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Text 3 Historians have only recently begun to note the increase in demand for luxury goods and ...
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Text3 Paintingyourhouseislikeaddingsomethingtoahugecommunalpictureinwhichtherestofthepaintingisdoneeitherbynatureorbyotherpeople.Thepictureisnotstatic;itchangesaswemoveaboutwiththetimeofdaywiththeseasonswithnewpaintingnewbuildingsandwithalterationstooldones.Anyindividualhouseisjustafragmentofthispictureneverthelessithasthepowertomakeormarktheoverallscene.Inthepastpeopleusedtheircreativetalentsinpaintingtheirhomeswithgreatimaginationandinvariedbutalwayssubtlyblendingcolors.ThelastvestigesofthisgreattraditioncanstillbeseeninthetownsoftheextremewestofIreland.Ithasneverbeenrecognizedasanartformpartlybecauseofthephysicaldifficultyofhangingastreetinagalleryandpartlybecauseit’salwayschangingaspaintfadesandisrenewed.Alsoitisacommunalartwhichcannotbeidentifiedwithanyonepersonexceptinthosemanycaseswheregreatartistsofthepastfoundinspirationinordinarystreetscenesandrecordedtheminpaint. Followingtheprinciplesofdecorationthatweresosuccessfulinthepastyoushouldfirsttakealonglookatthehouseanditssurroundingsandconsiderpossiblelimitations~ThefirstconcernstheamountofcolorandintensityinthedaylightinBritain.ColorsthatlookperfectlyinkeepingwiththesunnyclearskiesoftheMediterraneanwouldlooktooharshinthegrayerlightofthenorth.Sincebrightlightisuncomfortable-fortheeyescolorsmustbestronginordertobeseenclearly.Viewedinadimmerlighttheyappeartoobright.Itiseasytoseethisifyoulookatabrickhousewhilethesunisalternatelyshiningandthengoingbehindacloud.Thebrickworkcolorslookmuchmoreintensewhenthesunishidden. Thesecondlimitationisthecolorsofthesurroundings:thecolorswhichgobestwithCotswoldstoneandarollinggreencountrysidewillbedifferentfromthosethatlookbestbytheseaorinared-brick/blue-slateindustrialtown.Ineveryareatherearealwayscolorsthatatoncelookinkeeping. Inmanyareastherearedistinctivetraditionsintheuseofcolorthatmaybeausefulguide.TheeasterncountiesofEnglandandScotlandparticularlythosewithalocaltraditionofrenderingorplasteringusecolorsappliedsolidlyoverthewall.Usuallyonlythewindowframesanddoorsarepickedoutinanothercoloroftenwhiteorpalegray.TypicalwallcolorsarethepinkassociatedwithSuffolkandpalebuffsandyellowsofFife.Muchstrongercolorssuchasdeepearthredorangeblueandgreenarealsocommon.InthecoastalvillagesofEssexaswellasinlandinHertfordshirethehouse-frontsofoverlappingboardsaretraditionallypaintedblack--originallytarredlikeships--withwindowsanddoorsoutlinedinwhite.InstoneareasofYorkshireandfarthernorthcolorisrarer:thehousesareusuallyleftintheirnaturalcolorthoughmanyarepaintedwhiteastheyprobablyallwereonce. Accordingtothepassagewhenputtingpaintontheoutsideofyourhouseyoushouldbecareful
IcametoliveherewhereIamnowbetweenWoundedKneeCreekandGrassCreek.Otherscametooandwemadetherelittlegrayhousesoflogsthatyouseeandtheyaresquare.41 YouhavenoticedthateverythinganIndiandoesisinacircleandthatisbecausethePoweroftheWorldalwaysworksincirclesandeverythingtriestoberound.42 Thefloweringtreewasthelivingcenterofthehoopandthecircleofthefourquartersnourishedit.Theeastgavepeaceandlightthesouthgavewarmththewestgaverainandthenorthwithitscoldandmightywindgavestrengthandendurance.Thisknowledgecametousfromtheouterworldwithourreligion. 43TheskyisroundandIhaveheardthattheearthisroundlikeaballandsoareallthestars.Thewindinitsgreatestpowerwhirls.Birdsmaketheirnestsincirclesfortheirsisthesamereligionasours.44 Themoondoesthesameandbothareround.Eventheseasonsformagreatcircleintheirchangingandalwayscomebackagaintowheretheywere.Thelifeofamanisacirclefromchildhoodtochildhoodandsoitisineverythingwherepowermoves.Ourtepeeswereroundlikethenestsofbirdsandthesewerealwayssetinacirclethenation’shoopanestofmanynestswheretheGreatSpiritmeantforustohatchourchildren. ButtheWasichushaveputusinthesesquareboxes.Ourpowerisgoneandwearedyingforthepowerisnotinusanymore.Youcanlookatourboysandseehowitiswithus.Whenwewerelivingbythepowerofthecircleinthewayweshouldboysweremenattwelveorthirteenyearsofage.45 A.Thesuncomesforthandgoesdownagaininacircle. B.EverythingthePoweroftheWorlddoesisdoneinacircle. C.IntheolddayswhenwewereastrongandhappypeopleallourpowercametousfromthesacredhoopofthenationandsolongasthehoopWasunbrokenthepeopleflourished. D.Itisagoodwaytolivefortherecanbemuchpowerinasquare. E.Thewaterisalsorunninginacirclefallsfromtheskyandreturnsinvaporform. F.Butnowittakesthemverymuchlongertomature. G.Itisabadwaytolivefortherecanbenopowerinasquare. 42
Directions:WriteonANSWERSHEET2onthefollowingtopic:Whoshouldpayforthiseducationthegovernmentorthestudent Youaretowriteinthreeparagraphs. Inthefirstparagraphyoucouldbringoutthetopicquestion. Inthesecondparagraphstatethedifferentviewsconcerningtheproblem. Inthelastparagraphbringwhatyouhavewrittentoanaturalconclusionwithyourownopinion. Youshouldwriteabout160-200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 20
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 18
Naturalismistheviewthatthenaturaluniversetheuniverseofmatterandenergyisallthattherereallyis.ByrulingoutaspiritualpartofthehumanpersonwhichmightsurvivedeathandaGodwhomightresurrectthebodynaturalismalsorulesoutsurvivalafterdeath.Inadditionnaturalismdenieshumanfreedomonthegroundsthateveryeventmustbeexplainablebydeterministicnaturallaws.Itdeniesanyabsolutevaluesbecauseitcanfindnogroundsforsuchvaluesinaworldmadeuponlyofmatterandenergy.AndfinallynaturalismdeniesthattheuniversehasanymeaningorpurposebecausethereisnoGodtogiveitameaningorpurposeandnothingelsewhichcangiveitameaningorpurpose.AnyonewhoacceptsthefirstthreedenialsofGodspiritualbeingsandimmortalitymightbecalledanaturalistinthebroadsenseandanyonewhoaddstothesethedenialoffreedomvaluesandpurposemightbelabeledanaturalistinthestrictsenseorastrictnaturalist.Someopponentsofnaturalismwouldarguethatnaturalistsinthebroadsenseareatleastsomewhatinconsistentandthatnaturalisminthebroadsenseleadslogicallytostrictnaturalism.Manystrictnaturalistswouldagreewiththis.Thosewhorejectnaturalisminboththestrictandbroadsensedosoforavarietyofmasons.Theymayhavepositiveargumentsfortheexistenceof.someofwhatnaturalistsdenyortheymayhavewhatseemtobedecisiverefutationsofsomeoralloftheargumentsfornaturalism.Butinadditiontoparticularargumentsagainstnaturalisttenetsortheirgroundsofbeliefsomeopponentsofnaturalismbelievethatthereisageneralargumentwhichholdsagainstanyformofnaturalism.Theseopponentsholdthatnaturalismhasafatalflawortoputitmorestronglythatnaturalismisself-destroying.Ifnaturalismistruethenhumanreasonmustbetheresultofnaturalforces.Thesenaturalforcesarenotonthenaturalisticviewrationalthemselvesnorcantheybetheresultofarationalcause.Sohumanreasonwouldbetheresultofnonrationalcauses.Thisitcanbearguedgivesusastrongreasontodistrusthumanreachespeciallyinitslesspracticalandmoretheoreticalexercises.Butthetheoryofnaturalismisitselfsuchanexerciseoftheoreticalreason.Ifnaturalismistruewewouldhavestrongreasonstodistrusttheoreticalreasoning.Ifwedistrusttheoreticalreasoningwedistrustparticularapplicationsofitsuchasthetheoryofnaturalism.Thusifnaturalismistruewehavestrongreasonstodistrustnaturalism.Whichofthefollowingconcerningthosewhorejectnaturalismaretrue
46TheprospectofcloninghumanshascomeastepcloserasdoctorshavesuccessfullyreplicatedinhumaneggstechniquesusedtocreateDollytheclonedsheep. 47ThebreakthroughbyateamfromtheNewYorkUniversityMedicalCentermeansthatnearlyallthescientificworknecessarytocreategeneticallyidenticalcopiesofhumansiscomplete.Onlymoralandlegalquestionsnowpreventscientistsfromcreatingclones. DrRobertFormanoftheCenterforReproductiveMedicineinLondonsaidhumancloningwas"acoupleofscientifictweaks"awayandcouldsoontakeplaceinalesstightlyregulatedcountryoutsideEuropeortheUnitedStates. 48CampaignersopposedtoembryoresearchsaidtheyareappalledatthepaceofworkthatthreatenedtocreateclonedbabiesbeforetheendofthecenturypossiblyinatechnologicallyambitiouscountrysuchasChina.Doctorscouldthenoffertheirservicestowesternersseekingtoclonethemselvesorrelatives. TheNewYorkteamledbyDrJamesGrifoistryingtoimprovethechancesofolderwomenhavingtheirownbabies.Themajorityofwomenagedover40sufferchromosomedamageintheireggswhilethenucleusoftheeggisripening.Thisisduetoweaknessesinthecytoplasmicjellywhichnourishesthenucleusbeforeitisfertilizedbysperm. 49GrifousingthenucleustransfersystemdevelopedbyscientistsworkingonDollyhastransferredchromosomesfromanolderwomanintoayoungerwoman’sdiscardedeggwhichhadhaditschromosomesremoved.LastweekGrifowasreportedassayingthatunderAmericanandBritishlawhecouldnotmakethenextlogicalmovewithouttaking"unethical"steps--suchasexperimentingonaneggintendedforfertilization. ThenextmovesaidGrifowouldbetofertilizetheeggwithspermandturnitintoanembryo.50AlternativelyhecouldfusethenucleuswithothergeneticmaterialfromthemothersuchasapatchofskintocompletetheDNAbuildingblueprintandtransferitintoaneggchemicallyprimedtogrowasifithadbeenfertilized--astookplacewithDolly’smother.TheresultwouldbeAmerica’sfirsthumanclone. AgnetaSuttonoftheanti-cloningpressuregroupCOREsuspectsthefirsthumanclonehasalreadybeenborninaprivatelaboratory:"Responsibledoctorsmayhavemoralqualmsbutthescienceissoadvancedthatnolawappearsstrongenoughtostopit.TheBoysfromBrazilandallthoseothernightmaresceneriesconcerningclonedHiltersandothermonstersareabouttocometrue." 48CampaignersopposedtoembryoresearchsaidtheyareappalledatthepaceofworkthatthreatenedtocreateclonedbabiesbeforetheendofthecenturypossiblyinatechnologicallyambitiouscountrysuchasChina.
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 2
IcametoliveherewhereIamnowbetweenWoundedKneeCreekandGrassCreek.Otherscametooandwemadetherelittlegrayhousesoflogsthatyouseeandtheyaresquare.41 YouhavenoticedthateverythinganIndiandoesisinacircleandthatisbecausethePoweroftheWorldalwaysworksincirclesandeverythingtriestoberound.42 Thefloweringtreewasthelivingcenterofthehoopandthecircleofthefourquartersnourishedit.Theeastgavepeaceandlightthesouthgavewarmththewestgaverainandthenorthwithitscoldandmightywindgavestrengthandendurance.Thisknowledgecametousfromtheouterworldwithourreligion. 43TheskyisroundandIhaveheardthattheearthisroundlikeaballandsoareallthestars.Thewindinitsgreatestpowerwhirls.Birdsmaketheirnestsincirclesfortheirsisthesamereligionasours.44 Themoondoesthesameandbothareround.Eventheseasonsformagreatcircleintheirchangingandalwayscomebackagaintowheretheywere.Thelifeofamanisacirclefromchildhoodtochildhoodandsoitisineverythingwherepowermoves.Ourtepeeswereroundlikethenestsofbirdsandthesewerealwayssetinacirclethenation’shoopanestofmanynestswheretheGreatSpiritmeantforustohatchourchildren. ButtheWasichushaveputusinthesesquareboxes.Ourpowerisgoneandwearedyingforthepowerisnotinusanymore.Youcanlookatourboysandseehowitiswithus.Whenwewerelivingbythepowerofthecircleinthewayweshouldboysweremenattwelveorthirteenyearsofage.45 A.Thesuncomesforthandgoesdownagaininacircle. B.EverythingthePoweroftheWorlddoesisdoneinacircle. C.IntheolddayswhenwewereastrongandhappypeopleallourpowercametousfromthesacredhoopofthenationandsolongasthehoopWasunbrokenthepeopleflourished. D.Itisagoodwaytolivefortherecanbemuchpowerinasquare. E.Thewaterisalsorunninginacirclefallsfromtheskyandreturnsinvaporform. F.Butnowittakesthemverymuchlongertomature. G.Itisabadwaytolivefortherecanbenopowerinasquare. 44
Naturalismistheviewthatthenaturaluniversetheuniverseofmatterandenergyisallthattherereallyis.ByrulingoutaspiritualpartofthehumanpersonwhichmightsurvivedeathandaGodwhomightresurrectthebodynaturalismalsorulesoutsurvivalafterdeath.Inadditionnaturalismdenieshumanfreedomonthegroundsthateveryeventmustbeexplainablebydeterministicnaturallaws.Itdeniesanyabsolutevaluesbecauseitcanfindnogroundsforsuchvaluesinaworldmadeuponlyofmatterandenergy.AndfinallynaturalismdeniesthattheuniversehasanymeaningorpurposebecausethereisnoGodtogiveitameaningorpurposeandnothingelsewhichcangiveitameaningorpurpose.AnyonewhoacceptsthefirstthreedenialsofGodspiritualbeingsandimmortalitymightbecalledanaturalistinthebroadsenseandanyonewhoaddstothesethedenialoffreedomvaluesandpurposemightbelabeledanaturalistinthestrictsenseorastrictnaturalist.Someopponentsofnaturalismwouldarguethatnaturalistsinthebroadsenseareatleastsomewhatinconsistentandthatnaturalisminthebroadsenseleadslogicallytostrictnaturalism.Manystrictnaturalistswouldagreewiththis.Thosewhorejectnaturalisminboththestrictandbroadsensedosoforavarietyofmasons.Theymayhavepositiveargumentsfortheexistenceof.someofwhatnaturalistsdenyortheymayhavewhatseemtobedecisiverefutationsofsomeoralloftheargumentsfornaturalism.Butinadditiontoparticularargumentsagainstnaturalisttenetsortheirgroundsofbeliefsomeopponentsofnaturalismbelievethatthereisageneralargumentwhichholdsagainstanyformofnaturalism.Theseopponentsholdthatnaturalismhasafatalflawortoputitmorestronglythatnaturalismisself-destroying.Ifnaturalismistruethenhumanreasonmustbetheresultofnaturalforces.Thesenaturalforcesarenotonthenaturalisticviewrationalthemselvesnorcantheybetheresultofarationalcause.Sohumanreasonwouldbetheresultofnonrationalcauses.Thisitcanbearguedgivesusastrongreasontodistrusthumanreachespeciallyinitslesspracticalandmoretheoreticalexercises.Butthetheoryofnaturalismisitselfsuchanexerciseoftheoreticalreason.Ifnaturalismistruewewouldhavestrongreasonstodistrusttheoreticalreasoning.Ifwedistrusttheoreticalreasoningwedistrustparticularapplicationsofitsuchasthetheoryofnaturalism.Thusifnaturalismistruewehavestrongreasonstodistrustnaturalism.Thegeneralargumentagainstnaturalismfocusesonits
46TheprospectofcloninghumanshascomeastepcloserasdoctorshavesuccessfullyreplicatedinhumaneggstechniquesusedtocreateDollytheclonedsheep. 47ThebreakthroughbyateamfromtheNewYorkUniversityMedicalCentermeansthatnearlyallthescientificworknecessarytocreategeneticallyidenticalcopiesofhumansiscomplete.Onlymoralandlegalquestionsnowpreventscientistsfromcreatingclones. DrRobertFormanoftheCenterforReproductiveMedicineinLondonsaidhumancloningwas"acoupleofscientifictweaks"awayandcouldsoontakeplaceinalesstightlyregulatedcountryoutsideEuropeortheUnitedStates. 48CampaignersopposedtoembryoresearchsaidtheyareappalledatthepaceofworkthatthreatenedtocreateclonedbabiesbeforetheendofthecenturypossiblyinatechnologicallyambitiouscountrysuchasChina.Doctorscouldthenoffertheirservicestowesternersseekingtoclonethemselvesorrelatives. TheNewYorkteamledbyDrJamesGrifoistryingtoimprovethechancesofolderwomenhavingtheirownbabies.Themajorityofwomenagedover40sufferchromosomedamageintheireggswhilethenucleusoftheeggisripening.Thisisduetoweaknessesinthecytoplasmicjellywhichnourishesthenucleusbeforeitisfertilizedbysperm. 49GrifousingthenucleustransfersystemdevelopedbyscientistsworkingonDollyhastransferredchromosomesfromanolderwomanintoayoungerwoman’sdiscardedeggwhichhadhaditschromosomesremoved.LastweekGrifowasreportedassayingthatunderAmericanandBritishlawhecouldnotmakethenextlogicalmovewithouttaking"unethical"steps--suchasexperimentingonaneggintendedforfertilization. ThenextmovesaidGrifowouldbetofertilizetheeggwithspermandturnitintoanembryo.50AlternativelyhecouldfusethenucleuswithothergeneticmaterialfromthemothersuchasapatchofskintocompletetheDNAbuildingblueprintandtransferitintoaneggchemicallyprimedtogrowasifithadbeenfertilized--astookplacewithDolly’smother.TheresultwouldbeAmerica’sfirsthumanclone. AgnetaSuttonoftheanti-cloningpressuregroupCOREsuspectsthefirsthumanclonehasalreadybeenborninaprivatelaboratory:"Responsibledoctorsmayhavemoralqualmsbutthescienceissoadvancedthatnolawappearsstrongenoughtostopit.TheBoysfromBrazilandallthoseothernightmaresceneriesconcerningclonedHiltersandothermonstersareabouttocometrue." 46TheprospectofcloninghumanshascomeastepcloserasdoctorshavesuccessfullyreplicatedinhumaneggstechniquesusedtocreateDollytheclonedsheep.
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 6
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 4
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoft-waredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelmomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoft-wareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.Itletsyouup-gradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindof*’assurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.ThatextracostLine7Para.5probablyrefersto
LastNovemberengineersinthehealthcaredivisionofGEunveiledsomethingcalledtheLight-SpeedVCTascannerthatcancreateastartlinglygoodthree-dimensionalimageofabeatingheart.ThisspringStaplesanAmericanoffice-suppliesretailerwillstockitsshelveswithagadgetcalledawordlockapadlockthatuseswordsinsteadofnumbers.TheconnectionIneachcasethefirm’scustomershaveplayedabigpartindesigningtheproduct.HowdoesinnovationhappenThefamiliarstoryinvolvesscientistinacademicinstitutesandR&Dlabs.Butlatelycorporatepracticehasbeguntochallengethisold-fashionednotion.Open-sourcesoftwaredevelopmentisalreadywell-known.LesssoisthefactthatBellanAmericanbicycle-helmetmakerhascollectedhundredsofideasfornewproductsfromitscustomersandisputtingseveralofthemintoproduction.Notonlyisthecustomerking:nowheismarket-researchheadR&Dchiefandproduct-developmentmanagertoo.Thisisnotallnew.Researchershavedemonstratedtheimportanceofpastusercontributionstotheevolutionofeverythingfromsportingequipmenttoconstructionmaterialsandscientificinstruments.Buttheriseofonlinecommunitiestogetherwiththedevelopmentofpowerfulandeasy-to-usedesigntoolsseemstobeboostingthephenomenonaswellasbringingittotheattentionofawideraudiencesaysEricVonHippelofMIT.Userinnovationhasalwaysbeenaroundhesays.Thedifferenceisthatpeoplecannolongerdenythatitishappening.HarnessingcustomerinnovationrequiresdifferentmethodssaysMr.VonHippel.Insteadoftakingthetemperatureofarepresentativesampleofcustomersfirmsmustidentifythefewspecialcustomerswhoinnovate.GE’shealthcaredivisioncallsthemluminaries.Theytendtobewell-publisheddoctorsandresearchscientistsfromleadingmedicalinstitutionssaysGEwhichbringsupto25luminariestogetheratregularmedicaladvisoryboardsessionstodiscusstheevolutionofGE’stechnology.GE’sproductsthenemergefromcollaborationwiththesegroups.Attheheartofmostthinkingaboutinnovationisthebeliefthatpeopleexpecttobepaidfortheircreativework:hencetheneedtoprotectandrewardthecreationofintellectualproperty.Onereallyexcitingthingaboutuser-ledinnovationisthatcustomersseemwillingtodonatetheircreativityfreelysaysMr.VonHippel.Thismaybebecauseitistheironlypracticaloption:patentsarecostlytogetandoftenprovideonlyweakprotection.Somepeoplemayvaluetheenhancedreputationandnetworkeffectsoffreelyrevealingtheirworkmorethananymoneytheycouldmakebypatentingit.Eitherwaysomefirmsarestartingtobelievethattherereallyissuchathingasafreelunch.Oneofthedrivingforcesbehindtherecentprevalenceofcustomerinnovationis
Text2 Einstein’sconnectionwiththepoliticsofthenuclearbombiswellknown:hesignedthefamouslettertoPresidentFranklinRooseveltthatpersuadedtheUnitedStatestotaketheideaseriouslyandheengagedinpostwareffortstopreventnuclearwar.Butthesewerenotjusttheisolatedactionsofascientistdraggedintotheworldofpolitics.Einstein’slifewasinfacttousehisownwords"dividedbetweenpoliticsandequations." Einstein’searliestpoliticalactivitycameduringtheFirstWorldWarwhenhewasaprofessorinBerlin.Sickenedbywhathesawasthewasteofhumanliveshebecameinvolvedinanti-wardemonstrations.Hisadvocacyofcivildisobedienceandpublicencouragementofpeopletorefuseconscriptiondidlittletoendearhimtohiscolleagues.Thenfollowingthewarhedirectedhiseffortstowardreconciliationandimprovinginternationalrelations.ThistoodidnotmakehimpopularandsoonhispoliticsweremakingitdifficultforhimtovisittheUnitedStateseven’togivelectures. Einstein’ssecondgreatcausewasZionism.AlthoughhewasJewishbydescentEinsteinrejectedthebiblicalideaofGod.Howeveragrowingawarenessofanti-SemitismbothbeforeandduringtheFirstWorldWarledhimgraduallytoidentifywiththeJewishcommunityandlatertobecomeanoutspokensupporterofZionism.Oncemoreunpopularitydidnotstophimfromspeakinghismind.Histheoriescameunderattack;ananti-Einsteinorganizationwasevensetup.OnemanwasconvictedofincitingotherstomurderEinsteinandfinedameresixdollars.ButEinsteinwasphlegmatic:whenabookwaspublishedentitled100AuthorsAgainstEinsteinheretorted"IfIwerewrongthenonewouldhavebeenenough!" In1933Hitlercametopower.EinsteinwasinAmericaanddeclaredhewouldnotreturntoGermany.ThenwhileNazimilitiaraidedhishouseandconfiscatedhisbankaccountaBerlinnewspaperdisplayedtheheadline"GoodNewsfromEinstein--He’sNotComingBack."InthefaceoftheNazithreatEinsteinrenouncedpacifismandeventuallyfearingthatGermanscientistswouldbuildanuclearbombproposedthattheUnitedStatesshoulddevelop’itsown.Butevenbeforethefirstatomicbombhadbeendetonatedhewaspubliclywarningofthedangersofnuclearwarandproposinginternationalcontrolofnuclearweaponry. ThroughouthislifeEinstein’Seffortstowardpeaceprobablyachievedlittlethatwouldlast--andcertainlywonhimfewfriends.HisvocalsupportoftheZionistcausehoweverwasdulyrecognizedin1952whenhewasofferedthepresidencyofIsrael.Hedeclinedsayinghethoughthewastoonaiveinpolitics.Butperhapshisrealreasonwasdifferent:toquotehimagain"Equationsaremoreimportanttomebecausepoliticsisforthepresentbutanequationissomethingforeternity." ledEinsteingraduallytoidentifywiththeJewishcommunity.
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 10
Text4 MychurchrecentlystagedaSensitivitySundaytomakeourcongregationawareoftheproblemsfacedbypeoplewithphysicalhandicaps.Weareaskedto"adoptahandicap"forseveralhoursonSundaymorning.Somememberschosetobeconfinedtowheelchairsothersstuffedcottonintheirearshobbledaroundoncrutchesorworeblindfolds. WheelchairshadneverseemedlikescaryobjectstomebeforeIhadtositinone.AtightknotgrabbedholdinmystomachwhenIfirsttookacloselookatwhatwastobemyonlymeansofgettingaroundforseveralhours.Iwasstuckbytheirrationalthought"onceIaminthiswheelchairthehandicapmightbecomerealandImightneverwalkagain."ThisthoughtasridiculousasitwasfrightenedmesomuchthatIneededalargedoseofcouragejusttositdown. AfterIovercamemyfearofthewheelchairIhadtolearnhowtocopewithit.IwiggledaroundtofindacomfortablepositionandthoughtImightevenenjoybeingpamperedandwheeledaround.Iglancedovermyshouldertoseewhowouldbepushingme.ItwasonlythenthatIrealizedIwouldhavetonavigatethecontraptionallbymyself!MypalmsreddenedandstartedtostingasItuggedattheheavymetalwheels.IcouldnotseemtokeepthechaironanevencourseorpointthewheelsindirectionIwantedtogo.Ikeptbumpingintodoorspewsandotherpeople.Ifeltasthougheveryonewasstaringatmeandcommentingonmyclumsiness. Whentheservicestartedmoreproblemscroppeduptofrustratemeevenfurther.Everytimethecongregationstoodupmyviewwasblocked.Icouldnotseetheministerthechoirorthealtar.Alsoasthechurch’saisleswerenarrowIseemedtobeinthewaynomatterwhereIparkedmyself.Forinstancetheushershadtosteparoundmeinordertopassthecollectionplate.ThisShademefeellikeanuisance.Thankstoanewbuildingprogramourchurchwillsoonhavethewideaislesandwell-spacedpewsthatwillmakelifeeasierforthehandicapped.FinallyifpeoplestoppedtotalktomeIhadtostrainmynecktolookupatthem.Thismademefeellikealittlechildbeingtalkeddowntoandaddedtomysenseofhelplessness. Myfewhoursasadisabledpersonleftadeepimpressiononme.NowInolongerfeelresentmentatlargetaxexpendituresforrampequippedbusesandIwouldn’tdreamofparkingmycarinaspacemarked"HandicappedOnly."Althoughmycloseencounterwithahandicapwasshort-livedIcannowunderstandthechallengesbothphysicalandemotionalthatwheelchair-boundpeoplemustovercome. WhydidthewritersayWheelchairshadneverseemedlikescaryobjectstomebeforeIhadtositinone
LastNovemberengineersinthehealthcaredivisionofGEunveiledsomethingcalledtheLight-SpeedVCTascannerthatcancreateastartlinglygoodthree-dimensionalimageofabeatingheart.ThisspringStaplesanAmericanoffice-suppliesretailerwillstockitsshelveswithagadgetcalledawordlockapadlockthatuseswordsinsteadofnumbers.TheconnectionIneachcasethefirm’scustomershaveplayedabigpartindesigningtheproduct.HowdoesinnovationhappenThefamiliarstoryinvolvesscientistinacademicinstitutesandR&Dlabs.Butlatelycorporatepracticehasbeguntochallengethisold-fashionednotion.Open-sourcesoftwaredevelopmentisalreadywell-known.LesssoisthefactthatBellanAmericanbicycle-helmetmakerhascollectedhundredsofideasfornewproductsfromitscustomersandisputtingseveralofthemintoproduction.Notonlyisthecustomerking:nowheismarket-researchheadR&Dchiefandproduct-developmentmanagertoo.Thisisnotallnew.Researchershavedemonstratedtheimportanceofpastusercontributionstotheevolutionofeverythingfromsportingequipmenttoconstructionmaterialsandscientificinstruments.Buttheriseofonlinecommunitiestogetherwiththedevelopmentofpowerfulandeasy-to-usedesigntoolsseemstobeboostingthephenomenonaswellasbringingittotheattentionofawideraudiencesaysEricVonHippelofMIT.Userinnovationhasalwaysbeenaroundhesays.Thedifferenceisthatpeoplecannolongerdenythatitishappening.HarnessingcustomerinnovationrequiresdifferentmethodssaysMr.VonHippel.Insteadoftakingthetemperatureofarepresentativesampleofcustomersfirmsmustidentifythefewspecialcustomerswhoinnovate.GE’shealthcaredivisioncallsthemluminaries.Theytendtobewell-publisheddoctorsandresearchscientistsfromleadingmedicalinstitutionssaysGEwhichbringsupto25luminariestogetheratregularmedicaladvisoryboardsessionstodiscusstheevolutionofGE’stechnology.GE’sproductsthenemergefromcollaborationwiththesegroups.Attheheartofmostthinkingaboutinnovationisthebeliefthatpeopleexpecttobepaidfortheircreativework:hencetheneedtoprotectandrewardthecreationofintellectualproperty.Onereallyexcitingthingaboutuser-ledinnovationisthatcustomersseemwillingtodonatetheircreativityfreelysaysMr.VonHippel.Thismaybebecauseitistheironlypracticaloption:patentsarecostlytogetandoftenprovideonlyweakprotection.Somepeoplemayvaluetheenhancedreputationandnetworkeffectsoffreelyrevealingtheirworkmorethananymoneytheycouldmakebypatentingit.Eitherwaysomefirmsarestartingtobelievethattherereallyissuchathingasafreelunch.Accordingtotheauthoruser-ledinnovation
Text2 Einstein’sconnectionwiththepoliticsofthenuclearbombiswellknown:hesignedthefamouslettertoPresidentFranklinRooseveltthatpersuadedtheUnitedStatestotaketheideaseriouslyandheengagedinpostwareffortstopreventnuclearwar.Butthesewerenotjusttheisolatedactionsofascientistdraggedintotheworldofpolitics.Einstein’slifewasinfacttousehisownwords"dividedbetweenpoliticsandequations." Einstein’searliestpoliticalactivitycameduringtheFirstWorldWarwhenhewasaprofessorinBerlin.Sickenedbywhathesawasthewasteofhumanliveshebecameinvolvedinanti-wardemonstrations.Hisadvocacyofcivildisobedienceandpublicencouragementofpeopletorefuseconscriptiondidlittletoendearhimtohiscolleagues.Thenfollowingthewarhedirectedhiseffortstowardreconciliationandimprovinginternationalrelations.ThistoodidnotmakehimpopularandsoonhispoliticsweremakingitdifficultforhimtovisittheUnitedStateseven’togivelectures. Einstein’ssecondgreatcausewasZionism.AlthoughhewasJewishbydescentEinsteinrejectedthebiblicalideaofGod.Howeveragrowingawarenessofanti-SemitismbothbeforeandduringtheFirstWorldWarledhimgraduallytoidentifywiththeJewishcommunityandlatertobecomeanoutspokensupporterofZionism.Oncemoreunpopularitydidnotstophimfromspeakinghismind.Histheoriescameunderattack;ananti-Einsteinorganizationwasevensetup.OnemanwasconvictedofincitingotherstomurderEinsteinandfinedameresixdollars.ButEinsteinwasphlegmatic:whenabookwaspublishedentitled100AuthorsAgainstEinsteinheretorted"IfIwerewrongthenonewouldhavebeenenough!" In1933Hitlercametopower.EinsteinwasinAmericaanddeclaredhewouldnotreturntoGermany.ThenwhileNazimilitiaraidedhishouseandconfiscatedhisbankaccountaBerlinnewspaperdisplayedtheheadline"GoodNewsfromEinstein--He’sNotComingBack."InthefaceoftheNazithreatEinsteinrenouncedpacifismandeventuallyfearingthatGermanscientistswouldbuildanuclearbombproposedthattheUnitedStatesshoulddevelop’itsown.Butevenbeforethefirstatomicbombhadbeendetonatedhewaspubliclywarningofthedangersofnuclearwarandproposinginternationalcontrolofnuclearweaponry. ThroughouthislifeEinstein’Seffortstowardpeaceprobablyachievedlittlethatwouldlast--andcertainlywonhimfewfriends.HisvocalsupportoftheZionistcausehoweverwasdulyrecognizedin1952whenhewasofferedthepresidencyofIsrael.Hedeclinedsayinghethoughthewastoonaiveinpolitics.Butperhapshisrealreasonwasdifferent:toquotehimagain"Equationsaremoreimportanttomebecausepoliticsisforthepresentbutanequationissomethingforeternity." WhichofthefollowingisnotlistedasoneofEinstein'sactivities
Text3 Paintingyourhouseislikeaddingsomethingtoahugecommunalpictureinwhichtherestofthepaintingisdoneeitherbynatureorbyotherpeople.Thepictureisnotstatic;itchangesaswemoveaboutwiththetimeofdaywiththeseasonswithnewpaintingnewbuildingsandwithalterationstooldones.Anyindividualhouseisjustafragmentofthispictureneverthelessithasthepowertomakeormarktheoverallscene.Inthepastpeopleusedtheircreativetalentsinpaintingtheirhomeswithgreatimaginationandinvariedbutalwayssubtlyblendingcolors.ThelastvestigesofthisgreattraditioncanstillbeseeninthetownsoftheextremewestofIreland.Ithasneverbeenrecognizedasanartformpartlybecauseofthephysicaldifficultyofhangingastreetinagalleryandpartlybecauseit’salwayschangingaspaintfadesandisrenewed.Alsoitisacommunalartwhichcannotbeidentifiedwithanyonepersonexceptinthosemanycaseswheregreatartistsofthepastfoundinspirationinordinarystreetscenesandrecordedtheminpaint. Followingtheprinciplesofdecorationthatweresosuccessfulinthepastyoushouldfirsttakealonglookatthehouseanditssurroundingsandconsiderpossiblelimitations~ThefirstconcernstheamountofcolorandintensityinthedaylightinBritain.ColorsthatlookperfectlyinkeepingwiththesunnyclearskiesoftheMediterraneanwouldlooktooharshinthegrayerlightofthenorth.Sincebrightlightisuncomfortable-fortheeyescolorsmustbestronginordertobeseenclearly.Viewedinadimmerlighttheyappeartoobright.Itiseasytoseethisifyoulookatabrickhousewhilethesunisalternatelyshiningandthengoingbehindacloud.Thebrickworkcolorslookmuchmoreintensewhenthesunishidden. Thesecondlimitationisthecolorsofthesurroundings:thecolorswhichgobestwithCotswoldstoneandarollinggreencountrysidewillbedifferentfromthosethatlookbestbytheseaorinared-brick/blue-slateindustrialtown.Ineveryareatherearealwayscolorsthatatoncelookinkeeping. Inmanyareastherearedistinctivetraditionsintheuseofcolorthatmaybeausefulguide.TheeasterncountiesofEnglandandScotlandparticularlythosewithalocaltraditionofrenderingorplasteringusecolorsappliedsolidlyoverthewall.Usuallyonlythewindowframesanddoorsarepickedoutinanothercoloroftenwhiteorpalegray.TypicalwallcolorsarethepinkassociatedwithSuffolkandpalebuffsandyellowsofFife.Muchstrongercolorssuchasdeepearthredorangeblueandgreenarealsocommon.InthecoastalvillagesofEssexaswellasinlandinHertfordshirethehouse-frontsofoverlappingboardsaretraditionallypaintedblack--originallytarredlikeships--withwindowsanddoorsoutlinedinwhite.InstoneareasofYorkshireandfarthernorthcolorisrarer:thehousesareusuallyleftintheirnaturalcolorthoughmanyarepaintedwhiteastheyprobablyallwereonce. Thereasonthepaintingofthehousehasnotbeenlookedonasanartformseemstobe
Naturalismistheviewthatthenaturaluniversetheuniverseofmatterandenergyisallthattherereallyis.ByrulingoutaspiritualpartofthehumanpersonwhichmightsurvivedeathandaGodwhomightresurrectthebodynaturalismalsorulesoutsurvivalafterdeath.Inadditionnaturalismdenieshumanfreedomonthegroundsthateveryeventmustbeexplainablebydeterministicnaturallaws.Itdeniesanyabsolutevaluesbecauseitcanfindnogroundsforsuchvaluesinaworldmadeuponlyofmatterandenergy.AndfinallynaturalismdeniesthattheuniversehasanymeaningorpurposebecausethereisnoGodtogiveitameaningorpurposeandnothingelsewhichcangiveitameaningorpurpose.AnyonewhoacceptsthefirstthreedenialsofGodspiritualbeingsandimmortalitymightbecalledanaturalistinthebroadsenseandanyonewhoaddstothesethedenialoffreedomvaluesandpurposemightbelabeledanaturalistinthestrictsenseorastrictnaturalist.Someopponentsofnaturalismwouldarguethatnaturalistsinthebroadsenseareatleastsomewhatinconsistentandthatnaturalisminthebroadsenseleadslogicallytostrictnaturalism.Manystrictnaturalistswouldagreewiththis.Thosewhorejectnaturalisminboththestrictandbroadsensedosoforavarietyofmasons.Theymayhavepositiveargumentsfortheexistenceof.someofwhatnaturalistsdenyortheymayhavewhatseemtobedecisiverefutationsofsomeoralloftheargumentsfornaturalism.Butinadditiontoparticularargumentsagainstnaturalisttenetsortheirgroundsofbeliefsomeopponentsofnaturalismbelievethatthereisageneralargumentwhichholdsagainstanyformofnaturalism.Theseopponentsholdthatnaturalismhasafatalflawortoputitmorestronglythatnaturalismisself-destroying.Ifnaturalismistruethenhumanreasonmustbetheresultofnaturalforces.Thesenaturalforcesarenotonthenaturalisticviewrationalthemselvesnorcantheybetheresultofarationalcause.Sohumanreasonwouldbetheresultofnonrationalcauses.Thisitcanbearguedgivesusastrongreasontodistrusthumanreachespeciallyinitslesspracticalandmoretheoreticalexercises.Butthetheoryofnaturalismisitselfsuchanexerciseoftheoreticalreason.Ifnaturalismistruewewouldhavestrongreasonstodistrusttheoreticalreasoning.Ifwedistrusttheoreticalreasoningwedistrustparticularapplicationsofitsuchasthetheoryofnaturalism.Thusifnaturalismistruewehavestrongreasonstodistrustnaturalism.Naturalismbelievesthat
Text4 MychurchrecentlystagedaSensitivitySundaytomakeourcongregationawareoftheproblemsfacedbypeoplewithphysicalhandicaps.Weareaskedto"adoptahandicap"forseveralhoursonSundaymorning.Somememberschosetobeconfinedtowheelchairsothersstuffedcottonintheirearshobbledaroundoncrutchesorworeblindfolds. WheelchairshadneverseemedlikescaryobjectstomebeforeIhadtositinone.AtightknotgrabbedholdinmystomachwhenIfirsttookacloselookatwhatwastobemyonlymeansofgettingaroundforseveralhours.Iwasstuckbytheirrationalthought"onceIaminthiswheelchairthehandicapmightbecomerealandImightneverwalkagain."ThisthoughtasridiculousasitwasfrightenedmesomuchthatIneededalargedoseofcouragejusttositdown. AfterIovercamemyfearofthewheelchairIhadtolearnhowtocopewithit.IwiggledaroundtofindacomfortablepositionandthoughtImightevenenjoybeingpamperedandwheeledaround.Iglancedovermyshouldertoseewhowouldbepushingme.ItwasonlythenthatIrealizedIwouldhavetonavigatethecontraptionallbymyself!MypalmsreddenedandstartedtostingasItuggedattheheavymetalwheels.IcouldnotseemtokeepthechaironanevencourseorpointthewheelsindirectionIwantedtogo.Ikeptbumpingintodoorspewsandotherpeople.Ifeltasthougheveryonewasstaringatmeandcommentingonmyclumsiness. Whentheservicestartedmoreproblemscroppeduptofrustratemeevenfurther.Everytimethecongregationstoodupmyviewwasblocked.Icouldnotseetheministerthechoirorthealtar.Alsoasthechurch’saisleswerenarrowIseemedtobeinthewaynomatterwhereIparkedmyself.Forinstancetheushershadtosteparoundmeinordertopassthecollectionplate.ThisShademefeellikeanuisance.Thankstoanewbuildingprogramourchurchwillsoonhavethewideaislesandwell-spacedpewsthatwillmakelifeeasierforthehandicapped.FinallyifpeoplestoppedtotalktomeIhadtostrainmynecktolookupatthem.Thismademefeellikealittlechildbeingtalkeddowntoandaddedtomysenseofhelplessness. Myfewhoursasadisabledpersonleftadeepimpressiononme.NowInolongerfeelresentmentatlargetaxexpendituresforrampequippedbusesandIwouldn’tdreamofparkingmycarinaspacemarked"HandicappedOnly."Althoughmycloseencounterwithahandicapwasshort-livedIcannowunderstandthechallengesbothphysicalandemotionalthatwheelchair-boundpeoplemustovercome. Whichofthefollowingisclosestinmeaningtothewordclumsiness
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 14
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 8
46TheprospectofcloninghumanshascomeastepcloserasdoctorshavesuccessfullyreplicatedinhumaneggstechniquesusedtocreateDollytheclonedsheep. 47ThebreakthroughbyateamfromtheNewYorkUniversityMedicalCentermeansthatnearlyallthescientificworknecessarytocreategeneticallyidenticalcopiesofhumansiscomplete.Onlymoralandlegalquestionsnowpreventscientistsfromcreatingclones. DrRobertFormanoftheCenterforReproductiveMedicineinLondonsaidhumancloningwas"acoupleofscientifictweaks"awayandcouldsoontakeplaceinalesstightlyregulatedcountryoutsideEuropeortheUnitedStates. 48CampaignersopposedtoembryoresearchsaidtheyareappalledatthepaceofworkthatthreatenedtocreateclonedbabiesbeforetheendofthecenturypossiblyinatechnologicallyambitiouscountrysuchasChina.Doctorscouldthenoffertheirservicestowesternersseekingtoclonethemselvesorrelatives. TheNewYorkteamledbyDrJamesGrifoistryingtoimprovethechancesofolderwomenhavingtheirownbabies.Themajorityofwomenagedover40sufferchromosomedamageintheireggswhilethenucleusoftheeggisripening.Thisisduetoweaknessesinthecytoplasmicjellywhichnourishesthenucleusbeforeitisfertilizedbysperm. 49GrifousingthenucleustransfersystemdevelopedbyscientistsworkingonDollyhastransferredchromosomesfromanolderwomanintoayoungerwoman’sdiscardedeggwhichhadhaditschromosomesremoved.LastweekGrifowasreportedassayingthatunderAmericanandBritishlawhecouldnotmakethenextlogicalmovewithouttaking"unethical"steps--suchasexperimentingonaneggintendedforfertilization. ThenextmovesaidGrifowouldbetofertilizetheeggwithspermandturnitintoanembryo.50AlternativelyhecouldfusethenucleuswithothergeneticmaterialfromthemothersuchasapatchofskintocompletetheDNAbuildingblueprintandtransferitintoaneggchemicallyprimedtogrowasifithadbeenfertilized--astookplacewithDolly’smother.TheresultwouldbeAmerica’sfirsthumanclone. AgnetaSuttonoftheanti-cloningpressuregroupCOREsuspectsthefirsthumanclonehasalreadybeenborninaprivatelaboratory:"Responsibledoctorsmayhavemoralqualmsbutthescienceissoadvancedthatnolawappearsstrongenoughtostopit.TheBoysfromBrazilandallthoseothernightmaresceneriesconcerningclonedHiltersandothermonstersareabouttocometrue." 50AlternativelyhecouldfusethenucleuswithothergeneticmaterialfromthemothersuchasapatchofskintocompletetheDNAbuildingblueprintandtransferitintoaneggchemicallyprimedtogrowasifithadbeenfertilized--astookplacewithDolly’smother.
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoft-waredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelmomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoft-wareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.Itletsyouup-gradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindof*’assurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.WhichofthefollowingseemstobetheoverallattitudeofMicrosofttowardsubscriptionplan
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 16
Illiteracymaybeconsideredmoreasanabstractconceptthanacondition.WhenafamousEnglishwriterusedthe1overtwohundredyearsagohewasactually2topeoplewhocould3readGreekorLatin.4itseemsunlikelythatuniversityexaminershadthissortof5inmindwhentheyreportedon"creepingilliteracy"inareportontheirstudents’finalexaminationin1988.6theyearsuniversitylecturershavebeen7ofanincreasingtendencytowardsgrammaticalsloppinesspoorspellingandgeneralimprecision8theirstudents’waysofwriting;andsloppywritingisall9oftenareflectionofsloppythinking.Their10wasthattheyhad11todoteachingtheirownsubject12teachingtheirundergraduatestowrite.Somelecturersbelievethattheyhavean13tostresstheimportanceofmaintainingstandardsofclearthinking14thewrittenwordinaworlddominatedby15communicationsandimages.They16ontheconnectionbetweenclearthinkingandaformofwritingthatisnotonlyclearbutalsosensitiveto17ofmeaning.Thesamelecturersarguethatundergraduatesappeartobethevictimsofa"softeningprocess"thatbegins18theteachingofEnglishinschoolsbutthispointofviewhasnot19causedagreatdealof20. 12
Text4 MychurchrecentlystagedaSensitivitySundaytomakeourcongregationawareoftheproblemsfacedbypeoplewithphysicalhandicaps.Weareaskedto"adoptahandicap"forseveralhoursonSundaymorning.Somememberschosetobeconfinedtowheelchairsothersstuffedcottonintheirearshobbledaroundoncrutchesorworeblindfolds. WheelchairshadneverseemedlikescaryobjectstomebeforeIhadtositinone.AtightknotgrabbedholdinmystomachwhenIfirsttookacloselookatwhatwastobemyonlymeansofgettingaroundforseveralhours.Iwasstuckbytheirrationalthought"onceIaminthiswheelchairthehandicapmightbecomerealandImightneverwalkagain."ThisthoughtasridiculousasitwasfrightenedmesomuchthatIneededalargedoseofcouragejusttositdown. AfterIovercamemyfearofthewheelchairIhadtolearnhowtocopewithit.IwiggledaroundtofindacomfortablepositionandthoughtImightevenenjoybeingpamperedandwheeledaround.Iglancedovermyshouldertoseewhowouldbepushingme.ItwasonlythenthatIrealizedIwouldhavetonavigatethecontraptionallbymyself!MypalmsreddenedandstartedtostingasItuggedattheheavymetalwheels.IcouldnotseemtokeepthechaironanevencourseorpointthewheelsindirectionIwantedtogo.Ikeptbumpingintodoorspewsandotherpeople.Ifeltasthougheveryonewasstaringatmeandcommentingonmyclumsiness. Whentheservicestartedmoreproblemscroppeduptofrustratemeevenfurther.Everytimethecongregationstoodupmyviewwasblocked.Icouldnotseetheministerthechoirorthealtar.Alsoasthechurch’saisleswerenarrowIseemedtobeinthewaynomatterwhereIparkedmyself.Forinstancetheushershadtosteparoundmeinordertopassthecollectionplate.ThisShademefeellikeanuisance.Thankstoanewbuildingprogramourchurchwillsoonhavethewideaislesandwell-spacedpewsthatwillmakelifeeasierforthehandicapped.FinallyifpeoplestoppedtotalktomeIhadtostrainmynecktolookupatthem.Thismademefeellikealittlechildbeingtalkeddowntoandaddedtomysenseofhelplessness. Myfewhoursasadisabledpersonleftadeepimpressiononme.NowInolongerfeelresentmentatlargetaxexpendituresforrampequippedbusesandIwouldn’tdreamofparkingmycarinaspacemarked"HandicappedOnly."Althoughmycloseencounterwithahandicapwasshort-livedIcannowunderstandthechallengesbothphysicalandemotionalthatwheelchair-boundpeoplemustovercome. Thewriterlistedproblemsthatfrustratedhimduringtheservice.
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