksupgetshammereddownisacommonJapaneserefrain;thehawkwithtalenthideshistalonsisanother.WhereasAmericanandEuropeanbossesliketoappearonthecoversofglobalbusinessmagazinestheirJapanesecounterpartsarecomfortableintheirobscurity.BusinessinJapanisgenerallyrunasagroupendeavor.Suchdemocraticvirtuesservedthecountrywellinthepost-warperiod.ButtodaytheyholdtoomanyJapanesefirmsback.Japanboastssomeofthebestcompaniesintheworld:ToyotaCanonandNintendoaretheenvyoftheirindustries.ButtheyoperateonaglobalscaleandhavetentativelyembracedsomeunconsensualAmericanmethods.InmuchoftheJapaneseeconomy-especiallyitshugedomesticservicessector-managersareinsomethingofafunk.Firmsdonotgivepromisingyoungstersresponsibilityearlyonbutallocatejobsbyage.Unnecessarilylongworkinghoursarethenormsappingproductivity.Andtherearefewwomenandforeignersinseniorroleswhichnarrowsthetalentpool.Sohowpleasingitistobeabletoreportthesuccessofabusinessleaderwhobreaksthemould.Youngdynamicandcleverheisnotafraidtopushasideoldconservativeknow-nothings.Hedisdainscorporatepoliticsandpromotespeoplebasedonmeritratherthanseniority.Hecanmakemistakeshegotinvolvedinaquestionabletakeover-defenceschemebutheiswildlypopularwithsalarymen:hiseverymoveischronicledweekly.InJunehewasgiventhetopjobatoneofJapan’sbiggestfirms.KosakuShimaofHatsushibaGoyoHoldingshasonlyoneseriousshortcoming:heisnotarealpersonbutamangaorcartooncharacter.FormanycriticsofJapanthatsaysitall:Mr.Shimacouldexistonlyinfiction.Infactthereisroomforthecountry’smanagersandevenitspoliticianstolearnfromhim.MostofthelessonsareforJapan’smanagers.Atpresentbossesrarelysaywhattheythinkbecauseitmightdisrupttheharmonyorbeseenasimmodest.Theirsubordinatesarereluctanttochallengeideasbecausethatwouldcausethebosstoloseface.Sodaftstrategiesfesterratherthangettingculledquickly.Thereislittlerisk-takingorinitiative.ThecruxoftheproblemisJapanesecompanies’cultureofconsensus-baseddecision-making.Callednemawashiliterallygoingaroundtherootsorringibottom-updecisionsithelpedtoestablishanegalitarianworkplace.Inthe1980sWesternmanagementconsultantscooedthatitwasthesourceofJapan’scompetitivestrength.Sometimesitcanbeasinperiodsofcrisiswhenanentirefirmneedstoacceptnewmarchingordersquickly.Butmostofthetimeitstranglesacompany.Relyingonconsensusmeansthatdecisionsaremadeslowlyifatall.Withsomanypeopletopleasetheresultisoftenamediocremorassofcompromises.Andwithsomanyhandsinvolvedthereisnoaccountability;noreasonforindividualstoexcel;nosanctionagainstbaddecisionssothattherearefeweroftheminfuture.OfcoursesometimestheconsensusoftheJapaneseworkplaceisjustaveneeranddecisionsarestillmadefromonhigh.Butthenwhypersistwiththepretenceparticularlyifitdrainsacompany’sefficiencyWhichofthefollowingisnotthefaultcausedbyconsensualJapanesemethodaccordingtothetext
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 16
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 6
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 4
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.AccordingtothetextwhatdoesAcadmieFrancaisereferto
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 2
In1959theaverageAmericanfamilypaid$989forayear’ssupplyoffood.In1972thefamilypaid$1311．Thatwasapriceincreaseofnearlyone-third.Everyfamilyhashadthissortofexperience.Everyoneagreesthatthecostoffeedingafamilyhasrisensharply.41．______. Manyblamethefarmerswhoproducethevegetablesfruitmeateggsandcheesethatstoresofferforsale.AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturethefarmer’sshareofthe$1311spentbythefamilyin1972was$521．Thiswas31percentmorethanthefarmerhadreceivedin1959. Butfarmersclaimthatthisincreasewasverysmallcomparedtotheincreaseintheircostofliving.42．______Theseincludetruckdriversmeatpackersmanufacturersofpackagesandotherfoodcontainersandtheownersofstoreswherefoodissold.Theyareamongthe"middlemen"whostandbetweenthefarmerandthepeoplewhobuyandeatthefood.Aremiddlementheonestoblameforrisingfoodprices Ofthe$1311familyfoodbillin1972middlementreceived$790whichwas33percentmorethantheyhadreceivedin1959．Itappearsthatthemiddlemen’sprofithasincreasedmorethanfarmer’s.43．AccordingtoeconomistsattheFirstNationalCityBanktheprofitformeatpackersandfoodstoresamountedtolessthanonepercent.Duringthesameperiodallothermanufacturersweremakingaprofitofmorethanfivepercent.Bycomparisonwithothermembersoftheeconomicsystembothfarmersandmiddlemenhaveprofitedsurprisinglylittlefromtheriseinfoodprices. 44．______TheeconomistsatFirstNationalCityBankhaveananswertogivehousewivesbutmanypeoplewillnotlikeit.Theseeconomistsblamethehousewifeherselfforthejumpinfoodprices.Theysaythatfoodcostsmorenowbecausewomendon’twanttospendmuchtimeinthekitchen.Womenprefertobuyfoodwhichhasalreadybeenpreparedbeforeitreachesthemarket. Vegetablesandchickencostmorewhentheyhavebeencutintopiecesbysomeoneotherthantheonewhobuysit.Afamilyshouldexpecttopaymorewhenseveral"TVdinners"aretakenhomefromthestore.Thesearefullycookedmealsconsistingofmeatvegetablesandsometimesdessertallarrangedonametaldish.Thedishisputintotheovenandheatedwhilethehousewifeisdoingsomethingelse.Suchaconveniencecostsmoney.45. Economistsremindusthatmanymodemhousewiveshavejobsoutsidethehome.Theyearnmoneythathelpstopaythefamilyfoodbills.Thehousewifenaturallyhaslesstimeandenergyforcookingafteraday’swork.Shewantstobuymanykindsoffoodthatcanbeputonherfamily’stableeasilyandquickly."Ifthehousewifewantsallofthese"theeconomistssay"thatisherprivilegebutshemustbepreparedtopayfortheservicesofthosewhomakeherworkeasier." Itappearsthattheanswertothequestionofrisingpricesisnotasimpleone.Producersconsumersandmiddlemenallsharetheresponsibilityforthesharpriseinfoodcosts. [A]Howeversomeeconomistsbelievethatcontrolscanhavenegativeeffectsoveralongperiodoftime.Incitieswithrentcontrolthecitygovernmentsetsthemaximumrentthatalandlordcanchargeforanapartment. [B]Farmerstendtoblameothersforthesharpriseinfoodprices.Theyparticularlyblamethosewhoprocessthefarmproductsaftertheproductsleavethefarm. [C]Thusaseconomistspointout:"Someofthebasicreasonsforwideningfoodpricespreadsareeasilytraceabletotheincreasinguseofconveniencefoodswhichtransfermuchofthetimeandworkofmealpreparationfromthekitchentothefoodprocessor’splant." [D]Butsomeeconomistsclaimthatthemiddleman’sactualprofitwasverylow. [E]Whothenisactuallyresponsibleforthesizeofthebillahousewifemustpaybeforeshecarriesthefoodhomefromthestore’ [F]Butthereislessagreementwhenreasonsfortherisearebeingdiscussed.Whoisreallyresponsible [G]Economistsdonot.agreeonsomeofthepredictions.Theyalsodonotagreeonthevalueofdifferentdecisions.Someeconomistssupportaparticulardecisionwhileotherscriticizeit. 44
BeforetheeconomyfellapartitwasBritain’ssocietythatwassupposedtobeinterminaldeclineespeciallyintheeyesoftheTories.DavidCamerontheConservativePartyleaderwaswonttobemoanbrokenBritainmiredinmoraldegeneracywithhighratesofteenagepregnancylowratesofmarriageandotherlessquantifiablebreakdownsinthecivilisedschemeofthings.SuchantediluvianworrieswererakedoveragainonJuly13thwhenIainDuncanSmithaformerToryleadercalledforanofficialendorsementofmarriage.MrDuncanSmithcitesseveralreasonstoencouragewedlockincludingfamilystabilitymarriedcouplesaremuchlesslikelytosplitthancohabitingonesandhealthierchildrenwhodobetterinlaterlife.Therewastalkofstate-runcounsellingpro-marriagepropagandainschoolsandmandatorycooling-offperiodsbeforedivorces.MrDuncanSmithfavourstaxbreaksformarriedcouplessomethingthatLabourhaslongrefusedtoendorse.Itistruethatmarriageisadeclininginstitution.Marriageratesareattheirlowestsince1895．Butcuriouslythosewhodomarrynowstaytogetherforlonger.Divorceratesarefallingnotrisingandhavebeenforseveralyears.In200711.9marriedcouplesperthousanduntiedtheknotdownfrom12.2theyearbeforeandthelowestsince1981．Thetimethatdivorcingcouplesendureeachotherbeforeflingingbacktheringshaslengthenedtoo.from10.1yearsin1981to11.7in2007．Indifferencetowardsthesacramentofmarriageappearsstrongestamongtheelderlynotthefecklessyoung.Since2004whentheoveralldivorceratepeakedat14.1perthousandover-60shavebeentheonlypartofthepopulationwhoserateshavecontinuedtorise.Thereareplentyofcompetingexplanationsforthediminishingappealofdivorceandnoeasywaytodiscoverwhicharetrue.Immigrationmayhavehelpedsinceimmigrantfamiliesoftenhavemoreconservativeattitudesthanthedegeneratenatives.Accountantsanddivorcelawyersreckonastringofrecentbigsettlementsmayhaveactedasadeterrentalthoughitcouldequallyhaveencouragedthepoorerpartnersinfinanciallyunequalmarriages.FallingmarriageratesandfallingdivorceratescouldbetwosidesofthesamecoinsaysKathleenKiernanaprofessorofsocialpolicyatYorkUniversity.Theunpopularityofmarriageandtherelativeeaseofdivorcehasleftonlyahardcoreofstablecouplesboundinwedlock.Andtheriseintheaverageageatwhichpeoplegetmarriednow36formenand33forwomenishelpingtoosinceolderbridesandgroomstendtostaytogetherlongerinanycase.Ifsopoliticiansshouldbecautiousabouthandingouttaxbreaks.EveniftheyworkandMsKiernanthinkstheywouldhavetobeenormoustohavemucheffectchivvyingunmarriedcouplesintowedlockislikelytomeanmoredivorcesinthefuture.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisNOTthereasonwhypeopledonotinclinetodivorce
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.WhatdoestheauthormeanbymentioningWrightbrothersintheend
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 6
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 8
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.WhydidcriticscomplainthatGruen’sshopswerelikemousetraps
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48．Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49．Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50．DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 48
In1959theaverageAmericanfamilypaid$989forayear’ssupplyoffood.In1972thefamilypaid$1311．Thatwasapriceincreaseofnearlyone-third.Everyfamilyhashadthissortofexperience.Everyoneagreesthatthecostoffeedingafamilyhasrisensharply.41．______. Manyblamethefarmerswhoproducethevegetablesfruitmeateggsandcheesethatstoresofferforsale.AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturethefarmer’sshareofthe$1311spentbythefamilyin1972was$521．Thiswas31percentmorethanthefarmerhadreceivedin1959. Butfarmersclaimthatthisincreasewasverysmallcomparedtotheincreaseintheircostofliving.42．______Theseincludetruckdriversmeatpackersmanufacturersofpackagesandotherfoodcontainersandtheownersofstoreswherefoodissold.Theyareamongthe"middlemen"whostandbetweenthefarmerandthepeoplewhobuyandeatthefood.Aremiddlementheonestoblameforrisingfoodprices Ofthe$1311familyfoodbillin1972middlementreceived$790whichwas33percentmorethantheyhadreceivedin1959．Itappearsthatthemiddlemen’sprofithasincreasedmorethanfarmer’s.43．AccordingtoeconomistsattheFirstNationalCityBanktheprofitformeatpackersandfoodstoresamountedtolessthanonepercent.Duringthesameperiodallothermanufacturersweremakingaprofitofmorethanfivepercent.Bycomparisonwithothermembersoftheeconomicsystembothfarmersandmiddlemenhaveprofitedsurprisinglylittlefromtheriseinfoodprices. 44．______TheeconomistsatFirstNationalCityBankhaveananswertogivehousewivesbutmanypeoplewillnotlikeit.Theseeconomistsblamethehousewifeherselfforthejumpinfoodprices.Theysaythatfoodcostsmorenowbecausewomendon’twanttospendmuchtimeinthekitchen.Womenprefertobuyfoodwhichhasalreadybeenpreparedbeforeitreachesthemarket. Vegetablesandchickencostmorewhentheyhavebeencutintopiecesbysomeoneotherthantheonewhobuysit.Afamilyshouldexpecttopaymorewhenseveral"TVdinners"aretakenhomefromthestore.Thesearefullycookedmealsconsistingofmeatvegetablesandsometimesdessertallarrangedonametaldish.Thedishisputintotheovenandheatedwhilethehousewifeisdoingsomethingelse.Suchaconveniencecostsmoney.45. Economistsremindusthatmanymodemhousewiveshavejobsoutsidethehome.Theyearnmoneythathelpstopaythefamilyfoodbills.Thehousewifenaturallyhaslesstimeandenergyforcookingafteraday’swork.Shewantstobuymanykindsoffoodthatcanbeputonherfamily’stableeasilyandquickly."Ifthehousewifewantsallofthese"theeconomistssay"thatisherprivilegebutshemustbepreparedtopayfortheservicesofthosewhomakeherworkeasier." Itappearsthattheanswertothequestionofrisingpricesisnotasimpleone.Producersconsumersandmiddlemenallsharetheresponsibilityforthesharpriseinfoodcosts. [A]Howeversomeeconomistsbelievethatcontrolscanhavenegativeeffectsoveralongperiodoftime.Incitieswithrentcontrolthecitygovernmentsetsthemaximumrentthatalandlordcanchargeforanapartment. [B]Farmerstendtoblameothersforthesharpriseinfoodprices.Theyparticularlyblamethosewhoprocessthefarmproductsaftertheproductsleavethefarm. [C]Thusaseconomistspointout:"Someofthebasicreasonsforwideningfoodpricespreadsareeasilytraceabletotheincreasinguseofconveniencefoodswhichtransfermuchofthetimeandworkofmealpreparationfromthekitchentothefoodprocessor’splant." [D]Butsomeeconomistsclaimthatthemiddleman’sactualprofitwasverylow. [E]Whothenisactuallyresponsibleforthesizeofthebillahousewifemustpaybeforeshecarriesthefoodhomefromthestore’ [F]Butthereislessagreementwhenreasonsfortherisearebeingdiscussed.Whoisreallyresponsible [G]Economistsdonot.agreeonsomeofthepredictions.Theyalsodonotagreeonthevalueofdifferentdecisions.Someeconomistssupportaparticulardecisionwhileotherscriticizeit. 42
YamatotheancientnameofJapanessentiallymeansbigharmony.ToachievesuchbalanceJapanesesocietyhasrefinedaplethoraofculturaltraits:humilityloyaltyrespectandconsensus.Inthefieldofbusinesshoweverthisoftenresultsinalackofleaderswhoarewillingtostandoutfromthecrowdpromotethemselvesandactdecisively.ThenailthatsticksupgetshammereddownisacommonJapaneserefrain;thehawkwithtalenthideshistalonsisanother.WhereasAmericanandEuropeanbossesliketoappearonthecoversofglobalbusinessmagazinestheirJapanesecounterpartsarecomfortableintheirobscurity.BusinessinJapanisgenerallyrunasagroupendeavor.Suchdemocraticvirtuesservedthecountrywellinthepost-warperiod.ButtodaytheyholdtoomanyJapanesefirmsback.Japanboastssomeofthebestcompaniesintheworld:ToyotaCanonandNintendoaretheenvyoftheirindustries.ButtheyoperateonaglobalscaleandhavetentativelyembracedsomeunconsensualAmericanmethods.InmuchoftheJapaneseeconomy-especiallyitshugedomesticservicessector-managersareinsomethingofafunk.Firmsdonotgivepromisingyoungstersresponsibilityearlyonbutallocatejobsbyage.Unnecessarilylongworkinghoursarethenormsappingproductivity.Andtherearefewwomenandforeignersinseniorroleswhichnarrowsthetalentpool.Sohowpleasingitistobeabletoreportthesuccessofabusinessleaderwhobreaksthemould.Youngdynamicandcleverheisnotafraidtopushasideoldconservativeknow-nothings.Hedisdainscorporatepoliticsandpromotespeoplebasedonmeritratherthanseniority.Hecanmakemistakeshegotinvolvedinaquestionabletakeover-defenceschemebutheiswildlypopularwithsalarymen:hiseverymoveischronicledweekly.InJunehewasgiventhetopjobatoneofJapan’sbiggestfirms.KosakuShimaofHatsushibaGoyoHoldingshasonlyoneseriousshortcoming:heisnotarealpersonbutamangaorcartooncharacter.FormanycriticsofJapanthatsaysitall:Mr.Shimacouldexistonlyinfiction.Infactthereisroomforthecountry’smanagersandevenitspoliticianstolearnfromhim.MostofthelessonsareforJapan’smanagers.Atpresentbossesrarelysaywhattheythinkbecauseitmightdisrupttheharmonyorbeseenasimmodest.Theirsubordinatesarereluctanttochallengeideasbecausethatwouldcausethebosstoloseface.Sodaftstrategiesfesterratherthangettingculledquickly.Thereislittlerisk-takingorinitiative.ThecruxoftheproblemisJapanesecompanies’cultureofconsensus-baseddecision-making.Callednemawashiliterallygoingaroundtherootsorringibottom-updecisionsithelpedtoestablishanegalitarianworkplace.Inthe1980sWesternmanagementconsultantscooedthatitwasthesourceofJapan’scompetitivestrength.Sometimesitcanbeasinperiodsofcrisiswhenanentirefirmneedstoacceptnewmarchingordersquickly.Butmostofthetimeitstranglesacompany.Relyingonconsensusmeansthatdecisionsaremadeslowlyifatall.Withsomanypeopletopleasetheresultisoftenamediocremorassofcompromises.Andwithsomanyhandsinvolvedthereisnoaccountability;noreasonforindividualstoexcel;nosanctionagainstbaddecisionssothattherearefeweroftheminfuture.OfcoursesometimestheconsensusoftheJapaneseworkplaceisjustaveneeranddecisionsarestillmadefromonhigh.Butthenwhypersistwiththepretenceparticularlyifitdrainsacompany’sefficiencyWhichofthefollowingbestillustratesthemeaningofnemawashi
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 20
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 10
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 8
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48．Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49．Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50．DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 46
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.WhydoestheauthorquotethepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldo
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisTRUE
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48．Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49．Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50．DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 50
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 2
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 14
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