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As Eleanor Roosevelt once said, "Universal human rights begin in small places, close to home." And T...
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OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 17
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 11
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Whatdoseniorstafffinddifficultaboutdoingappraisals
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.TheearliestwrittenrecordofEnglishavailabletousstarted______.
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. 49
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.Whatcanbeinferredfromthepassage
Thefoodyoueatdoesmorethanprovideenergy.Itcanhaveadramaticeffectonyourbody’sabilitytofightoffheartdiseasecancerdiabeteshighbloodpressurestrokeandweakbones.Withremarkableconsistencyrecentresearchhasfoundthatadiethighinplant-basedfoods—fruitsvegetablesdriedpeasandbeansgrainsandstarchystaplessuchaspotatoes—isthebody’sbestweaponinthwartingmanyhealth-relatedproblems.Thesefoodsworkagainstsomanydiseasesthatthesamehealthyingredientsyoumightusetoprotectyourheartorwardoffcancerwillalsobenefityourintestinaltractandbones.Scientistshaverecentlyestimatedthatapproximately30to40percentofallcancerscouldbeavertedifpeopleatemorefruitsvegetablesandplant-basedfoodsandminimizedhigh-fathigh-calorieediblesthathavescantnutritionalvalue.Upto70percent’ofcancersmightbeeliminatedifpeoplealsostoppedsmokingexercisedregularlyandcontrolledtheirweight.Inthepastresearchershadlinkedfatconsumptionwiththedevelopmentofcancersbuttheycurrentlybelievethateatingfruitsvegetablesandgrainsmaybemoreimportantinpreventingthediseasethannoteatingfat.Theevidenceaboutahigh-fatdietandcancerseemedalotstrongerseveralyearsagothanitdoesnowsaysMelaniePolkaregistereddietitiananddirectorofnutritioneducationattheAmericanInstituteforCancerResearch.Theroadtostrongbonesispavedwithcalcium-richfood.Leafygreenvegetablesandlow-fatdairyproductsareexcellentsourcesofcalciumthemineralthatputsstiffnessintoyourskeletalsystemandkeepsyourbonesfromturningrubberyandfragile.Yourbodyusescalciumformorethankeepingyourbonesstrong.Calciumpermitscellstodivideregulatesmusclecontractionandrelaxationandplaysanimportantroleinthemovementofproteinandnutrientsinsidecells.Ifyoudon’tabsorbenoughfromwhatyoueattosatisfytheserequirementsyourbodywilltakeitfromyourbones.Becauseyourbodydoesn’tproducethisessentialmineralyoumustcontinuallyreplenishthesupply.Eventhoughtherecommendeddailyamountis1200mgmostadultsdon’teatmorethan500mg.Onereasonmayhavebeentheperceptionthatcalcium-richdairyproductswerealsoloadedwithcalories.InthepastwomeninparticularworriedthatdairyproductswerehighincaloriessaysLethaY.GriffinM.D.ofPeachtreeOrthopaedicsinAtlanta.Buttodayyoucangetcalciumwithouteatinganyhigh-fatorhigh-caloriefoodsbychoosingskimmilkorlow-fatyogurt.Alsolow-fatdairyproductscontainphosphorousandmagnesiumandaregenerallyfortifiedwithvitaminDallofwhichhelpyourbodyabsorbandusecalcium.Ifyoufinditdifficulttoincludeenoughcalciuminyourdietaskyourdoctoraboutsupplements.They’reapotentwaytogetcalciumaswellasvitaminDandotherminerals.Butifyourelyonpillsinsteadofacalcium-richdietyouwon’tbenefitfromtheothernutrientsthatfoodprovides.GettingtherecommendedvitaminDmaybeeasysinceyourbodymakesthevitaminwhenyourskinisexposedtothesun’srays.______percentofallcancerscouldbeavertedifpeopleatemorefruitsvegetablesandplant-basedfoodsandminimizedhigh-fathigh-calorieedibles.
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.WhatisthemostremarkablecharacteristicofModernEnglish
Thefoodyoueatdoesmorethanprovideenergy.Itcanhaveadramaticeffectonyourbody’sabilitytofightoffheartdiseasecancerdiabeteshighbloodpressurestrokeandweakbones.Withremarkableconsistencyrecentresearchhasfoundthatadiethighinplant-basedfoods—fruitsvegetablesdriedpeasandbeansgrainsandstarchystaplessuchaspotatoes—isthebody’sbestweaponinthwartingmanyhealth-relatedproblems.Thesefoodsworkagainstsomanydiseasesthatthesamehealthyingredientsyoumightusetoprotectyourheartorwardoffcancerwillalsobenefityourintestinaltractandbones.Scientistshaverecentlyestimatedthatapproximately30to40percentofallcancerscouldbeavertedifpeopleatemorefruitsvegetablesandplant-basedfoodsandminimizedhigh-fathigh-calorieediblesthathavescantnutritionalvalue.Upto70percent’ofcancersmightbeeliminatedifpeoplealsostoppedsmokingexercisedregularlyandcontrolledtheirweight.Inthepastresearchershadlinkedfatconsumptionwiththedevelopmentofcancersbuttheycurrentlybelievethateatingfruitsvegetablesandgrainsmaybemoreimportantinpreventingthediseasethannoteatingfat.Theevidenceaboutahigh-fatdietandcancerseemedalotstrongerseveralyearsagothanitdoesnowsaysMelaniePolkaregistereddietitiananddirectorofnutritioneducationattheAmericanInstituteforCancerResearch.Theroadtostrongbonesispavedwithcalcium-richfood.Leafygreenvegetablesandlow-fatdairyproductsareexcellentsourcesofcalciumthemineralthatputsstiffnessintoyourskeletalsystemandkeepsyourbonesfromturningrubberyandfragile.Yourbodyusescalciumformorethankeepingyourbonesstrong.Calciumpermitscellstodivideregulatesmusclecontractionandrelaxationandplaysanimportantroleinthemovementofproteinandnutrientsinsidecells.Ifyoudon’tabsorbenoughfromwhatyoueattosatisfytheserequirementsyourbodywilltakeitfromyourbones.Becauseyourbodydoesn’tproducethisessentialmineralyoumustcontinuallyreplenishthesupply.Eventhoughtherecommendeddailyamountis1200mgmostadultsdon’teatmorethan500mg.Onereasonmayhavebeentheperceptionthatcalcium-richdairyproductswerealsoloadedwithcalories.InthepastwomeninparticularworriedthatdairyproductswerehighincaloriessaysLethaY.GriffinM.D.ofPeachtreeOrthopaedicsinAtlanta.Buttodayyoucangetcalciumwithouteatinganyhigh-fatorhigh-caloriefoodsbychoosingskimmilkorlow-fatyogurt.Alsolow-fatdairyproductscontainphosphorousandmagnesiumandaregenerallyfortifiedwithvitaminDallofwhichhelpyourbodyabsorbandusecalcium.Ifyoufinditdifficulttoincludeenoughcalciuminyourdietaskyourdoctoraboutsupplements.They’reapotentwaytogetcalciumaswellasvitaminDandotherminerals.Butifyourelyonpillsinsteadofacalcium-richdietyouwon’tbenefitfromtheothernutrientsthatfoodprovides.GettingtherecommendedvitaminDmaybeeasysinceyourbodymakesthevitaminwhenyourskinisexposedtothesun’srays.Whichkindoffoodisrecommendedtopreventheartdiseasecancerdiabeteshighbloodpressurestrokeandweakbones
Directions:Writeareplytothisbusinessletter.OfficeSuppliesCompanyABCEngineeringCompany222NathanRoad77AnNeiJieWuhanKowloonHongKong17thJanuaryDearSir/MadamIsawyouradvertisementinChinaDailyforyournewfaxmachines.Wouldyoupleasesendmemoreinformationandapricelist.Iwouldalsoappreciateavisittooneoffromsalespeopleinthenearfuturetodiscussourrequirementsforbusinessmachines.Thankyou.YourssincerelyLiWeiYoushouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 41
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 19
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.Fromwhatissaidinthepassagewecanconcludethat______.
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.ThemainideaofParagraph2canbesummarizedas.______.
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 3
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Accordingtothepassagesuccesscanmostlybemeasuredintermsof______.
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 5
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Whyaretheresomanyproblemswithappraisals
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. 47
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Howarepersonalappraisalsimportantforcompanies
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Intheauthor’sopinionwhatisthelastproductofcivilization
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 19
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 9
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 7
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 17
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 43
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 45
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 13
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 1
OnApril202000inAccraGhanatheleadersofsixWestAfricancountriesdeclaredtheirintentiontoproceedtomonetaryunionamongthenon-CFAfranccountriesoftheregionbyJanuary2003asfirststeptowardawidermonetaryunionincludingalltheECOWAScountriesin2004.Thesixcountries1themselvestoreducingcentralbankfinancingofbudgetdeficits210percentofthepreviousyearsgovernment3;reducingbudgetdeficitsto4percentofthesecondphaseby2003;creatingaConvergenceCounciltohelp4macroeconomicpolicies;and5upacommoncentralbank.Theirdeclaration6that"MemberStates7theneed8strongpoliticalcommitmentand9to10allsuchnationalpolicies11wouldfacilitatetheregionalmonetaryintegrationprocess." ThegoalofamonetaryunioninECOWAShaslongbeenanobjectiveoftheorganizationgoingbacktoitsformationin1975andisintendedto12broaderintegrationprocessthatwouldincludeenhancedregionaltradeand13institutions.Inthecolonialperiodcurrencyboardslinkedsetsofcountriesintheregion.14independence15thesecurrencyboardswere16withthe17oftheCFAfranczonewhichincludedthefrancophonecountriesoftheregion.AlthoughtherehavebeenattemptstoadvancetheagendaofECOWASmonetarycooperationpoliticalproblemsandothereconomicprioritiesinseveraloftheregion’scountrieshaveto18inhibitedprogress.AlthoughsomeproblemsremaintherecentinitiativehasbeenbolsteredbytheelectioninI999ofademocraticgovernmentandaleaderwhoiscommittedtoregional19inNigeriathelargesteconomyoftheregionraisinghopesthatthelong-delayedprojectcanbe20. 15
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