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MemoryClass StanFieldknowswhatagecandotoaperson’’smemoryandhe’’snottakinganychanceswithhis.Hechooseshisfoodcarefullyandgetsplentyofexercise.Healsoavoidsstresscocacolaandcigarettesmoke. What’’smoreatbreakfasteachmorningthe69-year-oldchemicalengineerswallowsaplatefulofpillsinthehopeofboostinghisbrainpower. MichelleAmoveislessthanhalfField’’sagebutnolessconcernedabouthermemory.Whileworkingroundtheclocktofinishadegreeinfilmstudiesthe33-year-oldNewYorkerhadthealarmingsensationthatshehadstoppedretaininganything.Icouldn’’tevenremembernamesshesays.IthoughtOhnoI’’mover30.It’’salldownhillfromhere.BesidesloadinguponsupplementsAmovesignedupforamemoryenhancingcourseatNewYork’’sMountSianiMedicalCenter.Andwhenshegotthereshefoundherselfsurroundedbypeoplewhowerejustasworriedasshewas. FormillionsofAmericansandespeciallyforbabyboomers生育高峰出生的人thedemandsoftheInformationAgeconflictwithasenseofdecliningphysicalpower.Whenboomerswereintheir30sand40stheylaunchedthefitnessboomsaysCynthiaGreenthepsychologistwhoteachesMountSinai’’smemoryclass.Nowwehavethemental-fitnessboomMemoryistheboomers’’newlife-crisisissue.Andofcourseamajormarketingopportunity.ThedemandforbooksandseminarshasneverbeengreatersaysJackLannomalongtimememorytrainerwhoseweeklyTVshowMindUnlimitedgoesoutto33millionhomesontheChristianNetwork.Anxiousconsumersarerushingtobuydo-it-yourselfprogramsandsupplementmakersaretryingtoselleverythingbutsawdust木屑asabrainbooster. Butbeforeyougetoutyourcheckbookafewquestionsareinorder.Doeseverydayforgetfulnesssignaldecliningbrainfunction?Ismegamemory超级记忆arealisticgoalfornormalpeople?Andifyoucouldhaveaperfectmemorywouldyoureallywantit?Untilrecentlynoonecouldaddressthoseissueswithmuchauthoritybutourknowledgeofmemoryisexploding.Newtechniquesarerevealinghowdifferentpartsofthebraininteracttopreservemeaningfulexperiences.Biologistsaretryingtounderstandtheunderlying潜在的chemicalprocessesandneuroscientists神经系统科学家arediscoveringhowagestressandotherfactorscandisruptthem.Nooneisclosetofindingthesecrettoperfectrecallbutasyou’’llseethatmaybejustaswell. Accordingtothewriterthesecrettoperfectmemory______.
Astudentstickingcloselytothedisciplinesoftheschoolisoftenpraisedbythemasterandteachers.
Yourfatherisfuriousaboutthedamageyouhavedonetotheflowerbeds.
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
Language Whenmostofusthinkaboutlanguagewethinkfirstaboutwords.Thusthehardestpartoflearningaforeignlanguagemayseemtobememorizing【51】vocabulary;whenweobserveachildfirstacquiringspeechwetalkofhisprogress【52】amatteroflearningnewwords.Wearealso【53】tofeelthattheadultspeakerwiththelargestvocabularyhasthebest【54】ofEnglish.Tothink【55】alanguageasjustastockofwordsis【56】quitewrong.Wordsalonedonot【57】alanguage;agrammaris【58】tocombinetheminsomeintelligibleway.Moreoverwordsarerelativelyeasytolearnandindeedallofusgo【59】learningthemallour【60】.Theyarealsothe【61】stablepartoflanguage.Wordscomeinto【62】changetheirpronunciationsandmeaningsanddisappearcompletelyallwithcomparativeease.Yetitistruethatthe【63】isfocusoflanguage.Itisinwords【64】soundsandmeaningsinterlocktoallowusto【65】withoneanotheranditiswordsthatwearrangetogethertomakesentencesconversationsanddiscourseofallkinds.Thuswehaveaparadoxinthatthemostshort-livedpartoflanguageisalsothecentrewheremeaningpronunciationandgrammarcometogether.
Hetookustoanautomobileshowyesterdayafternoon.
FluShotsOrNot? ItsoundedlikeagoodideawhenNewYorkCity’’smayorRudollphGiulianiadvisedNewYorkersrecentlytogetaflushot.Afterall20000Americanseachyeardieofinfluenza.Andthisyearinparticularthemayorsuggestedgettingaflushotmightbeanespeciallygoodideasinceitcouldhelpdoctorsdistinguishbetweenfluandthedeadlyinhalational吸入的formofanthrax炭疽.How?Bothanthraxandfluexhibitstrikinglysimilarsymptoms—feverchillsandmuscleaches—intheearlydaysoftheinfection.Physicianswouldbequicktosuspectanthraxinanyonewhowasvaccinated接种疫苗againstfluandstilldevelopedfeverandchills.Thatwouldgivethemabetterchancetoidentifyanynewvictimsofterrorwhiletheirinfectionwasstillinitsearliestmosttreatablestages. Orsothemayor’’sreasoningwent.Unfortunatelythereareacoupleofproblemswithhislogic.Foronethinggettingvaccinatedagainstinfluenzadoesn’tguaranteeyouwontgetsick.Althoughhighlyeffectivethefluvaccine疫苗protectsagainstonlythedominanttypesofthediseaseandeventhendoesnotprovide100%protection.Ittakesacoupleofweeksforyourbodytorespondtothevaccinewithasufficientnumberofantibodies抗体.EachyearthousandsofAmericanswhogetthevaccineneverthelessstillgettheflu. Therearealsoplentyofreasonsyoumightdevelopfeverchillsandmuscleachesthathavenothingtodowitheitheranthraxorflu.Indeeddoctorsestimatethatmorethan80%ofallflulikeillnesseseachwinterarecausedbyothergroupsofviruses.Gettingvaccinatedagainstflucantprotectyouagainstsufferingfromtheseotherillnesses. Intheworstcaseaskingallhealthyadultstogetvaccinatedcouldactuallyhavetheoppositeeffecttotheoneintendedleadingtoevenmoredeathsifitmeanswerunoutofshotsforthosewhoaremostvulnerabletotheinfection.Alreadytherehavebeendelaysingettingthisyear’’sshipmentofvaccinetoclinicsanddoctors’’offices.Thosewhoshouldbeatthefrontofthelineincludefolkswhoare65oroldernursing-homeresidentsandadultsandchildrenwithchronichealthproblemsaswellasanyonewhocaresfororliveswithsuchpeople.FlushotsarealsoimportantformenandwomenwhoseimmunesystemisweakenedbyHIV艾滋病病毒orotherconditions. Thebestreasontogetthefluvaccineisthatitprotectsagainstmostflus—notthatyou’’reworriedaboutgettinganthrax.Whileinhalationalanthraxhaskilledonlyfivepeoplesofarmanymorecouldbeatriskfromflu-relatedcomplications.There’’snoneedtoworsenthetragedybymakingthisyear’’sinfluenzaepidemicanyworse. Noneofthefivepeoplekilledbyinhalationalanthraxhadbeenvaccinatedagainstinfluenza.
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
FluShotsOrNot? ItsoundedlikeagoodideawhenNewYorkCity’’smayorRudollphGiulianiadvisedNewYorkersrecentlytogetaflushot.Afterall20000Americanseachyeardieofinfluenza.Andthisyearinparticularthemayorsuggestedgettingaflushotmightbeanespeciallygoodideasinceitcouldhelpdoctorsdistinguishbetweenfluandthedeadlyinhalational吸入的formofanthrax炭疽.How?Bothanthraxandfluexhibitstrikinglysimilarsymptoms—feverchillsandmuscleaches—intheearlydaysoftheinfection.Physicianswouldbequicktosuspectanthraxinanyonewhowasvaccinated接种疫苗againstfluandstilldevelopedfeverandchills.Thatwouldgivethemabetterchancetoidentifyanynewvictimsofterrorwhiletheirinfectionwasstillinitsearliestmosttreatablestages. Orsothemayor’’sreasoningwent.Unfortunatelythereareacoupleofproblemswithhislogic.Foronethinggettingvaccinatedagainstinfluenzadoesn’tguaranteeyouwontgetsick.Althoughhighlyeffectivethefluvaccine疫苗protectsagainstonlythedominanttypesofthediseaseandeventhendoesnotprovide100%protection.Ittakesacoupleofweeksforyourbodytorespondtothevaccinewithasufficientnumberofantibodies抗体.EachyearthousandsofAmericanswhogetthevaccineneverthelessstillgettheflu. Therearealsoplentyofreasonsyoumightdevelopfeverchillsandmuscleachesthathavenothingtodowitheitheranthraxorflu.Indeeddoctorsestimatethatmorethan80%ofallflulikeillnesseseachwinterarecausedbyothergroupsofviruses.Gettingvaccinatedagainstflucantprotectyouagainstsufferingfromtheseotherillnesses. Intheworstcaseaskingallhealthyadultstogetvaccinatedcouldactuallyhavetheoppositeeffecttotheoneintendedleadingtoevenmoredeathsifitmeanswerunoutofshotsforthosewhoaremostvulnerabletotheinfection.Alreadytherehavebeendelaysingettingthisyear’’sshipmentofvaccinetoclinicsanddoctors’’offices.Thosewhoshouldbeatthefrontofthelineincludefolkswhoare65oroldernursing-homeresidentsandadultsandchildrenwithchronichealthproblemsaswellasanyonewhocaresfororliveswithsuchpeople.FlushotsarealsoimportantformenandwomenwhoseimmunesystemisweakenedbyHIV艾滋病病毒orotherconditions. Thebestreasontogetthefluvaccineisthatitprotectsagainstmostflus—notthatyou’’reworriedaboutgettinganthrax.Whileinhalationalanthraxhaskilledonlyfivepeoplesofarmanymorecouldbeatriskfromflu-relatedcomplications.There’’snoneedtoworsenthetragedybymakingthisyear’’sinfluenzaepidemicanyworse. Thosewhogetthefluvaccinearesurelyprotectedfromthedisease.
ProfessorClarkcontinuedhisresearchworkanddisregardedhiscolleague’’sadvice.
FluShotsOrNot? ItsoundedlikeagoodideawhenNewYorkCity’’smayorRudollphGiulianiadvisedNewYorkersrecentlytogetaflushot.Afterall20000Americanseachyeardieofinfluenza.Andthisyearinparticularthemayorsuggestedgettingaflushotmightbeanespeciallygoodideasinceitcouldhelpdoctorsdistinguishbetweenfluandthedeadlyinhalational吸入的formofanthrax炭疽.How?Bothanthraxandfluexhibitstrikinglysimilarsymptoms—feverchillsandmuscleaches—intheearlydaysoftheinfection.Physicianswouldbequicktosuspectanthraxinanyonewhowasvaccinated接种疫苗againstfluandstilldevelopedfeverandchills.Thatwouldgivethemabetterchancetoidentifyanynewvictimsofterrorwhiletheirinfectionwasstillinitsearliestmosttreatablestages. Orsothemayor’’sreasoningwent.Unfortunatelythereareacoupleofproblemswithhislogic.Foronethinggettingvaccinatedagainstinfluenzadoesn’tguaranteeyouwontgetsick.Althoughhighlyeffectivethefluvaccine疫苗protectsagainstonlythedominanttypesofthediseaseandeventhendoesnotprovide100%protection.Ittakesacoupleofweeksforyourbodytorespondtothevaccinewithasufficientnumberofantibodies抗体.EachyearthousandsofAmericanswhogetthevaccineneverthelessstillgettheflu. Therearealsoplentyofreasonsyoumightdevelopfeverchillsandmuscleachesthathavenothingtodowitheitheranthraxorflu.Indeeddoctorsestimatethatmorethan80%ofallflulikeillnesseseachwinterarecausedbyothergroupsofviruses.Gettingvaccinatedagainstflucantprotectyouagainstsufferingfromtheseotherillnesses. Intheworstcaseaskingallhealthyadultstogetvaccinatedcouldactuallyhavetheoppositeeffecttotheoneintendedleadingtoevenmoredeathsifitmeanswerunoutofshotsforthosewhoaremostvulnerabletotheinfection.Alreadytherehavebeendelaysingettingthisyear’’sshipmentofvaccinetoclinicsanddoctors’’offices.Thosewhoshouldbeatthefrontofthelineincludefolkswhoare65oroldernursing-homeresidentsandadultsandchildrenwithchronichealthproblemsaswellasanyonewhocaresfororliveswithsuchpeople.FlushotsarealsoimportantformenandwomenwhoseimmunesystemisweakenedbyHIV艾滋病病毒orotherconditions. Thebestreasontogetthefluvaccineisthatitprotectsagainstmostflus—notthatyou’’reworriedaboutgettinganthrax.Whileinhalationalanthraxhaskilledonlyfivepeoplesofarmanymorecouldbeatriskfromflu-relatedcomplications.There’’snoneedtoworsenthetragedybymakingthisyear’’sinfluenzaepidemicanyworse. QuiteafewNewYorkerstooktheirmayor’srecentadviceandgotaflushot.
Language Whenmostofusthinkaboutlanguagewethinkfirstaboutwords.Thusthehardestpartoflearningaforeignlanguagemayseemtobememorizing【51】vocabulary;whenweobserveachildfirstacquiringspeechwetalkofhisprogress【52】amatteroflearningnewwords.Wearealso【53】tofeelthattheadultspeakerwiththelargestvocabularyhasthebest【54】ofEnglish.Tothink【55】alanguageasjustastockofwordsis【56】quitewrong.Wordsalonedonot【57】alanguage;agrammaris【58】tocombinetheminsomeintelligibleway.Moreoverwordsarerelativelyeasytolearnandindeedallofusgo【59】learningthemallour【60】.Theyarealsothe【61】stablepartoflanguage.Wordscomeinto【62】changetheirpronunciationsandmeaningsanddisappearcompletelyallwithcomparativeease.Yetitistruethatthe【63】isfocusoflanguage.Itisinwords【64】soundsandmeaningsinterlocktoallowusto【65】withoneanotheranditiswordsthatwearrangetogethertomakesentencesconversationsanddiscourseofallkinds.Thuswehaveaparadoxinthatthemostshort-livedpartoflanguageisalsothecentrewheremeaningpronunciationandgrammarcometogether.
WeweresogreatlyattractedbythebeautyoftheWestLakethatwedecidedtovisitHangzhouagainthenextyear.
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
FluShotsOrNot? ItsoundedlikeagoodideawhenNewYorkCity’’smayorRudollphGiulianiadvisedNewYorkersrecentlytogetaflushot.Afterall20000Americanseachyeardieofinfluenza.Andthisyearinparticularthemayorsuggestedgettingaflushotmightbeanespeciallygoodideasinceitcouldhelpdoctorsdistinguishbetweenfluandthedeadlyinhalational吸入的formofanthrax炭疽.How?Bothanthraxandfluexhibitstrikinglysimilarsymptoms—feverchillsandmuscleaches—intheearlydaysoftheinfection.Physicianswouldbequicktosuspectanthraxinanyonewhowasvaccinated接种疫苗againstfluandstilldevelopedfeverandchills.Thatwouldgivethemabetterchancetoidentifyanynewvictimsofterrorwhiletheirinfectionwasstillinitsearliestmosttreatablestages. Orsothemayor’’sreasoningwent.Unfortunatelythereareacoupleofproblemswithhislogic.Foronethinggettingvaccinatedagainstinfluenzadoesn’tguaranteeyouwontgetsick.Althoughhighlyeffectivethefluvaccine疫苗protectsagainstonlythedominanttypesofthediseaseandeventhendoesnotprovide100%protection.Ittakesacoupleofweeksforyourbodytorespondtothevaccinewithasufficientnumberofantibodies抗体.EachyearthousandsofAmericanswhogetthevaccineneverthelessstillgettheflu. Therearealsoplentyofreasonsyoumightdevelopfeverchillsandmuscleachesthathavenothingtodowitheitheranthraxorflu.Indeeddoctorsestimatethatmorethan80%ofallflulikeillnesseseachwinterarecausedbyothergroupsofviruses.Gettingvaccinatedagainstflucantprotectyouagainstsufferingfromtheseotherillnesses. Intheworstcaseaskingallhealthyadultstogetvaccinatedcouldactuallyhavetheoppositeeffecttotheoneintendedleadingtoevenmoredeathsifitmeanswerunoutofshotsforthosewhoaremostvulnerabletotheinfection.Alreadytherehavebeendelaysingettingthisyear’’sshipmentofvaccinetoclinicsanddoctors’’offices.Thosewhoshouldbeatthefrontofthelineincludefolkswhoare65oroldernursing-homeresidentsandadultsandchildrenwithchronichealthproblemsaswellasanyonewhocaresfororliveswithsuchpeople.FlushotsarealsoimportantformenandwomenwhoseimmunesystemisweakenedbyHIV艾滋病病毒orotherconditions. Thebestreasontogetthefluvaccineisthatitprotectsagainstmostflus—notthatyou’’reworriedaboutgettinganthrax.Whileinhalationalanthraxhaskilledonlyfivepeoplesofarmanymorecouldbeatriskfromflu-relatedcomplications.There’’snoneedtoworsenthetragedybymakingthisyear’’sinfluenzaepidemicanyworse. Askingallhealthyadultstogetaflushotmayresultinashortageoftheflushotsforthosewhoaremostvulnerabletotheinfection.
CigarsInstead? Smokingoneortwocigarsadaydoublestheriskofcancersoftheliptonguemouthandthroataccordingtoagovernmentstudy. DailycigarsalsoincreasetheriskoflungcancerandcanceroftheesophagusandincreasetheriskofcancerofthelarynxvoiceboxsixfoldsayresearchersattheNationalCancerInstituteinBethesdaMaryland. Inadditionthereportrevealedthatsmokingthreeorfourcigarsadayincreasedtheriskoforalcancerto8.5timestheriskfornonsmokersandtheriskofesophagealcancerbyfourtimestheriskofnonsmokers. ThehealtheffectsofsmokingcigarsisoneofeightsectionsofthearticleCigars:HealthEffectsandTrends.Theresearchersreportthatcomparedwithacigarettealargecigaremitsupto90timesasmuchcarcinogenictobacco-specificnitrosamines ThisarticleprovidesclearandinvaluableinformationaboutthedisturbingincreaseincigaruseandthesignificantpublichealthconsequencesforthecountrysaidDr.RichardKlausnerdirectoroftheNationalCancerInstituteinastatement. Thedataareclear-theharmfulsubstancesandcarcinogensincigarsmokelikecigarettesareassociatedwiththeincreasedrisksofseveralkindsofcancersaswellasheartandlungdiseasesheadded.Inotherwordscigarsarenotsafealternativestocigarettesandmaybeaddictive. Tothoseindividualswhomaybethinkingaboutsmokingcigarsouradvicesis—don’’t.TothosecurrentlysmokingcigarsquittingistheonlywaytoeliminatecompletelythecancerheartandlungdiseaseriskswarnedKlausner. AccordingtoaNationalCancerInstitutepressreleasetherehaven’’tbeenanystudiesonthehealtheffectsonnonsmokersatcigarsocialeventsbut...asignificantbodyofevidenceclearlydemonstratesanincreasedlungcancerriskfromsecondhandsmoke. Whatisthedoctors’advicetothosecigar-smokers?
Language Whenmostofusthinkaboutlanguagewethinkfirstaboutwords.Thusthehardestpartoflearningaforeignlanguagemayseemtobememorizing【51】vocabulary;whenweobserveachildfirstacquiringspeechwetalkofhisprogress【52】amatteroflearningnewwords.Wearealso【53】tofeelthattheadultspeakerwiththelargestvocabularyhasthebest【54】ofEnglish.Tothink【55】alanguageasjustastockofwordsis【56】quitewrong.Wordsalonedonot【57】alanguage;agrammaris【58】tocombinetheminsomeintelligibleway.Moreoverwordsarerelativelyeasytolearnandindeedallofusgo【59】learningthemallour【60】.Theyarealsothe【61】stablepartoflanguage.Wordscomeinto【62】changetheirpronunciationsandmeaningsanddisappearcompletelyallwithcomparativeease.Yetitistruethatthe【63】isfocusoflanguage.Itisinwords【64】soundsandmeaningsinterlocktoallowusto【65】withoneanotheranditiswordsthatwearrangetogethertomakesentencesconversationsanddiscourseofallkinds.Thuswehaveaparadoxinthatthemostshort-livedpartoflanguageisalsothecentrewheremeaningpronunciationandgrammarcometogether.
CigarsInstead? Smokingoneortwocigarsadaydoublestheriskofcancersoftheliptonguemouthandthroataccordingtoagovernmentstudy. DailycigarsalsoincreasetheriskoflungcancerandcanceroftheesophagusandincreasetheriskofcancerofthelarynxvoiceboxsixfoldsayresearchersattheNationalCancerInstituteinBethesdaMaryland. Inadditionthereportrevealedthatsmokingthreeorfourcigarsadayincreasedtheriskoforalcancerto8.5timestheriskfornonsmokersandtheriskofesophagealcancerbyfourtimestheriskofnonsmokers. ThehealtheffectsofsmokingcigarsisoneofeightsectionsofthearticleCigars:HealthEffectsandTrends.Theresearchersreportthatcomparedwithacigarettealargecigaremitsupto90timesasmuchcarcinogenictobacco-specificnitrosamines ThisarticleprovidesclearandinvaluableinformationaboutthedisturbingincreaseincigaruseandthesignificantpublichealthconsequencesforthecountrysaidDr.RichardKlausnerdirectoroftheNationalCancerInstituteinastatement. Thedataareclear-theharmfulsubstancesandcarcinogensincigarsmokelikecigarettesareassociatedwiththeincreasedrisksofseveralkindsofcancersaswellasheartandlungdiseasesheadded.Inotherwordscigarsarenotsafealternativestocigarettesandmaybeaddictive. Tothoseindividualswhomaybethinkingaboutsmokingcigarsouradvicesis—don’’t.TothosecurrentlysmokingcigarsquittingistheonlywaytoeliminatecompletelythecancerheartandlungdiseaseriskswarnedKlausner. AccordingtoaNationalCancerInstitutepressreleasetherehaven’’tbeenanystudiesonthehealtheffectsonnonsmokersatcigarsocialeventsbut...asignificantbodyofevidenceclearlydemonstratesanincreasedlungcancerriskfromsecondhandsmoke. Inthepassagehowmanycancersarementionedinrelationtosmokingcigarsdaily?
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
PrematureSmoking:ASeriousProblem ThethirdreportonsmokingandhealthfromtheRoyalCollegeofPhysicianswhichwaspublishedthismonthcontainsimportantnewsectionsonthesmokinghabitsofchildrenandthepossibleeffectontheirfuturehealth. Theseincludeatwentyfoldintheincreaseintheriskoflungcancerinheavysmokersandanincreaseofaboutthreeandahalftimesintheriskofdyingfromcoronary冠状的heartdisease;chronic慢性的oronchitis支气管炎andemphysema肺气肿arealsomuchcommoner.Teachersplayanimportantpartindeterminingtheattitudeofchildrentosmokingwhetherornotthechildrenstarttosmokeandinprovidingknowledgeabouttheconsequencesofsmoking. WheneverIseechildrenofschoolageopenlysmokinginpublicIwonderwhethertheyreallyunderstandwhattheyaredoing.Probablymostdonot.Iatleastknowthatmyclinicalpracticeinlungdiseasewillnotbeshortofpatientsfortherestofmyworkinglife.About34percentofboysaged15smokeandtwothirdsofthisnumberofgirls.Overthepasttenyearstherehasbeenasmallbutwelcomereductioninthenumberofboyswhosmokeatthisagebutanincreaseinthenumberofgirls. Onelargestudyhasshownthatofthosechildrenwhosmokemorethanonecigaretteasmanyas85percentbecomehabitual习惯的smokers.Thisispartlybecausenicotineisoneofthemostdependent—producingdrugsknownonaparwithheroinandotherharddrugsinthisrespect.Oneinthreesmokersstartbeforetheageofninesomeevenasyoungasfive. Thecausesofprematuredeathwhichone-thirdofsmokerswillsufferandoftheprolongedillnesseswhichaffectsomanyofthemaredescribedinthereport;itsenoughtosaythattheyoungerachildstartstosmokethegreaterarehischancesofdyingearly. Ithasbeenshownthatchildrenwhosmokehavecertaincharacteristics.Comparedwithnonsmokerstheyaremorerebellious__的theirworkdeteriorates使变坏astheymoveupschooltheyaremorelikelytoleaveschoolearlyandaremoreoftendelinquent违法的andsexually性的precocious早熟.Manyofthesefeaturescanbesummarizedasanticipationofadulthood. Thereareanumberoffactorswhichdeterminetheonset开始ofsmokingandthesearelargelypsychologicalandsocial.Theyincludeavailabilityofcigarettescuriosityrebelliousnessappearingtoughanticipationofadulthoodsocialconfidenceexampleofparentsandteachersandsmokingbyfriendsandolderbrothersandsisters. Itshouldbemucheasiertopreventchildrenfromstartingtosmokethantopersuadesadultstogiveupthehabitonceestablishedbutinfactthishasprovedverydifficult.Theexamplesetbypeopleinauthorityespeciallyparentshealthcareworkersandteachersisofprimeimportance.Schoolrulesshouldforbidsmokingbychildrenonthepremises场所.ThisrulehasevenbeenintroducedatSummerhillSchoolwhereIspentmyschooldays. Thereishoweverariskofchildrensmokingjusttorebelagainsttherulesandeveninthoseschoolswhichhavetriedtoenforcenosmokingbycorporeal肉体的punishmentthereismuchsmokingasinotherschoolsNeverthelessbanningsmokingisprobablyonbalancebeneficial.Teacherstooshouldnotsmokeonschoolpremisesatleastnotinfrontofchildren. Whatmeasuresshouldbetakenbyschoolstodissuadechildrenfromsmoking?
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
Pleaseletmeknowifanyproblemsarise.
PrematureSmoking:ASeriousProblem ThethirdreportonsmokingandhealthfromtheRoyalCollegeofPhysicianswhichwaspublishedthismonthcontainsimportantnewsectionsonthesmokinghabitsofchildrenandthepossibleeffectontheirfuturehealth. Theseincludeatwentyfoldintheincreaseintheriskoflungcancerinheavysmokersandanincreaseofaboutthreeandahalftimesintheriskofdyingfromcoronary冠状的heartdisease;chronic慢性的oronchitis支气管炎andemphysema肺气肿arealsomuchcommoner.Teachersplayanimportantpartindeterminingtheattitudeofchildrentosmokingwhetherornotthechildrenstarttosmokeandinprovidingknowledgeabouttheconsequencesofsmoking. WheneverIseechildrenofschoolageopenlysmokinginpublicIwonderwhethertheyreallyunderstandwhattheyaredoing.Probablymostdonot.Iatleastknowthatmyclinicalpracticeinlungdiseasewillnotbeshortofpatientsfortherestofmyworkinglife.About34percentofboysaged15smokeandtwothirdsofthisnumberofgirls.Overthepasttenyearstherehasbeenasmallbutwelcomereductioninthenumberofboyswhosmokeatthisagebutanincreaseinthenumberofgirls. Onelargestudyhasshownthatofthosechildrenwhosmokemorethanonecigaretteasmanyas85percentbecomehabitual习惯的smokers.Thisispartlybecausenicotineisoneofthemostdependent—producingdrugsknownonaparwithheroinandotherharddrugsinthisrespect.Oneinthreesmokersstartbeforetheageofninesomeevenasyoungasfive. Thecausesofprematuredeathwhichone-thirdofsmokerswillsufferandoftheprolongedillnesseswhichaffectsomanyofthemaredescribedinthereport;itsenoughtosaythattheyoungerachildstartstosmokethegreaterarehischancesofdyingearly. Ithasbeenshownthatchildrenwhosmokehavecertaincharacteristics.Comparedwithnonsmokerstheyaremorerebellious__的theirworkdeteriorates使变坏astheymoveupschooltheyaremorelikelytoleaveschoolearlyandaremoreoftendelinquent违法的andsexually性的precocious早熟.Manyofthesefeaturescanbesummarizedasanticipationofadulthood. Thereareanumberoffactorswhichdeterminetheonset开始ofsmokingandthesearelargelypsychologicalandsocial.Theyincludeavailabilityofcigarettescuriosityrebelliousnessappearingtoughanticipationofadulthoodsocialconfidenceexampleofparentsandteachersandsmokingbyfriendsandolderbrothersandsisters. Itshouldbemucheasiertopreventchildrenfromstartingtosmokethantopersuadesadultstogiveupthehabitonceestablishedbutinfactthishasprovedverydifficult.Theexamplesetbypeopleinauthorityespeciallyparentshealthcareworkersandteachersisofprimeimportance.Schoolrulesshouldforbidsmokingbychildrenonthepremises场所.ThisrulehasevenbeenintroducedatSummerhillSchoolwhereIspentmyschooldays. Thereishoweverariskofchildrensmokingjusttorebelagainsttherulesandeveninthoseschoolswhichhavetriedtoenforcenosmokingbycorporeal肉体的punishmentthereismuchsmokingasinotherschoolsNeverthelessbanningsmokingisprobablyonbalancebeneficial.Teacherstooshouldnotsmokeonschoolpremisesatleastnotinfrontofchildren. Whatconnectionissuggestedinthepassagebetweensmokingandheroinaddiction?
Language Whenmostofusthinkaboutlanguagewethinkfirstaboutwords.Thusthehardestpartoflearningaforeignlanguagemayseemtobememorizing【51】vocabulary;whenweobserveachildfirstacquiringspeechwetalkofhisprogress【52】amatteroflearningnewwords.Wearealso【53】tofeelthattheadultspeakerwiththelargestvocabularyhasthebest【54】ofEnglish.Tothink【55】alanguageasjustastockofwordsis【56】quitewrong.Wordsalonedonot【57】alanguage;agrammaris【58】tocombinetheminsomeintelligibleway.Moreoverwordsarerelativelyeasytolearnandindeedallofusgo【59】learningthemallour【60】.Theyarealsothe【61】stablepartoflanguage.Wordscomeinto【62】changetheirpronunciationsandmeaningsanddisappearcompletelyallwithcomparativeease.Yetitistruethatthe【63】isfocusoflanguage.Itisinwords【64】soundsandmeaningsinterlocktoallowusto【65】withoneanotheranditiswordsthatwearrangetogethertomakesentencesconversationsanddiscourseofallkinds.Thuswehaveaparadoxinthatthemostshort-livedpartoflanguageisalsothecentrewheremeaningpronunciationandgrammarcometogether.
MemoryClass StanFieldknowswhatagecandotoaperson’’smemoryandhe’’snottakinganychanceswithhis.Hechooseshisfoodcarefullyandgetsplentyofexercise.Healsoavoidsstresscocacolaandcigarettesmoke. What’’smoreatbreakfasteachmorningthe69-year-oldchemicalengineerswallowsaplatefulofpillsinthehopeofboostinghisbrainpower. MichelleAmoveislessthanhalfField’’sagebutnolessconcernedabouthermemory.Whileworkingroundtheclocktofinishadegreeinfilmstudiesthe33-year-oldNewYorkerhadthealarmingsensationthatshehadstoppedretaininganything.Icouldn’’tevenremembernamesshesays.IthoughtOhnoI’’mover30.It’’salldownhillfromhere.BesidesloadinguponsupplementsAmovesignedupforamemoryenhancingcourseatNewYork’’sMountSianiMedicalCenter.Andwhenshegotthereshefoundherselfsurroundedbypeoplewhowerejustasworriedasshewas. FormillionsofAmericansandespeciallyforbabyboomers生育高峰出生的人thedemandsoftheInformationAgeconflictwithasenseofdecliningphysicalpower.Whenboomerswereintheir30sand40stheylaunchedthefitnessboomsaysCynthiaGreenthepsychologistwhoteachesMountSinai’’smemoryclass.Nowwehavethemental-fitnessboomMemoryistheboomers’’newlife-crisisissue.Andofcourseamajormarketingopportunity.ThedemandforbooksandseminarshasneverbeengreatersaysJackLannomalongtimememorytrainerwhoseweeklyTVshowMindUnlimitedgoesoutto33millionhomesontheChristianNetwork.Anxiousconsumersarerushingtobuydo-it-yourselfprogramsandsupplementmakersaretryingtoselleverythingbutsawdust木屑asabrainbooster. Butbeforeyougetoutyourcheckbookafewquestionsareinorder.Doeseverydayforgetfulnesssignaldecliningbrainfunction?Ismegamemory超级记忆arealisticgoalfornormalpeople?Andifyoucouldhaveaperfectmemorywouldyoureallywantit?Untilrecentlynoonecouldaddressthoseissueswithmuchauthoritybutourknowledgeofmemoryisexploding.Newtechniquesarerevealinghowdifferentpartsofthebraininteracttopreservemeaningfulexperiences.Biologistsaretryingtounderstandtheunderlying潜在的chemicalprocessesandneuroscientists神经系统科学家arediscoveringhowagestressandotherfactorscandisruptthem.Nooneisclosetofindingthesecrettoperfectrecallbutasyou’’llseethatmaybejustaswell. Manybaby-boomerslivingintheInformationAgefeelthat______.
MemoryClass StanFieldknowswhatagecandotoaperson’’smemoryandhe’’snottakinganychanceswithhis.Hechooseshisfoodcarefullyandgetsplentyofexercise.Healsoavoidsstresscocacolaandcigarettesmoke. What’’smoreatbreakfasteachmorningthe69-year-oldchemicalengineerswallowsaplatefulofpillsinthehopeofboostinghisbrainpower. MichelleAmoveislessthanhalfField’’sagebutnolessconcernedabouthermemory.Whileworkingroundtheclocktofinishadegreeinfilmstudiesthe33-year-oldNewYorkerhadthealarmingsensationthatshehadstoppedretaininganything.Icouldn’’tevenremembernamesshesays.IthoughtOhnoI’’mover30.It’’salldownhillfromhere.BesidesloadinguponsupplementsAmovesignedupforamemoryenhancingcourseatNewYork’’sMountSianiMedicalCenter.Andwhenshegotthereshefoundherselfsurroundedbypeoplewhowerejustasworriedasshewas. FormillionsofAmericansandespeciallyforbabyboomers生育高峰出生的人thedemandsoftheInformationAgeconflictwithasenseofdecliningphysicalpower.Whenboomerswereintheir30sand40stheylaunchedthefitnessboomsaysCynthiaGreenthepsychologistwhoteachesMountSinai’’smemoryclass.Nowwehavethemental-fitnessboomMemoryistheboomers’’newlife-crisisissue.Andofcourseamajormarketingopportunity.ThedemandforbooksandseminarshasneverbeengreatersaysJackLannomalongtimememorytrainerwhoseweeklyTVshowMindUnlimitedgoesoutto33millionhomesontheChristianNetwork.Anxiousconsumersarerushingtobuydo-it-yourselfprogramsandsupplementmakersaretryingtoselleverythingbutsawdust木屑asabrainbooster. Butbeforeyougetoutyourcheckbookafewquestionsareinorder.Doeseverydayforgetfulnesssignaldecliningbrainfunction?Ismegamemory超级记忆arealisticgoalfornormalpeople?Andifyoucouldhaveaperfectmemorywouldyoureallywantit?Untilrecentlynoonecouldaddressthoseissueswithmuchauthoritybutourknowledgeofmemoryisexploding.Newtechniquesarerevealinghowdifferentpartsofthebraininteracttopreservemeaningfulexperiences.Biologistsaretryingtounderstandtheunderlying潜在的chemicalprocessesandneuroscientists神经系统科学家arediscoveringhowagestressandotherfactorscandisruptthem.Nooneisclosetofindingthesecrettoperfectrecallbutasyou’’llseethatmaybejustaswell. WhatdoesStanFieldtakeatbreakfast?
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
RichardWagner RichardWagner1813~1883isregardedbymany【51】TheRevolutionistofOperawhodemolishedalloldformsandwhoreconstructedthemusicdrama【52】principlesentirelyhisown.Inthestrictest【53】thisbeliefisnotjustifiedforWagnersimplyreturnedtotheoldestversionofthemusicdrama.HefoundthattheidealconstructionoftheoperainFlorencehadbeentoproduceworkinwhichthemusicdramaandinterpretationshouldbe【54】equalimportance.WagnerstudiedthechangesandabuseswhichGluckhad【55】correctandfoundthattheopera【56】ofthenineteenthcenturyhad【57】backintomanyoftheoldcustomswiththeresultthattherewasnolongeracomplete【58】ofthethreefundamentalsofopera. WagnertellsusinhisautobiographythathisearlylifewasinfluencedbythedramasofShakespearthesymphoniesofBeethovenandtheoperasofVonWeber.HisfirstoperaswereconstructedonthelinesoftheFrenchgrandopera.Thefirsttwowereabsolutefailuresbutwiththe【59】ofRienziin1842Wagnerwasproclaimedtheequalifnotthesuperior【60】BelliniDonizettiandMeyerbeer.Inthewritingofthisworkhehaddiscoveredthedramaticabsurditiesoftheform【61】inhisnextworkTheFlyingDutchmanheattemptedhisfirstimportantuseoftheleitmotiforcharacteristic【62】forhisdifferentpersonagesandalsousedthesethemesinanticipationoftheadventofhischaractersinamannerhelaterdescribedasmakingtheaudienceapartofthebeing.【63】hiswaytoDresdentoconductRienziWagnervisitedtheWartburgCastleandtherehebecamefamiliar【64】thelegendarystorieswhichheusedinallhislaterworks.TannhausergivesanactualdescriptionoftheMinnesingerKnightswhoinspiredWagner【65】TeutonicversionsofTheRingoftheNibelungsLohengrinTristanandIsoldeandParsifal.
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