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产后产妇早期下床活动的好处有哪些
无张力疝修补术的优势不包括
复发率低
术后疼痛轻
无排斥反应
可早期下床活动
可在腹腔镜下手术
阴道手术后的护理要点不包括??
外阴擦洗每天两次
保持导尿管通畅
术后3天流质饮食
早期下床活动
术后3～5天口服石蜡油软化大便
简述术后病人早期下床活动的好处
术后早期下床活动的好处不包括
减少肺部并发症
减少下肢静脉血栓形成
减少伤口感染
有利于肠道功能恢复，减少腹胀发生
有利于膀胱功能恢复，减少尿潴留发生
列举手术后病人早期下床活动的好处
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UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. InrefutingArnold’’sopponentstheauthoremploysallofthefollowingtechniquesEXCEPT
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. Thetextischieflyaimedat
Scatteredaroundtheglobearemorethan100smallregionsofisolatedvolcanicactivityknowntogeologistsashotspots.Unlikemostoftheworld’’svolcanoestheyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdriftingplatesthatmakeuptheearth’’ssurface;onthecontrarymanyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofaplate.Mostofthehotspotsmoveonlyslowlyandinsomecasesthemovementoftheplatespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaremilestonesthatmarkthepassageoftheplates. Thattheplatesaremovingisnowbeyonddispute.AfricaandSouthAmericaforexamplearemovingawayfromeachotherasnewmaterialisinjectedintotheseafloorbetweenthem.Thecomplementarycoastlinesandcertaingeologicalfeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereoncejoined.Therelativemotionoftheplatescarryingthesecontinentshasbeenconstructedindetailbutthemotionofoneplatewithrespecttoanothercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth’’sinterior.Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhetherbothcontinentsaremovinginoppositedirectionsorwhetheronecontinentisstationaryandtheotherisdriftingawayfromit.Hotspotsanchoredinthedeeperlayersoftheearthprovidethemeasuringinstrumentsneededtoresolvethequestion.Fromananalysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanplateisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears. Thesignificanceofhotspotsisnotconfinedtotheirroleasaframeofreference.Itnowappearsthattheyalsohaveanimportantinfluenceonthegeophysicalprocessesthatpropeltheplatesacrosstheglobe.Whenacontinentalplatecomestorestoverahotspotthematerialrisingfromdeeperlayerscreatesabroaddome.Asthedomegrowsitdevelopsdeepfissurescracks:inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissuressothatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofnewocean.Thusjustasearliertheorieshaveexplainedthemobilityofthecontinentssohotspotsmayexplaintheirmutabilityinconstancy. Thehot-spottheorymayproveusefulinexplaining____________.
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75．Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Mostpeopleareunlikelytobesubjecttosillyerrors
UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
Allthecharacteristicsandabilitiesapersonacquiresandalldevelopmentalchangesresultfromtwobasicthoughcomplexprocesses:learningandmaturation.Sincethetwoprocessesalmostalwaysinteractitisdifficulttoseparatetheireffectsfromeachotherortospecifytherelativecontributionofeachtoachild’’sdevelopment.Clearlygrowthinheightisnotlearnedbutdependsonmaturationabiologicalprocess.Butimprovementsinmotoractivitiessuchaswalkingdependonmaturationandlearningandtheinteractionbetweenthem. WhatthenarematurationandlearningDevelopmentalpsychologistsarenotentirelyinagreementthoughthereisacommoncoreofacceptedmeaning.Thusalldefinitionsofmaturationstressorganicprocessesorstructuralchangesoccurringwithinanindividual’’sbodythatarerelativelyindependentofexternalenvironmentalconditionsexperiencesorpractice.Bymaturationitismeantdevelopmentoftheorganismasafunctionoftimeorage. Learninghasalsobeendefinedindiversewaysbutthetermgenerallyreferstochangesinbehaviororperformanceasaconsequenceofexperience.Learningistheprocessbywhichanactivityoriginatesorischangedthroughtrainingproceduresasdistinguishedfromchangesnotattributabletotraining. Anumberofimportantandstimulatingtheoriesoflearninghavebeenproposedeachwithitsownsetofprinciplesandhypothesesforexplainingthelearningprocess.Forourpurposeswedonotneedtobeconcernedwiththespecificdetailsofthelearningprocesseventhoughlearningplaysthemostimportantroleinmostaspectsofdevelopmentandchange.Weshallemployonlyafewgenerallyacceptedprinciplesoflearninginthisdiscussion. Specificallyweaccepttheprinciplethatachildwilllearnaresponsemoreeffectivelyandmorethoroughlyifheismotivatedtolearnit.Moreoverhewilllearnaresponsebetterifheisrewardedforlearningit.Accordingtothisviewthemorearesponseisrewardedthestrongeritbecomesandthemorelikelyitistoberepeated.AlthoughmostlearninginvolvesmotivationandrewardIbelievesomelearningdoesoccurwithoutthem. Asfortheinterrelationshipsbetweenmaturationandlearningprocessageneralprinciplemaybeprovided:maturationisessentialtolearning. WhichisNOTtrueaccordingtothetext
Scatteredaroundtheglobearemorethan100smallregionsofisolatedvolcanicactivityknowntogeologistsashotspots.Unlikemostoftheworld’’svolcanoestheyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdriftingplatesthatmakeuptheearth’’ssurface;onthecontrarymanyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofaplate.Mostofthehotspotsmoveonlyslowlyandinsomecasesthemovementoftheplatespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaremilestonesthatmarkthepassageoftheplates. Thattheplatesaremovingisnowbeyonddispute.AfricaandSouthAmericaforexamplearemovingawayfromeachotherasnewmaterialisinjectedintotheseafloorbetweenthem.Thecomplementarycoastlinesandcertaingeologicalfeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereoncejoined.Therelativemotionoftheplatescarryingthesecontinentshasbeenconstructedindetailbutthemotionofoneplatewithrespecttoanothercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth’’sinterior.Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhetherbothcontinentsaremovinginoppositedirectionsorwhetheronecontinentisstationaryandtheotherisdriftingawayfromit.Hotspotsanchoredinthedeeperlayersoftheearthprovidethemeasuringinstrumentsneededtoresolvethequestion.Fromananalysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanplateisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears. Thesignificanceofhotspotsisnotconfinedtotheirroleasaframeofreference.Itnowappearsthattheyalsohaveanimportantinfluenceonthegeophysicalprocessesthatpropeltheplatesacrosstheglobe.Whenacontinentalplatecomestorestoverahotspotthematerialrisingfromdeeperlayerscreatesabroaddome.Asthedomegrowsitdevelopsdeepfissurescracks:inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissuressothatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofnewocean.Thusjustasearliertheorieshaveexplainedthemobilityofthecontinentssohotspotsmayexplaintheirmutabilityinconstancy. Theauthorbelievesthat____________.
ManpowerInc.with560000workersistheworld’’slargesttemporaryemploymentagency.Everymorningitspeople________intotheofficesandfactoriesofAmericaseekingaday’’sworkforaday’’spayonedayatatime.________industrialgiantslikeGeneralMotorsandIBMstruggletosurvive________reducingthenumberofemployeesManpowerbasedinMilwaukeeWisconsinisbooming. ________itseconomycontinuestorecovertheUSisincreasinglybecominganationofpart-timersandtemporaryworkers.This______workforceisthemostimportant______inAmericanbusinesstodayanditis______changingtherelationshipbetweenpeopleandtheirjobs.Thephenomenonprovidesawayforcompaniestoremaingloballycompetitive________avoidingmarketcyclesandthegrowingburdens________byemploymentruleshealthcarecostsandpensionplans.Forworkersitcanmeananendtothesecuritybenefitsandsenseof________thatcamefrombeingaloyalemployee.
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthortriestoconvinceusofthefactthat
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75．Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect. Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75．Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthorintendstotellusthat
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75．Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutmulticulturalistsisNOTsupportedbythetext
Allthecharacteristicsandabilitiesapersonacquiresandalldevelopmentalchangesresultfromtwobasicthoughcomplexprocesses:learningandmaturation.Sincethetwoprocessesalmostalwaysinteractitisdifficulttoseparatetheireffectsfromeachotherortospecifytherelativecontributionofeachtoachild’’sdevelopment.Clearlygrowthinheightisnotlearnedbutdependsonmaturationabiologicalprocess.Butimprovementsinmotoractivitiessuchaswalkingdependonmaturationandlearningandtheinteractionbetweenthem. WhatthenarematurationandlearningDevelopmentalpsychologistsarenotentirelyinagreementthoughthereisacommoncoreofacceptedmeaning.Thusalldefinitionsofmaturationstressorganicprocessesorstructuralchangesoccurringwithinanindividual’’sbodythatarerelativelyindependentofexternalenvironmentalconditionsexperiencesorpractice.Bymaturationitismeantdevelopmentoftheorganismasafunctionoftimeorage. Learninghasalsobeendefinedindiversewaysbutthetermgenerallyreferstochangesinbehaviororperformanceasaconsequenceofexperience.Learningistheprocessbywhichanactivityoriginatesorischangedthroughtrainingproceduresasdistinguishedfromchangesnotattributabletotraining. Anumberofimportantandstimulatingtheoriesoflearninghavebeenproposedeachwithitsownsetofprinciplesandhypothesesforexplainingthelearningprocess.Forourpurposeswedonotneedtobeconcernedwiththespecificdetailsofthelearningprocesseventhoughlearningplaysthemostimportantroleinmostaspectsofdevelopmentandchange.Weshallemployonlyafewgenerallyacceptedprinciplesoflearninginthisdiscussion. Specificallyweaccepttheprinciplethatachildwilllearnaresponsemoreeffectivelyandmorethoroughlyifheismotivatedtolearnit.Moreoverhewilllearnaresponsebetterifheisrewardedforlearningit.Accordingtothisviewthemorearesponseisrewardedthestrongeritbecomesandthemorelikelyitistoberepeated.AlthoughmostlearninginvolvesmotivationandrewardIbelievesomelearningdoesoccurwithoutthem. Asfortheinterrelationshipsbetweenmaturationandlearningprocessageneralprinciplemaybeprovided:maturationisessentialtolearning. Achild’’sdevelopmentdependson
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