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Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyunpleasantones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorfeartheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.TheroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheoryWhilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Theauthorprovidesenoughinformationtoanswerthequestionof
Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyunpleasantones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorfeartheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.TheroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheoryWhilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Themainpurposeofthetextisto
ThesafetyofmobilephonesU.S.cell-phonesseemstofacenewquestionsafterBritishresearchersfoundthatmicrowaveemissionscanaffectthehealthofearthwormsinunexplainedways. Thelarvaeoftinysoilwormscallednematodesgrewfasterandbecamemore1aftertheywere2foralongtimetoweakmicrowaveradiationofthe3strengthandfrequencyasthat4bymobilephonestheyfound. Whythisoccurredis5andthereisnoevidencethathumanhealthisalsoaffected.Buttheywarnthefindingchallengesthestandardswhich6whetheramobileissafeornot. Thesestandardsarebasedonwhethertheradiationisstrongenoughtocauseabatchof7towarmup.Heatcausesthechemicalbondsincellsto8adisruptionthatcanbeapotential9forcancer. TheresearchledbyDaviddePomeraiatNottinghamUniversitycentralEnglandsaidlarvaeexposedtothemicrowaves10betweeneightandelevenpercentfasterthan11whichhadnotbeenexposed. Inadditionthe12ofwormsthat13intoegg-bearingadultswas28～40percenthigher. Bycomparisonwormsthathadbeenexposedto14heatsuffereda10-percentreductionintheirgrowthrateand15nonedevelopedintofertileadults. Theexperimentisimportantbecauseitsuggeststhatmicrowavesmighttriggerbiologicaleffects.16warminganytissues. Thescientistsdonot17outthepossibilitythatradiationcouldcausehot-.spotstooccursomewhereinthewormthatthenaffectedcell18. Theworrythoughisthatthe19basisfordeterminingmobilesafetyiswhethermicrowavescauseheatinginbulktissueratherthanjustat20inittheynote. 18
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.18
Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyunpleasantones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorfeartheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.TheroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheoryWhilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Conger’sexperimentwithtwogroupsofrats
WhenacustomerclaimedtohavefoundaseveredfingerinabowlofchiliservedataWendy’sfastfoodfranchiseinCaliforniathechain’ssalesfellbyhalfintheSanJos6areawheretheincidentwasreported.Wendy’sbrandandreputationwereatriskuntiltheclaimwasexposedasahoaxinlateAprilandthecompanyoperatorofAmerica’sthirdbiggesthamburgerchainwasvindicated.YetthesharepriceofWendy’sInternationaltheparentcompanyrosesteadilythroughMarchandAprildespitethefingerfuroreanddowngradesfromanalysts.OnereasonwasheavybuyingbyhedgefundsledbyPershingSquareCapital.ThisWeekPershingmadeitsintentionspublicsayingthatitwasworriedbymarketrumorsthatWendy’smightsoonbuymorefastfoodbrandsandarguingthatthefirmshouldbesellingassetsinstead.Pershing’sapproachindicatesrisingpressureonAmericanrestaurantcompaniestoperformatatimewhentheindustry’sgrowthprospectslookincreasinglytough.Thehitoncustomers’walletsfromhigherpetrolpricesandrisinginterestrateswillprobablymeanthatyearonyearsalesgrowthacrosstheAmericanrestaurantindustryslowstojust1%bythefourthquarterof2005downfromafiveyearhistoricaverageof5.6%sayUBSaninvestmentbankandGlobalInsightaforecastinggroup.LookingfurtheraheadsaysUBS’sDavidPalmertheindustrymayhavetostoprelyingonmostofthelongtermtrendsthatwerebehindmuchofitsrecentgrowth.ThreequartersofAmericansalreadylivewithinthreemilesofaMcDonald’srestaurantleavinglittlescopeforgreen-fieldgrowth.ObesityisagrowingissueinAmericaandwithitcomethethreatofliabilitylawsuitsagainstbigrestaurantchainsandperhapslegallimitsonadvertising.ThisweekAmerica’sbiggestfoodtradegrouptheGroceryManufacturers’Associationwassaidtobepreparingtougherguidelinesonthemarketingoffoodtochildreninthehopeofstavingoffstatutorycontrols.Homecookingmayalsobemakingacomebackhelpedbytwofactors.ThepercentageofwomenjoiningAmerica’sworkforcemayhavepeakedandsupermarketchainssuchasWal-Marthavebeenforcingdownretailfoodprices.ExpansionoverseasisoneoptionforAmericanrestaurantchains.BurgerKingtheprivatelyownednumbertwohamburgerchainopeneditsfirstoutletinChinalastmonthapparentlyaimingtomaintainstronggrowthaheadofaninitialpublicofferingnextyear.McDonald’shas600outletsinChinaandplans400more.Butathomethefutureseemstoholdonlyanevenmorecompetitiveandcost-consciousrestaurantindustry.FastfoodchainsaretryingtopoachcustomersfromcasualdiningchainssuchasApplebee’sNeighborhoodGrillwhilethosechainsaresqueezingoutindependentrestaurantsunabletocompeteoncostorinmarketingclout.Businessconditionsnotseveredfingersaretherealthreattotheweakerfirmsintherestaurantbusiness.ThewordhoaxLine3Para.1probablymeans
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.10
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.2
WhenacustomerclaimedtohavefoundaseveredfingerinabowlofchiliservedataWendy’sfastfoodfranchiseinCaliforniathechain’ssalesfellbyhalfintheSanJos6areawheretheincidentwasreported.Wendy’sbrandandreputationwereatriskuntiltheclaimwasexposedasahoaxinlateAprilandthecompanyoperatorofAmerica’sthirdbiggesthamburgerchainwasvindicated.YetthesharepriceofWendy’sInternationaltheparentcompanyrosesteadilythroughMarchandAprildespitethefingerfuroreanddowngradesfromanalysts.OnereasonwasheavybuyingbyhedgefundsledbyPershingSquareCapital.ThisWeekPershingmadeitsintentionspublicsayingthatitwasworriedbymarketrumorsthatWendy’smightsoonbuymorefastfoodbrandsandarguingthatthefirmshouldbesellingassetsinstead.Pershing’sapproachindicatesrisingpressureonAmericanrestaurantcompaniestoperformatatimewhentheindustry’sgrowthprospectslookincreasinglytough.Thehitoncustomers’walletsfromhigherpetrolpricesandrisinginterestrateswillprobablymeanthatyearonyearsalesgrowthacrosstheAmericanrestaurantindustryslowstojust1%bythefourthquarterof2005downfromafiveyearhistoricaverageof5.6%sayUBSaninvestmentbankandGlobalInsightaforecastinggroup.LookingfurtheraheadsaysUBS’sDavidPalmertheindustrymayhavetostoprelyingonmostofthelongtermtrendsthatwerebehindmuchofitsrecentgrowth.ThreequartersofAmericansalreadylivewithinthreemilesofaMcDonald’srestaurantleavinglittlescopeforgreen-fieldgrowth.ObesityisagrowingissueinAmericaandwithitcomethethreatofliabilitylawsuitsagainstbigrestaurantchainsandperhapslegallimitsonadvertising.ThisweekAmerica’sbiggestfoodtradegrouptheGroceryManufacturers’Associationwassaidtobepreparingtougherguidelinesonthemarketingoffoodtochildreninthehopeofstavingoffstatutorycontrols.Homecookingmayalsobemakingacomebackhelpedbytwofactors.ThepercentageofwomenjoiningAmerica’sworkforcemayhavepeakedandsupermarketchainssuchasWal-Marthavebeenforcingdownretailfoodprices.ExpansionoverseasisoneoptionforAmericanrestaurantchains.BurgerKingtheprivatelyownednumbertwohamburgerchainopeneditsfirstoutletinChinalastmonthapparentlyaimingtomaintainstronggrowthaheadofaninitialpublicofferingnextyear.McDonald’shas600outletsinChinaandplans400more.Butathomethefutureseemstoholdonlyanevenmorecompetitiveandcost-consciousrestaurantindustry.FastfoodchainsaretryingtopoachcustomersfromcasualdiningchainssuchasApplebee’sNeighborhoodGrillwhilethosechainsaresqueezingoutindependentrestaurantsunabletocompeteoncostorinmarketingclout.Businessconditionsnotseveredfingersaretherealthreattotheweakerfirmsintherestaurantbusiness.Fromparagraph4wecaninferthat
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.6
46Duringtheadolescencethedevelopmentofpoliticalideologybecomesapparentintheindividual;ideologyhereisdefinedasthepresenceofroughlyconsistentattitudesmoreorlessorganizedinreferencetoamoreencompassingsetofgeneralprinciples.Assuchpoliticalideologyisdimorabsentatthebeginningofadolescence.Itsacquisitionbytheadolescentineventhemostmodestsenserequirestheacquisitionofrelativelysophisticatedcognitiveskills:theabilitytomanageabstractnesstosynthesizeandgeneralizetoimaginethefuture.Theseareaccompaniedbyasteadyadvanceintheabilitytounderstandprinciples. Thechild’srapidacquisitionofpoliticalknowledgealsopromotesthegrowthofpoliticalideologyduringadolescence.47ByknowledgeImeanmorethanthedull"facts"suchasthecompositionofcountrygovernmentthatthechildisexposedtointheconventionalninth-gradeschoolcourse.NordoImeanonlyinformationoncurrentpoliticalrealities.48Thesearefactsofknowledgebuttheyarelesscriticalthantheadolescent’sabsorptionofafeelingforthosemanyunspokenassumptionsaboutthepoliticalsystemthatcomprisethecommongroundofunderstandingforexamplewhatthestatecan"appropriately"demandofitscitizensandviceversaorthe"proper"relationshipofgovernmenttosubsidiarysocialinstitutionssuchastheschoolsandchurches.Thuspoliticalknowledgeistheawarenessofsocialassumptionsandrelationshipsaswellasofobjectivefacts.49Muchofthenaivetéthatcharacterizestheyoungeradolescent’sgraspofpoliticsstemsnotfromanignoranceof"facts"butfromanincompletecomprehensionofthecommonconventionsofthesystemofwhatisandisnotcustomarilydoneandofhowandwhyitisorisnotdone. YetIdonotwanttooveremphasizethesignificanceofincreasedpoliticalknowledgeinformingadolescentideology.OvertheyearsIhavebecomeprogressivelydisenchantedaboutthecentralityofsuchknowledgeandhavecometobelievethatmuchcurrentworkinpoliticalsocializationbyrelyingtooheavilyonitsapparentacquisitionhasbeenmisledaboutthetempoofpoliticalunderstandinginadolescence.50Justasyoungchildrencancountnumbersinserieswithoutgraspingtheprincipleofordinationyoungadolescentsmayhaveintheirheadsmanyrandombitsofpoliticalinformationwithoutasecureunderstandingofthoseconceptsthatwouldgiveorderandmeaningtotheinformation. Children’smindspickupbitsandpiecesofdatabutuntiltheadolescenthasgraspedtheencompassingfunctionthatconceptsandprinciplesprovidethedataremainfragmentedrandomdisordered. 50
46Duringtheadolescencethedevelopmentofpoliticalideologybecomesapparentintheindividual;ideologyhereisdefinedasthepresenceofroughlyconsistentattitudesmoreorlessorganizedinreferencetoamoreencompassingsetofgeneralprinciples.Assuchpoliticalideologyisdimorabsentatthebeginningofadolescence.Itsacquisitionbytheadolescentineventhemostmodestsenserequirestheacquisitionofrelativelysophisticatedcognitiveskills:theabilitytomanageabstractnesstosynthesizeandgeneralizetoimaginethefuture.Theseareaccompaniedbyasteadyadvanceintheabilitytounderstandprinciples. Thechild’srapidacquisitionofpoliticalknowledgealsopromotesthegrowthofpoliticalideologyduringadolescence.47ByknowledgeImeanmorethanthedull"facts"suchasthecompositionofcountrygovernmentthatthechildisexposedtointheconventionalninth-gradeschoolcourse.NordoImeanonlyinformationoncurrentpoliticalrealities.48Thesearefactsofknowledgebuttheyarelesscriticalthantheadolescent’sabsorptionofafeelingforthosemanyunspokenassumptionsaboutthepoliticalsystemthatcomprisethecommongroundofunderstandingforexamplewhatthestatecan"appropriately"demandofitscitizensandviceversaorthe"proper"relationshipofgovernmenttosubsidiarysocialinstitutionssuchastheschoolsandchurches.Thuspoliticalknowledgeistheawarenessofsocialassumptionsandrelationshipsaswellasofobjectivefacts.49Muchofthenaivetéthatcharacterizestheyoungeradolescent’sgraspofpoliticsstemsnotfromanignoranceof"facts"butfromanincompletecomprehensionofthecommonconventionsofthesystemofwhatisandisnotcustomarilydoneandofhowandwhyitisorisnotdone. YetIdonotwanttooveremphasizethesignificanceofincreasedpoliticalknowledgeinformingadolescentideology.OvertheyearsIhavebecomeprogressivelydisenchantedaboutthecentralityofsuchknowledgeandhavecometobelievethatmuchcurrentworkinpoliticalsocializationbyrelyingtooheavilyonitsapparentacquisitionhasbeenmisledaboutthetempoofpoliticalunderstandinginadolescence.50Justasyoungchildrencancountnumbersinserieswithoutgraspingtheprincipleofordinationyoungadolescentsmayhaveintheirheadsmanyrandombitsofpoliticalinformationwithoutasecureunderstandingofthoseconceptsthatwouldgiveorderandmeaningtotheinformation. Children’smindspickupbitsandpiecesofdatabutuntiltheadolescenthasgraspedtheencompassingfunctionthatconceptsandprinciplesprovidethedataremainfragmentedrandomdisordered. 48
AclassactionlawsuithasbeenfiledagainstaprominentTorontodoctorbypatientswhoallegeheinjectedabannedsubstanceintotheirfacesforcosmeticpurposes.ThedoctorhadalreadybeeninvestigatedmorethanthreeyearsagoforusingtheliquidsiliconeaproductnotauthorizedforuseinCanada.Somepatientssaytheyarenowsufferinghealthproblemsandthinktheliquidsiliconemaybetoblame.OneofthosepatientsisAnnaBarbiero.ShesaysherTorontodermatologisttoldherhewasusingliquidsiliconetosmoothoutwrinkles.Whatshesayshedidn’ttellheristhatitisn’tapprovedforuseinCanada.Ididn’tknowwhatliquidsiliconewasandhejustcalledit’liquidgold’Barbieroremembers.AfterherlasttreatmentAnnadiscoveredDr.SheldonPollackhadbeenorderedtostopusingthesiliconetwoyearsearlierbyHealthCanada.Expertssaysiliconecanmigratethroughthebodyandcauseinflammationanddeformities.MyupperlipisalwaysnumbanditburnsBarbierosays.Barbieroisspearheadingalawsuitagainstthedoctorwhoherlawyerthinksmightinvolveupto100patientsinjectedwiththesamematerial.ThefactaphysicianofhisstaturewoulduseanunauthorizedproductonapatientbecausehethoughtitwasokayisreallyverydisturbingsayslawyerDouglasElliott.Ontario’sCollegeofPhysiciansandSurgeonsOCPSisalsoinvestigatingDr.Pollacktoseeifinfacthecontinuedtousethesiliconeafteragreeingtostopandwhetherhewroteinpatientrecordsthatheusedanotherlegalproductwhenhehadusedsilicone.HoweverinalettertotheCollegeDr.PollackwrotethathehadalwaystoldpatientsthatthesiliconewasnotapprovedforsaleinCanadaandhadwarnedthemoftherisks.AndinBarbiero’scase...atthetimeofherfirstvisitpriortohereverreceivingIGLStreatmentIspecificallyinformedherthatthematerialwasnotapprovedforsaleinCanadabytheHealthProtectionBranchandthatIdidreceivethematerialfromoutsidethecountry...IwouldliketoemphasizethatasisevidentonMs.Barbiero’schartIdrewaspecificdiagramonthechartwhich1carefullydiscussedwithandexplainedtoMs.BarbieroasIdowitheveryotherpatienttoexplainthenatureandlikelihoodofpossiblecomplicationsandthereasonsandconsequencesofthosepossiblecomplications.Dr.PollackdeclinedtospeaktoCTVNewsortohavehislawyerdiscussthecase.Noneoftheallegationshavebeenprovenincourt.Butthecaseraisesquestionsabouttheabilityofgoverningbodiestomonitordoctors.There’salargermessageandthatis.buyerbewaresaysNancyNeilsenofCosmeticSurgeryCanada.It’sincumbentonconsumerstodotheirresearch./TheworddermatologistLine2Para.2mostprobablymeansadoctordealingwith
Whydon’tmostpeoplesetandachievepersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoalsGoalsettingisapositivepowerfulpracticewhenitignitesenthusiasmandprovidescleardirection. Whenpracticedpoorlyhowevergoalsettingalsohasaseriousdownsidewhichcanundermineyoursuccess.Poorgoalsettingmakespeopleupsetwastestheirtimeandfostersconfusionaboutwheretoconcentrateactionsandenergy.Howdoessuchapotentiallysuccessfulpracticeasgoalsettinggowrongsooften Goalsettingonceexecutedpoorlythoughtlesslyorforthewrongreasonscanhaveasignificantnegativeimpactonbothpeopleandyourorganizationbusinessplan.Avoidthesefivemisusesofapotentiallypositivepowerfulpractice:goalsettingforpersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoals. 41.GoalSettingUnderIntimidation Sometimesintimidationbringsdrivingforcewhichstimulatesstaffmemberstogoonbutusuallyitonlyincursfears.Organizationsoftenfailtoachievegoalsandstrategicplanningtargetsthataresettopdownbyexecutiveswholackcrucialinformationandareoutoftouchwithstaffchallenges. Thegoalsareunrealisticandtheyfailtoconsiderorganizationresourcesandcapabilities.Staffmembersdon’tbelievethattherewardstheywillreceiveforgoalaccomplishmentwillequaltheenergytheyinvesttoachievethem.Frequentlymanagersareintimidatedwhentheyfearjoblossforfailure. 42.GoalsIntendedtoImpressNotGuideEfforts WilliamHamiltonsays"’Duringtheroaringcrazydaysofthedot.cornninetiesusinggoalstoimpresswascommonplacealthoughorganizationsalsoutilizedthistechniquelongbeforetheInternetarrivedinthisprocessmanagementcreatesgoalsbasedonthedesiretoimpressormisleadoutsidegroups." AccordingtoHamiltonthisprocessis"alsousedtoavoidseriousanalysisofthecompanyandthemarketplace.Attheendofthetimeperiodthesegoalscanthenbeusedbyseniormanagementtopassthebuckandtheblameforthefailuretomeetthegoals. Thefirstpartofthisarticleemphasizedseveralproblemswithhoworganizationssetgoals.Additionalpotentialproblemswithsettingpersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoalsincludethefollowing. 43.Can’tSeeBeyondOne’sNose Inanefforttomeetthecurrentperiod’sgoalsthelong-termviabilityoftheorganizationisputatrisk. 44.GoalSettingBecomesAboutthePlanNottheExecution Hamiltonsaysapotentialseriousdownsideoccurswhen"theratioofenergytimeandcreativitythatgoesintocreatingthegoaloutstripsandcomesoutofthehideofactuallymanagingtheproduct." 45.TooManyGoalsMakeNothingaPriority Inmyworkwithsmallandmid-sizedmanufacturingcompaniesIoftenfindthatpeoplewearsomanyhatstheyareoverwhelmedwiththesheernumberofgoalstheyareexpectedtomeet.Theydon’tknowwhatismostimportanttoaccomplishnext. Inconclusiongoalsettingisapositivepowerfulbusinesspracticewhenittellsyourstaffwhereyouaregoing.Effectivegoalsettingalsodemonstrateswhatsuccesswilllooklikeduringthejourneyanduponarrival.Whenpracticedpoorlyhowevergoalsettingcannegativelyimpactyourorganizationinallthewaysdescribedandmore. [A]Suchas:takeabigdreamlike"Iwanttobefamous"andbreakitdownintomorestepslike"!wanttostarinasciencefictionmovie""Iwanttogotothreeauditionsaweek""IwanttomovetoL.A."and"Iwanttosave$5000soIcanmove". [B]Suchas:useexpensivepromotionsthatactuallygeneratelessinsalesthantheycostorpushexpensesintothefutureratherthanaccountingforthemwhenincurred. [C]Tointernalstaffmemberswhowereoftenunconvincedandunmovedbytheunrealistic"’showgoals"seniormanagement’sactionsproducedseriousmoraleandcompetency-questioningissues.Tostaffmemberswhoboughtintotheeuphoriafailuretoachievethegoalswasadeadlydownwardspiral. [D]AformerSiebelSystemsexecutivesays"MynightmaregoalsettingstoryofalltimewashowSiebelsetsalesgoalsforitsDistrictManagers:everyone’squotawas$3.5million.Therenomorethoughtneededtogointoitnodiscussion--justdoitoryou’refired!SotheDistrictManagercallingonCitibankhadthesamequotaastheDistrictManagercallingontheStatesofLouisianaMississippiandAlabama.Asaresultnoonesucceeded. [E]InonesmallmanufacturingcompanyamanagementgroupdecidedtouseGanttchartstotrackgoalaccomplishment.Afterstartingwithahugeinvestmentoftimeinmakingthechartsforalloftheirgoalsthemanagementgroupsoonabandonedthecharting.Whenquestionedlatertheyaffirmedthatthechartingwastakingtoomuchofthetimetheyneededtoaccomplishthegoals. [F]Ioncefacilitatedastrategicplanningsessionduringwhichpeopleanalyzedandestablishedpriorities.Theymovednon-priorityitemstoa"B"listandbelievedtheyhadsuccessfullycreatedan"A"listofthemostimportantachievablegoals.Youcanimaginemyconsternationwhenattheendofthesessiontheseniormanagerlookedatthelistofgoalsonthe"B"listandsaid"Theseareallgivens.Wehavetoaccomplishtheseanyway." 44
1describethedrawingbriefly 2interprettheintendedmeaningreflectedbyitand 3giveyourcomment.
AclassactionlawsuithasbeenfiledagainstaprominentTorontodoctorbypatientswhoallegeheinjectedabannedsubstanceintotheirfacesforcosmeticpurposes.ThedoctorhadalreadybeeninvestigatedmorethanthreeyearsagoforusingtheliquidsiliconeaproductnotauthorizedforuseinCanada.Somepatientssaytheyarenowsufferinghealthproblemsandthinktheliquidsiliconemaybetoblame.OneofthosepatientsisAnnaBarbiero.ShesaysherTorontodermatologisttoldherhewasusingliquidsiliconetosmoothoutwrinkles.Whatshesayshedidn’ttellheristhatitisn’tapprovedforuseinCanada.Ididn’tknowwhatliquidsiliconewasandhejustcalledit’liquidgold’Barbieroremembers.AfterherlasttreatmentAnnadiscoveredDr.SheldonPollackhadbeenorderedtostopusingthesiliconetwoyearsearlierbyHealthCanada.Expertssaysiliconecanmigratethroughthebodyandcauseinflammationanddeformities.MyupperlipisalwaysnumbanditburnsBarbierosays.Barbieroisspearheadingalawsuitagainstthedoctorwhoherlawyerthinksmightinvolveupto100patientsinjectedwiththesamematerial.ThefactaphysicianofhisstaturewoulduseanunauthorizedproductonapatientbecausehethoughtitwasokayisreallyverydisturbingsayslawyerDouglasElliott.Ontario’sCollegeofPhysiciansandSurgeonsOCPSisalsoinvestigatingDr.Pollacktoseeifinfacthecontinuedtousethesiliconeafteragreeingtostopandwhetherhewroteinpatientrecordsthatheusedanotherlegalproductwhenhehadusedsilicone.HoweverinalettertotheCollegeDr.PollackwrotethathehadalwaystoldpatientsthatthesiliconewasnotapprovedforsaleinCanadaandhadwarnedthemoftherisks.AndinBarbiero’scase...atthetimeofherfirstvisitpriortohereverreceivingIGLStreatmentIspecificallyinformedherthatthematerialwasnotapprovedforsaleinCanadabytheHealthProtectionBranchandthatIdidreceivethematerialfromoutsidethecountry...IwouldliketoemphasizethatasisevidentonMs.Barbiero’schartIdrewaspecificdiagramonthechartwhich1carefullydiscussedwithandexplainedtoMs.BarbieroasIdowitheveryotherpatienttoexplainthenatureandlikelihoodofpossiblecomplicationsandthereasonsandconsequencesofthosepossiblecomplications.Dr.PollackdeclinedtospeaktoCTVNewsortohavehislawyerdiscussthecase.Noneoftheallegationshavebeenprovenincourt.Butthecaseraisesquestionsabouttheabilityofgoverningbodiestomonitordoctors.There’salargermessageandthatis.buyerbewaresaysNancyNeilsenofCosmeticSurgeryCanada.It’sincumbentonconsumerstodotheirresearch./Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
Justiceinsocietymustincludebothafairtrialtotheaccusedandtheelectionofanappropriatepunishmentforthoseprovenguilty.Becausejusticeisregardedasoneformofequalitywefindinitsearlierexpressionstheideaofapunishmentequaltothecrime.RecordedintheOldTestamentistheexpressionaneyeforaneyeandatoothforatooth.Thatistheindividualwhohasdonewronghascommittedanoffense;societymustgetevenwhichcanbedoneonlybyinflictinganequalinjuryuponhim.Thisconceptionofretributivejusticeisreflectedinmanypartsofthelegalcodesandproceduresofmoderntimes.Itisillustratedwhenwedemandthedeathpenaltyforapersonwhohascommittedmurder.ThisphilosophyofpunishmentwassupportedbytheGermanidealistHegel.Hebelievedthatsocietyowedittothecriminaltoadministerapunishmentequaltothecrimehehadcommitted.Thecriminalhadbyhisownactionsdeniedhistrueselfanditisnecessarytodosomethingthatwillcounteractthedenialandrestoretheselfthathasbeendenied.Tothemurderernothinglessthangivinguphisownlifewillpayhisdebt.Theexecutionofthedeathpenaltyisarightthestateowesthecriminalanditshouldnotdenyhimhisdue.Modernjuristshavetriedtoreplaceretributivejusticewiththenotionofcorrectivejustice.Theaimofthelatterisnottoabandontheconceptofequalitybuttofindamoreadequatewaytoexpressit.Ittriestopreservetheideaofequalopportunityforeachindividualtorealizethebestthatisinhim.Thecriminalisregardedasbeingsociallyillandinneedoftreatmentthatwillenablehimtobecomeanormalmemberofsociety.Beforeatreatmentcanbeadministeredthecauseofhisantisocialbehaviormustbefoundwhat’smoreprovisionsmustbemadetohavethisdone.Onlythosecriminalswhoareincurableshouldbepermanentlyseparatedfromtherestofsociety.Thisdoesnotmeanthatcriminalswillescapepunishmentorbequicklyreturnedtotakeupcareersofcrime.Itmeansthatjusticeistohealtheindividualnotsimplytogetevenwithhim.Ifseverepunishmentistheonlyadequatemeansforaccomplishingthisitshouldbeadministered.Howevertheindividualshouldbegiveneveryopportunitytoassumeanormalplaceinsociety.Hisconvictionofcrimemustnotdeprivehimoftheopportunitytomakehiswayinthesocietyofwhichheisapart.Hegelwouldviewthedeathsentenceformurderas
Whydon’tmostpeoplesetandachievepersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoalsGoalsettingisapositivepowerfulpracticewhenitignitesenthusiasmandprovidescleardirection. Whenpracticedpoorlyhowevergoalsettingalsohasaseriousdownsidewhichcanundermineyoursuccess.Poorgoalsettingmakespeopleupsetwastestheirtimeandfostersconfusionaboutwheretoconcentrateactionsandenergy.Howdoessuchapotentiallysuccessfulpracticeasgoalsettinggowrongsooften Goalsettingonceexecutedpoorlythoughtlesslyorforthewrongreasonscanhaveasignificantnegativeimpactonbothpeopleandyourorganizationbusinessplan.Avoidthesefivemisusesofapotentiallypositivepowerfulpractice:goalsettingforpersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoals. 41.GoalSettingUnderIntimidation Sometimesintimidationbringsdrivingforcewhichstimulatesstaffmemberstogoonbutusuallyitonlyincursfears.Organizationsoftenfailtoachievegoalsandstrategicplanningtargetsthataresettopdownbyexecutiveswholackcrucialinformationandareoutoftouchwithstaffchallenges. Thegoalsareunrealisticandtheyfailtoconsiderorganizationresourcesandcapabilities.Staffmembersdon’tbelievethattherewardstheywillreceiveforgoalaccomplishmentwillequaltheenergytheyinvesttoachievethem.Frequentlymanagersareintimidatedwhentheyfearjoblossforfailure. 42.GoalsIntendedtoImpressNotGuideEfforts WilliamHamiltonsays"’Duringtheroaringcrazydaysofthedot.cornninetiesusinggoalstoimpresswascommonplacealthoughorganizationsalsoutilizedthistechniquelongbeforetheInternetarrivedinthisprocessmanagementcreatesgoalsbasedonthedesiretoimpressormisleadoutsidegroups." AccordingtoHamiltonthisprocessis"alsousedtoavoidseriousanalysisofthecompanyandthemarketplace.Attheendofthetimeperiodthesegoalscanthenbeusedbyseniormanagementtopassthebuckandtheblameforthefailuretomeetthegoals. Thefirstpartofthisarticleemphasizedseveralproblemswithhoworganizationssetgoals.Additionalpotentialproblemswithsettingpersonalgoalscareergoalsandbusinessgoalsincludethefollowing. 43.Can’tSeeBeyondOne’sNose Inanefforttomeetthecurrentperiod’sgoalsthelong-termviabilityoftheorganizationisputatrisk. 44.GoalSettingBecomesAboutthePlanNottheExecution Hamiltonsaysapotentialseriousdownsideoccurswhen"theratioofenergytimeandcreativitythatgoesintocreatingthegoaloutstripsandcomesoutofthehideofactuallymanagingtheproduct." 45.TooManyGoalsMakeNothingaPriority Inmyworkwithsmallandmid-sizedmanufacturingcompaniesIoftenfindthatpeoplewearsomanyhatstheyareoverwhelmedwiththesheernumberofgoalstheyareexpectedtomeet.Theydon’tknowwhatismostimportanttoaccomplishnext. Inconclusiongoalsettingisapositivepowerfulbusinesspracticewhenittellsyourstaffwhereyouaregoing.Effectivegoalsettingalsodemonstrateswhatsuccesswilllooklikeduringthejourneyanduponarrival.Whenpracticedpoorlyhowevergoalsettingcannegativelyimpactyourorganizationinallthewaysdescribedandmore. [A]Suchas:takeabigdreamlike"Iwanttobefamous"andbreakitdownintomorestepslike"!wanttostarinasciencefictionmovie""Iwanttogotothreeauditionsaweek""IwanttomovetoL.A."and"Iwanttosave$5000soIcanmove". [B]Suchas:useexpensivepromotionsthatactuallygeneratelessinsalesthantheycostorpushexpensesintothefutureratherthanaccountingforthemwhenincurred. [C]Tointernalstaffmemberswhowereoftenunconvincedandunmovedbytheunrealistic"’showgoals"seniormanagement’sactionsproducedseriousmoraleandcompetency-questioningissues.Tostaffmemberswhoboughtintotheeuphoriafailuretoachievethegoalswasadeadlydownwardspiral. [D]AformerSiebelSystemsexecutivesays"MynightmaregoalsettingstoryofalltimewashowSiebelsetsalesgoalsforitsDistrictManagers:everyone’squotawas$3.5million.Therenomorethoughtneededtogointoitnodiscussion--justdoitoryou’refired!SotheDistrictManagercallingonCitibankhadthesamequotaastheDistrictManagercallingontheStatesofLouisianaMississippiandAlabama.Asaresultnoonesucceeded. [E]InonesmallmanufacturingcompanyamanagementgroupdecidedtouseGanttchartstotrackgoalaccomplishment.Afterstartingwithahugeinvestmentoftimeinmakingthechartsforalloftheirgoalsthemanagementgroupsoonabandonedthecharting.Whenquestionedlatertheyaffirmedthatthechartingwastakingtoomuchofthetimetheyneededtoaccomplishthegoals. [F]Ioncefacilitatedastrategicplanningsessionduringwhichpeopleanalyzedandestablishedpriorities.Theymovednon-priorityitemstoa"B"listandbelievedtheyhadsuccessfullycreatedan"A"listofthemostimportantachievablegoals.Youcanimaginemyconsternationwhenattheendofthesessiontheseniormanagerlookedatthelistofgoalsonthe"B"listandsaid"Theseareallgivens.Wehavetoaccomplishtheseanyway." 42
46Duringtheadolescencethedevelopmentofpoliticalideologybecomesapparentintheindividual;ideologyhereisdefinedasthepresenceofroughlyconsistentattitudesmoreorlessorganizedinreferencetoamoreencompassingsetofgeneralprinciples.Assuchpoliticalideologyisdimorabsentatthebeginningofadolescence.Itsacquisitionbytheadolescentineventhemostmodestsenserequirestheacquisitionofrelativelysophisticatedcognitiveskills:theabilitytomanageabstractnesstosynthesizeandgeneralizetoimaginethefuture.Theseareaccompaniedbyasteadyadvanceintheabilitytounderstandprinciples. Thechild’srapidacquisitionofpoliticalknowledgealsopromotesthegrowthofpoliticalideologyduringadolescence.47ByknowledgeImeanmorethanthedull"facts"suchasthecompositionofcountrygovernmentthatthechildisexposedtointheconventionalninth-gradeschoolcourse.NordoImeanonlyinformationoncurrentpoliticalrealities.48Thesearefactsofknowledgebuttheyarelesscriticalthantheadolescent’sabsorptionofafeelingforthosemanyunspokenassumptionsaboutthepoliticalsystemthatcomprisethecommongroundofunderstandingforexamplewhatthestatecan"appropriately"demandofitscitizensandviceversaorthe"proper"relationshipofgovernmenttosubsidiarysocialinstitutionssuchastheschoolsandchurches.Thuspoliticalknowledgeistheawarenessofsocialassumptionsandrelationshipsaswellasofobjectivefacts.49Muchofthenaivetéthatcharacterizestheyoungeradolescent’sgraspofpoliticsstemsnotfromanignoranceof"facts"butfromanincompletecomprehensionofthecommonconventionsofthesystemofwhatisandisnotcustomarilydoneandofhowandwhyitisorisnotdone. YetIdonotwanttooveremphasizethesignificanceofincreasedpoliticalknowledgeinformingadolescentideology.OvertheyearsIhavebecomeprogressivelydisenchantedaboutthecentralityofsuchknowledgeandhavecometobelievethatmuchcurrentworkinpoliticalsocializationbyrelyingtooheavilyonitsapparentacquisitionhasbeenmisledaboutthetempoofpoliticalunderstandinginadolescence.50Justasyoungchildrencancountnumbersinserieswithoutgraspingtheprincipleofordinationyoungadolescentsmayhaveintheirheadsmanyrandombitsofpoliticalinformationwithoutasecureunderstandingofthoseconceptsthatwouldgiveorderandmeaningtotheinformation. Children’smindspickupbitsandpiecesofdatabutuntiltheadolescenthasgraspedtheencompassingfunctionthatconceptsandprinciplesprovidethedataremainfragmentedrandomdisordered. 46
WhenacustomerclaimedtohavefoundaseveredfingerinabowlofchiliservedataWendy’sfastfoodfranchiseinCaliforniathechain’ssalesfellbyhalfintheSanJos6areawheretheincidentwasreported.Wendy’sbrandandreputationwereatriskuntiltheclaimwasexposedasahoaxinlateAprilandthecompanyoperatorofAmerica’sthirdbiggesthamburgerchainwasvindicated.YetthesharepriceofWendy’sInternationaltheparentcompanyrosesteadilythroughMarchandAprildespitethefingerfuroreanddowngradesfromanalysts.OnereasonwasheavybuyingbyhedgefundsledbyPershingSquareCapital.ThisWeekPershingmadeitsintentionspublicsayingthatitwasworriedbymarketrumorsthatWendy’smightsoonbuymorefastfoodbrandsandarguingthatthefirmshouldbesellingassetsinstead.Pershing’sapproachindicatesrisingpressureonAmericanrestaurantcompaniestoperformatatimewhentheindustry’sgrowthprospectslookincreasinglytough.Thehitoncustomers’walletsfromhigherpetrolpricesandrisinginterestrateswillprobablymeanthatyearonyearsalesgrowthacrosstheAmericanrestaurantindustryslowstojust1%bythefourthquarterof2005downfromafiveyearhistoricaverageof5.6%sayUBSaninvestmentbankandGlobalInsightaforecastinggroup.LookingfurtheraheadsaysUBS’sDavidPalmertheindustrymayhavetostoprelyingonmostofthelongtermtrendsthatwerebehindmuchofitsrecentgrowth.ThreequartersofAmericansalreadylivewithinthreemilesofaMcDonald’srestaurantleavinglittlescopeforgreen-fieldgrowth.ObesityisagrowingissueinAmericaandwithitcomethethreatofliabilitylawsuitsagainstbigrestaurantchainsandperhapslegallimitsonadvertising.ThisweekAmerica’sbiggestfoodtradegrouptheGroceryManufacturers’Associationwassaidtobepreparingtougherguidelinesonthemarketingoffoodtochildreninthehopeofstavingoffstatutorycontrols.Homecookingmayalsobemakingacomebackhelpedbytwofactors.ThepercentageofwomenjoiningAmerica’sworkforcemayhavepeakedandsupermarketchainssuchasWal-Marthavebeenforcingdownretailfoodprices.ExpansionoverseasisoneoptionforAmericanrestaurantchains.BurgerKingtheprivatelyownednumbertwohamburgerchainopeneditsfirstoutletinChinalastmonthapparentlyaimingtomaintainstronggrowthaheadofaninitialpublicofferingnextyear.McDonald’shas600outletsinChinaandplans400more.Butathomethefutureseemstoholdonlyanevenmorecompetitiveandcost-consciousrestaurantindustry.FastfoodchainsaretryingtopoachcustomersfromcasualdiningchainssuchasApplebee’sNeighborhoodGrillwhilethosechainsaresqueezingoutindependentrestaurantsunabletocompeteoncostorinmarketingclout.Businessconditionsnotseveredfingersaretherealthreattotheweakerfirmsintherestaurantbusiness.Whichstatementistrueaccordingtothetext
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.16
Justiceinsocietymustincludebothafairtrialtotheaccusedandtheelectionofanappropriatepunishmentforthoseprovenguilty.Becausejusticeisregardedasoneformofequalitywefindinitsearlierexpressionstheideaofapunishmentequaltothecrime.RecordedintheOldTestamentistheexpressionaneyeforaneyeandatoothforatooth.Thatistheindividualwhohasdonewronghascommittedanoffense;societymustgetevenwhichcanbedoneonlybyinflictinganequalinjuryuponhim.Thisconceptionofretributivejusticeisreflectedinmanypartsofthelegalcodesandproceduresofmoderntimes.Itisillustratedwhenwedemandthedeathpenaltyforapersonwhohascommittedmurder.ThisphilosophyofpunishmentwassupportedbytheGermanidealistHegel.Hebelievedthatsocietyowedittothecriminaltoadministerapunishmentequaltothecrimehehadcommitted.Thecriminalhadbyhisownactionsdeniedhistrueselfanditisnecessarytodosomethingthatwillcounteractthedenialandrestoretheselfthathasbeendenied.Tothemurderernothinglessthangivinguphisownlifewillpayhisdebt.Theexecutionofthedeathpenaltyisarightthestateowesthecriminalanditshouldnotdenyhimhisdue.Modernjuristshavetriedtoreplaceretributivejusticewiththenotionofcorrectivejustice.Theaimofthelatterisnottoabandontheconceptofequalitybuttofindamoreadequatewaytoexpressit.Ittriestopreservetheideaofequalopportunityforeachindividualtorealizethebestthatisinhim.Thecriminalisregardedasbeingsociallyillandinneedoftreatmentthatwillenablehimtobecomeanormalmemberofsociety.Beforeatreatmentcanbeadministeredthecauseofhisantisocialbehaviormustbefoundwhat’smoreprovisionsmustbemadetohavethisdone.Onlythosecriminalswhoareincurableshouldbepermanentlyseparatedfromtherestofsociety.Thisdoesnotmeanthatcriminalswillescapepunishmentorbequicklyreturnedtotakeupcareersofcrime.Itmeansthatjusticeistohealtheindividualnotsimplytogetevenwithhim.Ifseverepunishmentistheonlyadequatemeansforaccomplishingthisitshouldbeadministered.Howevertheindividualshouldbegiveneveryopportunitytoassumeanormalplaceinsociety.Hisconvictionofcrimemustnotdeprivehimoftheopportunitytomakehiswayinthesocietyofwhichheisapart.Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.14
Theworldhasspentonpreparationsforwarmorethan$112billionayearroughly$450perheadforeverymanwomanandchildintheworld.Letusconsiderforamomentwhatcouldbedonewiththissumofmoneyifitwerespentonpeaceandnotonwar.Someofitatanyrateinthemoreprosperouscountriescouldbespentonthereductionoftaxation.Therestshouldbespentinwaysthatwillatthesametimebeofbenefittomankindandasolutiontotheeconomicproblemofconversionfromwarindustrytotheexpansionofpeaceindustries.Astothisexpansionletusbeginwiththemostelementaryofallneedsnamelyfood.Atpresentthemajorityofmankindsuffersfromundernourishmentandinviewofthepopulationexplosionthissituationislikelytogrowworseinthecomingdecades.Averysmallpartofwhatisnowbeingspentuponarmamentswouldrectifyourpredicament.NotonlycouldtheAmericansurplusofgrainwhichwasformanyyearsuselesslydestroyedbespentinreliefoffaminebutbyirrigationlargeregionsnowdesertcouldbemadefertileandbyimprovementintransportdistributionfromregionsofexcesstoregionsofscarcitycouldbefacilitated.Housingevenintherichestcountriesisoftendisastrouslyinadequate.Thiscouldberemediedbyatinyfractionofwhatisbeingspentonmissiles.EducationeverywherebutespeciallyinthenewlyliberatedcountriesofAfricaandAsiademandsanexpendituremanytimesasgreatasthatwhichitreceivesatpresent.Butitisnotonlygreaterexpenditurethatisneededineducation.Iftheterrorofwarwereremovedsciencecouldbedevotedtoimprovinghumanwelfareinsteadoftotheinventionofincreasinglyexpensivemethodsofmutualslaughterandschoolswouldnolongerthinkitapartoftheirdutytopromotehatredofpossibleenemiesbymeansofignorancetemperedbylies.Bythehelpofmoderntechniquestheworldcouldenteruponaperiodofhappinessandprosperityfarsurpassinganythingknowninprevioushistory.Allthisispossible.Itrequiresonlyadifferentoutlookoninternationalaffairsandadifferentstateofmindtowardthosenationswhicharenowregardedasenemies.Thisispossible.Irepeatbutitcannotbedoneallatonce.Toreversethetrendofaffairsinthemostpowerfulnationoftheworldisnolighttaskandwillrequireadifficultprocessofreeducation.Whatcanbeinferredfromthetext
Theworldhasspentonpreparationsforwarmorethan$112billionayearroughly$450perheadforeverymanwomanandchildintheworld.Letusconsiderforamomentwhatcouldbedonewiththissumofmoneyifitwerespentonpeaceandnotonwar.Someofitatanyrateinthemoreprosperouscountriescouldbespentonthereductionoftaxation.Therestshouldbespentinwaysthatwillatthesametimebeofbenefittomankindandasolutiontotheeconomicproblemofconversionfromwarindustrytotheexpansionofpeaceindustries.Astothisexpansionletusbeginwiththemostelementaryofallneedsnamelyfood.Atpresentthemajorityofmankindsuffersfromundernourishmentandinviewofthepopulationexplosionthissituationislikelytogrowworseinthecomingdecades.Averysmallpartofwhatisnowbeingspentuponarmamentswouldrectifyourpredicament.NotonlycouldtheAmericansurplusofgrainwhichwasformanyyearsuselesslydestroyedbespentinreliefoffaminebutbyirrigationlargeregionsnowdesertcouldbemadefertileandbyimprovementintransportdistributionfromregionsofexcesstoregionsofscarcitycouldbefacilitated.Housingevenintherichestcountriesisoftendisastrouslyinadequate.Thiscouldberemediedbyatinyfractionofwhatisbeingspentonmissiles.EducationeverywherebutespeciallyinthenewlyliberatedcountriesofAfricaandAsiademandsanexpendituremanytimesasgreatasthatwhichitreceivesatpresent.Butitisnotonlygreaterexpenditurethatisneededineducation.Iftheterrorofwarwereremovedsciencecouldbedevotedtoimprovinghumanwelfareinsteadoftotheinventionofincreasinglyexpensivemethodsofmutualslaughterandschoolswouldnolongerthinkitapartoftheirdutytopromotehatredofpossibleenemiesbymeansofignorancetemperedbylies.Bythehelpofmoderntechniquestheworldcouldenteruponaperiodofhappinessandprosperityfarsurpassinganythingknowninprevioushistory.Allthisispossible.Itrequiresonlyadifferentoutlookoninternationalaffairsandadifferentstateofmindtowardthosenationswhicharenowregardedasenemies.Thisispossible.Irepeatbutitcannotbedoneallatonce.Toreversethetrendofaffairsinthemostpowerfulnationoftheworldisnolighttaskandwillrequireadifficultprocessofreeducation.Accordingtotheauthortheproblemofmalnutrition
ThesafetyofmobilephonesU.S.cell-phonesseemstofacenewquestionsafterBritishresearchersfoundthatmicrowaveemissionscanaffectthehealthofearthwormsinunexplainedways. Thelarvaeoftinysoilwormscallednematodesgrewfasterandbecamemore1aftertheywere2foralongtimetoweakmicrowaveradiationofthe3strengthandfrequencyasthat4bymobilephonestheyfound. Whythisoccurredis5andthereisnoevidencethathumanhealthisalsoaffected.Buttheywarnthefindingchallengesthestandardswhich6whetheramobileissafeornot. Thesestandardsarebasedonwhethertheradiationisstrongenoughtocauseabatchof7towarmup.Heatcausesthechemicalbondsincellsto8adisruptionthatcanbeapotential9forcancer. TheresearchledbyDaviddePomeraiatNottinghamUniversitycentralEnglandsaidlarvaeexposedtothemicrowaves10betweeneightandelevenpercentfasterthan11whichhadnotbeenexposed. Inadditionthe12ofwormsthat13intoegg-bearingadultswas28～40percenthigher. Bycomparisonwormsthathadbeenexposedto14heatsuffereda10-percentreductionintheirgrowthrateand15nonedevelopedintofertileadults. Theexperimentisimportantbecauseitsuggeststhatmicrowavesmighttriggerbiologicaleffects.16warminganytissues. Thescientistsdonot17outthepossibilitythatradiationcouldcausehot-.spotstooccursomewhereinthewormthatthenaffectedcell18. Theworrythoughisthatthe19basisfordeterminingmobilesafetyiswhethermicrowavescauseheatinginbulktissueratherthanjustat20inittheynote. 20
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.12
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.4
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.20
"Intelligence"atbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.Itisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideas1makedistinctionsreasonlogicallyand2verbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’s3forlearningparticularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnot4charactersocialadjustmentphysicalendurancemanualskillsorartisticabilities.Itisnot5to--itwasnotdesignedforsuch6.Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughly7criticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity. Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofthe8isessentiallyacomparativeaffair. 9theassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthe10withwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa"valid"and"11"comparison.Itishere12someofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytest13involvesatleastthreefactors:the14todoone’sbesttheknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodoandthe15abilitytodoit.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonableandthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeen16thoroughly.Itsvalue17ofcourseinitsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneis18interestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecan19fromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisagein20whichwethinkrequire"generalintelligence". Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEETI.8
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