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The day was star-crossed: Friday the 13th in the month of October, on the eve of the second loomi...
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Within80yearssomescientistsestimatetheworldmustproducemorethaneighttimesthepresentworldfoodsupply.Theproductivenessofthesearaisesourhopesforanadequatefoodsupplyinthefuture.Aidedbymenofsciencewehavesetforthtofindoutthat70percentoftheearthremainsunexplored--theoceandepths.Thuswemaybetterdiscoverandutilizethesea’snaturalproductsfortheworld’shungry. Itisfishproteinconcentratethatissoughtfromtheseas.ByutilizingtheunharvestedfishinUnitedStateswatersaloneenoughfishproteinconcentratecanbeobtainedtoprovidesupplementalanimalproteinformorethanonebillionpeopleforoneyearatthecostoflessthanhalfacentperdayperperson.Themalnutritionofchildrenisterriblytragic.Butthecrimeliesinsociety’sunrestrainedbreedingnotinitsnegligenceinproducingfishpowder.Butwhereverthepopulationprojectsarecarefullyconsideredtheanswertotheproblemissomethinglikethis:Therearefewprojectsthatcoulddomoretoraisethenutritionallevelofmankindthanafull-scalescientificefforttodeveloptheresourcesofthesea.Eachyearsomethirtymilliontonsoffoodproductsaretakenfromtheseawhichaccountfor12percentoftheworld’sanimalproteins.Nationswiththeirswellingpopulationsmustpushforwardintotheseafrontiersforfoodsupplies.Privateindustrymuststepupitsmarineresearchandthefederalgovernmentmustmakenewattacksontheproblemsofmarineresearchdevelopment.Thereisatoneofdesperatenessinallthesedesignsonthesea. Butwhatismoststartlingistheassumptionthattheseasareanuntouchedresource.Thefactisthattheseashavebeenandarebeinghurtdirectlyandindirectlybythesameforcesthathaveabusedtheland.Inthebroadpatternofecologicalrelationshipstheseasarenotseparablefromwhathappensontheland.Thepoisonsthatpollutethesoilandtheairbringinmassivedosesintothe"continentalshelf"waters.Thedirtandpollutionthatspillsfromoururbansewersandindustrialoutfallsdespoilourbaysandcoastalwaters.Alltheborderseasarealreadyheavilypollutedbythesameexploitationdrivesthathaveunderminedthequalityoflifeonland. Theauthor’sprimaryconcernisthat
JimBoonisahybridkindofguy.HedrivesaToyotahybridtoworkaHondahybridonweekendsandasamanagerforSeattlepublictransitherecentlyplacedtheworld’slargestorderforhybridelectricbuses. Nowwiththebiggesthybrid-busfleetintheworldSeattlehasbecomethemaintestinggroundforatechnologythatclaimsitcandrasticallycutairpollutionandfuelconsumption.Inthe1990sdemofleetsof35busesorfewerstartedcroppingupincitiessuchasTempeAriz.SixteenoftheseearlyhybridsstillserviceGenoaItalywheredriversswitchfromdieseltoelectricpowerwhenpassingthecity’sdowntownarchitecturaltreasures.ButnocityhasgoneasfarasSeattlewhichlastyearbought235GMhybridbusesat$645000apop.WhenthefinalonerollsoutthisDecembertheregion’sbussystemwillbe15percenthybrid. ButwhySeattleandwhynowThePacificNorthwesthaslongbeenahotbedofbothGreenpoliticsandcutting-edgetechnology.FourteenyearsagotheSeattleareabought236Italian-madeBredabusestoserviceamile-longdowntowntunnel.Theyweresupposedtooperateascleanelectrictrolleysundergroundbuttheswitchingmechanismoftenfailedand"thebusdrovethroughthetunnelasadiesel"saysBoon."Itwasprettyloudandsmoky." WhentheBredashitretirementagein2002Boonwentshopping.HechosetheGMbusesbecausetheyuseanautomatictransmissionanddieselboostersthatprovidepowertoscaleinclineswithoutstrain.InhillySeattletheprospectofahybridthatcouldclimblikeadieselbutacceleratewithoutbelchingblackfumeshelpedjustifyaprice$200000higherthanthatofaregularbus."Thedaysofseeingadieselpullawayandpouroutsmokeareover"saysBoon."AfterwedrovethesehybridbusesacrossthecountryIwipedahandkerchiefinsidethetailpipe.Itcameoutspotless." Expertssaybusesarecriticaltorealizingthehybriddreamofgreaterefficiencyandcleanerair.Itwouldtakethousandsofhybridcarstosaveasmanygallonsofgas750000asBoonexpectshisbusestosaveSeattleeachyear.GMclaimsthatcomparedwithconventionaldieselsitsnewbusesalsochurnout90percentlessparticulatematter—aknowncarcinogen."Busesareamajorsourceofpollutioninanycity"saysDaveKircherofthePugetSoundCleanAirAgency."Theyoperatewherepeoplearebreathingthisexhaustsothisisamajorstepforwardintermsofemissions." Andamajorstepforwardinthemarketplace:PhiladelphiaHonoluluLongBeachCalif.andAlbuquerqueN.M.haveallboughttheGMbusesinrecentmonths.GMisnowtoutingitselfinadsasthetophybrid-businnovatorbutSiemensisamongtheglobalgiantsduelingGMfornewbusinessandNewYorkplanstodeploy325BAESystemshybridsby2006."There’sroomforcompetition"saysJamesCannoneditorofHybridVehiclesnewsletter.SeemsSeattleisn’ttheonlycitytryingtoleavegrungebehind. TheexpressionchurnoutLine4Paragraph5mostprobablymeans
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.Hechallengedwhatiscalledthe“Tuskegeemachine”ofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided. UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica. DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace. AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthe“talentedtenth”accordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
Directions: Writeanessayof160--200wordsbasedonthefollowingcartoon.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethecartoonbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3supportyourviewwithanexample/examples YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 18
In1575--over400yearsagotheFrenchscholarLouisLeRoypublishedalearnedbookinwhichhevoiceddespairoverthechangescausedbythesocialandtechnologicalinnovationsofhistimewhatwenowcalltheRenaissance.Wealsofeelthatourtimesareoutofjoint;weevenhavereasontobelievethatourdescendantswillbeworseoffthanweare. Theearthwillsoonbeovercrowdedanditsresourcesexhausted.Pollutionwillruintheenvironmentupsettheclimateandendangerhumanhealth.Thegapinlivingstandardsbetweentherichandthepoorwillwidenandleadtheangryhungrypeopleoftheworldtoactsofdesperationincludingtheuseofnuclearweaponsasblackmail.Sucharetheinevitableconsequencesofpopulationandtechnologicalgrowthifpresenttrendscontinue. Thefutureisneveraprojectionofthepast.Animalsprobablyhavenochancetoescapefromthetyrannyofbiologicalevolutionbuthumanbeingsareblessedwiththefreedomofsocialevolution.Forustrendisnotdestinyfate.Theescapefromexistingtrendsisnowfacilitatedbythefactthatsocietiesanticipatefuturedangersandtakepreventivestepsagainstexpectedchanges. Despitethewidespreadbeliefthattheworldhasbecometoocomplexforcomprehensionbythehumanbrainmodernsocietieshaveoftenrespondedeffectivelytocriticalsituations.Thedecreaseinbirthratesthepartialprohibitionofpesticidesandtherethinkingoftechnologiesfortheproductionanduseofenergyarebutafewexamplesillustratingasuddenreversaloftrendscausednotbypoliticalupsetsorscientificbreakthroughsbutbypublicawarenessofconsequences. Evenmorestrikingarethesituationsinwhichsocialattitudesconcerningfuturedifficultiesundergorapidchangesbeforetheproblemshavecometopass--witnesstheheatedargumentsabouttheproblemsofbehaviorcontrolandofgeneticengineeringeventhoughthereisasyetnoproofthateffectivemethodscanbedevelopedtomanipulatebehaviorandgenesonapopulationscale. Oneofthecharacteristicsofourtimesisthustherapiditywithwhichstepscanbetakentochangetheorientationofcertaintrendsandeventoreversethem.Suchchangesusuallyemergefromgrassrootmovementsratherthanfromofficialdirectives. AccordingtothetextevidencesoftheinsightofthepublicintothedangerswhichsurrounduscanbefoundinallofthefollowingEXCEPT
In1575--over400yearsagotheFrenchscholarLouisLeRoypublishedalearnedbookinwhichhevoiceddespairoverthechangescausedbythesocialandtechnologicalinnovationsofhistimewhatwenowcalltheRenaissance.Wealsofeelthatourtimesareoutofjoint;weevenhavereasontobelievethatourdescendantswillbeworseoffthanweare. Theearthwillsoonbeovercrowdedanditsresourcesexhausted.Pollutionwillruintheenvironmentupsettheclimateandendangerhumanhealth.Thegapinlivingstandardsbetweentherichandthepoorwillwidenandleadtheangryhungrypeopleoftheworldtoactsofdesperationincludingtheuseofnuclearweaponsasblackmail.Sucharetheinevitableconsequencesofpopulationandtechnologicalgrowthifpresenttrendscontinue. Thefutureisneveraprojectionofthepast.Animalsprobablyhavenochancetoescapefromthetyrannyofbiologicalevolutionbuthumanbeingsareblessedwiththefreedomofsocialevolution.Forustrendisnotdestinyfate.Theescapefromexistingtrendsisnowfacilitatedbythefactthatsocietiesanticipatefuturedangersandtakepreventivestepsagainstexpectedchanges. Despitethewidespreadbeliefthattheworldhasbecometoocomplexforcomprehensionbythehumanbrainmodernsocietieshaveoftenrespondedeffectivelytocriticalsituations.Thedecreaseinbirthratesthepartialprohibitionofpesticidesandtherethinkingoftechnologiesfortheproductionanduseofenergyarebutafewexamplesillustratingasuddenreversaloftrendscausednotbypoliticalupsetsorscientificbreakthroughsbutbypublicawarenessofconsequences. Evenmorestrikingarethesituationsinwhichsocialattitudesconcerningfuturedifficultiesundergorapidchangesbeforetheproblemshavecometopass--witnesstheheatedargumentsabouttheproblemsofbehaviorcontrolandofgeneticengineeringeventhoughthereisasyetnoproofthateffectivemethodscanbedevelopedtomanipulatebehaviorandgenesonapopulationscale. Oneofthecharacteristicsofourtimesisthustherapiditywithwhichstepscanbetakentochangetheorientationofcertaintrendsandeventoreversethem.Suchchangesusuallyemergefromgrassrootmovementsratherthanfromofficialdirectives. Accordingtothefirsttwoparagraphsifpresenttrendscontinuewhichoneofthefollowingsituationswillnotoccur
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 12
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. ThePPAwillbecomemorepopulardueto
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities. 41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.__________ Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain. 42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.__________ Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-called"underclass"theyareso"under-privileged"andpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement. 43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.__________ RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem. 44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.__________ Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving. 45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.__________ Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities. Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue. [A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites. [B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore. [C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.Downcamethe"whitesonly"noticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.Gonetoowerethehideouslynch-ingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks—hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect. [D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem. [E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks. [F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica. 44
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 16
JimBoonisahybridkindofguy.HedrivesaToyotahybridtoworkaHondahybridonweekendsandasamanagerforSeattlepublictransitherecentlyplacedtheworld’slargestorderforhybridelectricbuses. Nowwiththebiggesthybrid-busfleetintheworldSeattlehasbecomethemaintestinggroundforatechnologythatclaimsitcandrasticallycutairpollutionandfuelconsumption.Inthe1990sdemofleetsof35busesorfewerstartedcroppingupincitiessuchasTempeAriz.SixteenoftheseearlyhybridsstillserviceGenoaItalywheredriversswitchfromdieseltoelectricpowerwhenpassingthecity’sdowntownarchitecturaltreasures.ButnocityhasgoneasfarasSeattlewhichlastyearbought235GMhybridbusesat$645000apop.WhenthefinalonerollsoutthisDecembertheregion’sbussystemwillbe15percenthybrid. ButwhySeattleandwhynowThePacificNorthwesthaslongbeenahotbedofbothGreenpoliticsandcutting-edgetechnology.FourteenyearsagotheSeattleareabought236Italian-madeBredabusestoserviceamile-longdowntowntunnel.Theyweresupposedtooperateascleanelectrictrolleysundergroundbuttheswitchingmechanismoftenfailedand"thebusdrovethroughthetunnelasadiesel"saysBoon."Itwasprettyloudandsmoky." WhentheBredashitretirementagein2002Boonwentshopping.HechosetheGMbusesbecausetheyuseanautomatictransmissionanddieselboostersthatprovidepowertoscaleinclineswithoutstrain.InhillySeattletheprospectofahybridthatcouldclimblikeadieselbutacceleratewithoutbelchingblackfumeshelpedjustifyaprice$200000higherthanthatofaregularbus."Thedaysofseeingadieselpullawayandpouroutsmokeareover"saysBoon."AfterwedrovethesehybridbusesacrossthecountryIwipedahandkerchiefinsidethetailpipe.Itcameoutspotless." Expertssaybusesarecriticaltorealizingthehybriddreamofgreaterefficiencyandcleanerair.Itwouldtakethousandsofhybridcarstosaveasmanygallonsofgas750000asBoonexpectshisbusestosaveSeattleeachyear.GMclaimsthatcomparedwithconventionaldieselsitsnewbusesalsochurnout90percentlessparticulatematter—aknowncarcinogen."Busesareamajorsourceofpollutioninanycity"saysDaveKircherofthePugetSoundCleanAirAgency."Theyoperatewherepeoplearebreathingthisexhaustsothisisamajorstepforwardintermsofemissions." Andamajorstepforwardinthemarketplace:PhiladelphiaHonoluluLongBeachCalif.andAlbuquerqueN.M.haveallboughttheGMbusesinrecentmonths.GMisnowtoutingitselfinadsasthetophybrid-businnovatorbutSiemensisamongtheglobalgiantsduelingGMfornewbusinessandNewYorkplanstodeploy325BAESystemshybridsby2006."There’sroomforcompetition"saysJamesCannoneditorofHybridVehiclesnewsletter.SeemsSeattleisn’ttheonlycitytryingtoleavegrungebehind. HowdoesGenoaprotectitsarchitecturaltreasures
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 10
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 14
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 2
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 20
JamesShapirofollowshisaward-winningbookonWilliamShakespeare1599whichcameoutin2005withanunlikelysubject:aninvestigationintotheoldchestnutthatShakespearewasn’tthemanwhowrotetheworks. MostmainstreamShakespeareansstandalooffromit.ButapparentlytheclaimsofFrancisBaconEdwarddeVereandChristopherMarloweamongothersareontherise.46Anappetiteforconspiracytheoriescombinedwithacallfor"balance"fromsomesectorsofacademeandtheriseoftheInternethasgiventhethingnewlife.Respectableaudiencesturnuptolistentolecturesonit.Thecontroversyiseventaughtatuniversitylevel."Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhowrotetheplays"someoneaskedtheauthorwearily.Mr.ShapiroforwhomShakespearewasdefinitelythemanthinksitmattersalotandbytheendofthisbookhisreaderswillthinksotoo. Theauthorshipcontroversyturnsontwothings.snobberyandtheassumptionthatinaliteralwayyouarewhatyouwrite.Howcouldanuntutoreduntravelledglover’ssonfromhickvilletheargumentgoesunderstandkingsandcourtiersaffairsofstatephilosophylawmusic-letalonethenobleartoffalconry47Worsestillhowcouldthebusiness-mindedproperty-owningmoneylendingmaterialistthatemergesfromthedocumentaryscrapsbethesamemanasthepoetoftheplays Mr.Shapiroteasesoutthecuhuralprejudicesthehistoricalblindspotsandabovealltheanachronisminherentinthesequestions.Noonebeforethelate18thcenturyhadeveraskedthemorthoughttoreadtheplaysorsonnetsforbiographicalinsights.Noonehadevenbotheredtoworkoutachronologyforthem.48Theideathatworksofliteratureholdpersonalcluesorthat--moregrandly--writingisanexpressionandexplorationoftheselfisarelativelyrecentphenomenon. ContestedWillisdensewithlivesandstoriesandargument.Itisalsoentertaining.Thequestforthetrueclaimantdrovepeoplemad.49Herearesecretsandcodesanelaboratecipher-breakingmachineanobsessionwithgravesandcrazyadventurestofindlostmanuscripts.OnemanspentmonthsdredgingtheRiverSevern.Mr.Shapirohimselfturnssleuthexposingasfraudulentapieceofevidencelongthoughttobegenuine-onemorehoaxinthelonghistoryofShakespeareanwildgoosechases. 50TheShakespearethatemergesisbothsimpleandmysterious:amanofthetheatrewhoreadobservedlistenedandremembered.BeyondthatisimaginationInessencethat’swhatthebookisabout. 46AnappetiteforconspiracytheoriescombinedwithacallforbalancefromsomesectorsofacademeandtheriseoftheInternethasgiventhethingnewlife.
AlthoughnolongerslaversaftertheCivilWarAmericanblackstooknosignificantpartinthelifeofwhiteAmericaexceptasservantsorlaborers.Manythousandsofthememigratedfromthewar-ravagedSouthtotheNorthfrom1865to1915inthehopeoffindingworkinthebigindustrialcities.WholecommunitiesofblackscrowdedtogetherintoghettosinNewYorkCityChicagoandDetroitwhereoncethepoorwhiteimmigrantshadlived.Theseghettosneglectedbythecityauthoritiesbecameslums.Theschoolstowhichblackchildrenwentwerehopelesslyinadequate.Unemploymentinblackghettosremainedconsistentlyhigherthaninwhitecommunities. 41.Seriousproblemswithblackghettos.__________ Stablefamilylifewasdifficulttomaintain. 42.Theextremepovertyoftheblacks.__________ Inthelate1970snearlyathirdofallblacksstillbelongedtotheso-called"underclass"theyareso"under-privileged"andpoorthattheycannotseizetheopportunityforadvancement. 43.Effortstoputanendtoracialdiscrimination.__________ RacerelationsintheUSAcontinuetobeathornyproblem. 44.Improvementsinlivesoftheblacks.__________ Despitesomesetbacksracerelationsareimproving. 45.Prevailingviolenceinsolvingracialproblems.__________ Itissaidthattelevisionhadanenormousinfluenceonfrustratedandbitterblacksforitshowedthembowmuchbetterwhitesonthewholelivedthanblacks.Attheendofthe1960stherewereseriousriotsinmanycities. Theviolencequicklydieddown.Blacksbegantousetheirvotestoexertpoliticalpressure.CitieslikeAtlantaGeorgiaGaryIndianaandLosAngelesCaliforniaelectedblackmayors.IntegrationofschoolsdespiteresistancefromwhitegroupsgoesonandtheproportionofblacksinAmericancollegeshasincreaseddramaticallyinthelast20years.Therearereasonstomaintainacautiousoptimismthatprogressinracerelationswillcontinue. [A]Ithasbeenestimatedthattherearemorethan20millionAmericansinthiscategory10%ofthepopulationincludingmanymillionsofwhites. [B]Blacksaregaininginself-confidence.Inmoreandmoreareastheyarewinningcontroloftheircommunitiesandtheirstandardoflivingisgoingupfasterthanthatofthepoorwhites.Itisstillahardstruggle.ThereisstillprejudiceandevensomehatredbutinmostwalksofAmericanlifetherearenowmoreblacksthaneverbefore. [C]Theeraofblatantdiscriminationendedinthe1960sthroughthecourageousactionsofthousandsofblacksparticipatinginpeacefulmarchesandsitinstoforceSouthernstatestoimplementtheFederaldesegregationlawsinschoolsandpublicaccommodations.Downcamethe"whitesonly"noticesinbusedhotelstrainsrestaurantssportingeventsrestroomsandonparkbenchesthatoncecouldbefoundeverywherethroughouttheSouth.Goneweretherestrictionsthatpreventedblacksvoting.Gonetoowerethehideouslynch-ingswhichsincetheCivilWarhadcausedthedeathofthousandsofinnocentblacks—hangedwithouttrialbywhitemobs.Howevereventodaypooruneducatedlacksdonotalwaysreceivethesamedegreeofjusticethatthemoreaffluentandbettereducatedcanexpect. [D]Manyblackschosetokeepsilentabouttheirunfairnessinsteadofresortingtoviolence.Buttheirsilencewasalsoproblemprovoking:ontheonehandsilencewouldbuildupalotofcomplaintsandhatredintheirmindsthusresultinginanegativeapproachtolifeandeverything;ontheotherhandsilencewouldgivethewhitesanimpressionthattheblackstaketherealityforgrantedandputmoreracialdiscriminationonthem. [E]Unemployedfatherswouldonoccasionwalkoutoftheirhomesandneverreturn.Childrenneglectedbytheirparentsturnedinsomeinstancestodrugsandcrimes.Therearemorethan700murdersayearincitieslikeNewYorkDetroitLosAngelesandHoustonandmostofthesedeathsareofblackskilledbyblacks.Theblackghettosaredangerousbothforblacksandnon-blacks. [F]RadicalblacksliketheBlackPanthersdemandedafreeblackstatewithintheUnionandadvocatedviolencetoachievethatendandtoprotectthemselvesagainstwhattheyfeltwaspolicebrutalitytowardblacks.ForawhileviolenceovershadowedtheinfluenceofthegreatlyrespectedpacifistblackMartinLutherKingJr.whohadprovidedtheinspirationandleadershipforthosedevotedtoapeacefulchangeandwhosemurderin1968stunnedAmerica. 42
SomeoilcompaniesplantogetridofsomeofthepollutiontheyproducebypumpingitintorocksdeepinsidetheEarthwheretheysayitwillstayforthousandsofyears.Otherpeoplethougharen’tsosurethisisadvisable;environmentalgroupssaythatputtingthispollutionbackintotheEarthisabadidea. Whenoilburnsitdoesn’tjustproduceheat:italsoproducescarbondioxide.Carbondioxideisanaturalpartoftheairbutbecausepeopleburnsomuchoilthere’stoomuchcarbondioxideintheair.Thisextracarbondioxideispollution;somescientificstudiesshowthatcarbondioxideisoneofthe"greenhousegases"thatiscausingtheEarth’stemperaturetorise. Environmentalistssaythattheoilcompanies’plansmaynotwork.Theoilcompaniessaytheyaremakingsurethatthegaswillneverescapebutenvironmentalistswonderhowtheoilcompaniescanbesosurethatthegaswon’tseepintotheair.Theyalsopointoutthatthere’snowaytochecktomakesurethegasisn’tleaking.Inadditiontheenvironmentalistspointoutthatthepumpingcostsmoney--forresearchandforequipment--thattheoilcompaniesshouldbespendingonpreventingpollutionratherthanonjustmovingitsomeplaceelse. AnotherproblemsaysomepeoplewhoareconcernedabouttheEarthisthatiftheoilcompaniesfindacheapwaytogetridoftheirpollutiontheywon’tlookfornewkindsofenergy.Theseenvironmentalistssaythatenergycompaniesshouldberesearchingwaystousehydrogenwindpowerandsolarpowerinsteadoffindingbetterwaystouseoil.Theyarguethatcontinuingtouseoilmeansthatwewillstillneedtobuyoilfromothercountriesinsteadofproducingourowncheapcleanenergy. Environmentalistsalsosaythatburyingpollutionjustpushestheproblemintothefutureratherthanreallysolvingit.TheysaythatiftheoilcompaniespumpcarbondioxideintotherocksinsidetheEarthitwillbethereforthousandsofyearsandthatnooneknowsifthisplan--evenifitworks--mightturnintoapollutionproblemforallofusinthefuture. TheoilcompaniesinsistthattheirplanissafeandthatputtingthegasinsidetheEarthisareasonablewaytodealwithit.TheypointoutthatthereisalotofroomintheEarthforthisextragasandthatputtingcarbondioxideinsidetheEarthmeansthatthegaswon’tbeintheairandifit’snotintheairitwon’tmaketheEarthwarmer. Thebesttitleforthispassagemightbe
JamesShapirofollowshisaward-winningbookonWilliamShakespeare1599whichcameoutin2005withanunlikelysubject:aninvestigationintotheoldchestnutthatShakespearewasn’tthemanwhowrotetheworks. MostmainstreamShakespeareansstandalooffromit.ButapparentlytheclaimsofFrancisBaconEdwarddeVereandChristopherMarloweamongothersareontherise.46Anappetiteforconspiracytheoriescombinedwithacallfor"balance"fromsomesectorsofacademeandtheriseoftheInternethasgiventhethingnewlife.Respectableaudiencesturnuptolistentolecturesonit.Thecontroversyiseventaughtatuniversitylevel."Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhowrotetheplays"someoneaskedtheauthorwearily.Mr.ShapiroforwhomShakespearewasdefinitelythemanthinksitmattersalotandbytheendofthisbookhisreaderswillthinksotoo. Theauthorshipcontroversyturnsontwothings.snobberyandtheassumptionthatinaliteralwayyouarewhatyouwrite.Howcouldanuntutoreduntravelledglover’ssonfromhickvilletheargumentgoesunderstandkingsandcourtiersaffairsofstatephilosophylawmusic-letalonethenobleartoffalconry47Worsestillhowcouldthebusiness-mindedproperty-owningmoneylendingmaterialistthatemergesfromthedocumentaryscrapsbethesamemanasthepoetoftheplays Mr.Shapiroteasesoutthecuhuralprejudicesthehistoricalblindspotsandabovealltheanachronisminherentinthesequestions.Noonebeforethelate18thcenturyhadeveraskedthemorthoughttoreadtheplaysorsonnetsforbiographicalinsights.Noonehadevenbotheredtoworkoutachronologyforthem.48Theideathatworksofliteratureholdpersonalcluesorthat--moregrandly--writingisanexpressionandexplorationoftheselfisarelativelyrecentphenomenon. ContestedWillisdensewithlivesandstoriesandargument.Itisalsoentertaining.Thequestforthetrueclaimantdrovepeoplemad.49Herearesecretsandcodesanelaboratecipher-breakingmachineanobsessionwithgravesandcrazyadventurestofindlostmanuscripts.OnemanspentmonthsdredgingtheRiverSevern.Mr.Shapirohimselfturnssleuthexposingasfraudulentapieceofevidencelongthoughttobegenuine-onemorehoaxinthelonghistoryofShakespeareanwildgoosechases. 50TheShakespearethatemergesisbothsimpleandmysterious:amanofthetheatrewhoreadobservedlistenedandremembered.BeyondthatisimaginationInessencethat’swhatthebookisabout. 48Theideathatworksofliteratureholdpersonalcluesorthat--moregrandly--writingisanexpressionandexplorationoftheselfisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.
Within80yearssomescientistsestimatetheworldmustproducemorethaneighttimesthepresentworldfoodsupply.Theproductivenessofthesearaisesourhopesforanadequatefoodsupplyinthefuture.Aidedbymenofsciencewehavesetforthtofindoutthat70percentoftheearthremainsunexplored--theoceandepths.Thuswemaybetterdiscoverandutilizethesea’snaturalproductsfortheworld’shungry. Itisfishproteinconcentratethatissoughtfromtheseas.ByutilizingtheunharvestedfishinUnitedStateswatersaloneenoughfishproteinconcentratecanbeobtainedtoprovidesupplementalanimalproteinformorethanonebillionpeopleforoneyearatthecostoflessthanhalfacentperdayperperson.Themalnutritionofchildrenisterriblytragic.Butthecrimeliesinsociety’sunrestrainedbreedingnotinitsnegligenceinproducingfishpowder.Butwhereverthepopulationprojectsarecarefullyconsideredtheanswertotheproblemissomethinglikethis:Therearefewprojectsthatcoulddomoretoraisethenutritionallevelofmankindthanafull-scalescientificefforttodeveloptheresourcesofthesea.Eachyearsomethirtymilliontonsoffoodproductsaretakenfromtheseawhichaccountfor12percentoftheworld’sanimalproteins.Nationswiththeirswellingpopulationsmustpushforwardintotheseafrontiersforfoodsupplies.Privateindustrymuststepupitsmarineresearchandthefederalgovernmentmustmakenewattacksontheproblemsofmarineresearchdevelopment.Thereisatoneofdesperatenessinallthesedesignsonthesea. Butwhatismoststartlingistheassumptionthattheseasareanuntouchedresource.Thefactisthattheseashavebeenandarebeinghurtdirectlyandindirectlybythesameforcesthathaveabusedtheland.Inthebroadpatternofecologicalrelationshipstheseasarenotseparablefromwhathappensontheland.Thepoisonsthatpollutethesoilandtheairbringinmassivedosesintothe"continentalshelf"waters.Thedirtandpollutionthatspillsfromoururbansewersandindustrialoutfallsdespoilourbaysandcoastalwaters.Alltheborderseasarealreadyheavilypollutedbythesameexploitationdrivesthathaveunderminedthequalityoflifeonland. Fromthelastparagraphwelearnthat
Whenolderpeoplecannolongerremembernamesatacocktailpartytheytendtothinkthattheirbrainpowerisdeclining.Butagrowingnumberofstudiessuggestthatthisassumptionisoftenwrong.Insteadtheresearchfindstheagingbrainissimplytakinginmoredataandtryingtosiftthroughaclutterofinformationoftentoitslong-termbenefit.Thestudiesareanalyzedinaneweditionofaneurologybook"ProgressinBrainResearch." Somebrainsdodeterioratewithage.Alzheimer’sdiseaseforexamplestrikes13percentofAmericans65andolder.Butformostagingadultstheauthorssaymuchofwhatoccursisagraduallywideningfocusofattentionthatmakesitmoredifficulttolatchontojustonefactlikeanameoratelephonenumber.Althoughthatcanbefrustratingitisoftenuseful."Itmaybethatdistractibilityisnotinfactabadthing"saidShelleyH.CarsonapsychologyresearcheratHarvardwhoseworkwascitedinthebook."Itmayincreasetheamountofinformationavailabletotheconsciousmind." Forexampleinstudieswheresubjectsareaskedtoreadpassagesthatareinterruptedwithunexpectedwordsorphrasesadults60andolderworkmuchmoreslowlythancollegestudents.Althoughthestudentsplowthroughthetextsataconsistentspeedregardlessofwhattheout-of-placewordsmeanolderpeopleslowdownevenmorewhenthewordsarerelatedtothetopicathand.Thatindicatesthattheyarenotjuststumblingovertheextrainformationbutaretakingitinandprocessingit.Whenbothgroupswerelateraskedquestionsforwhichtheout-of-placewordsmightbeanswerstheolderadultsrespondedmuchbetterthanthestudents. "Fortheyoungpeopleit’sasifthedistractionneverhappened"saidanauthorofthereviewLynnHasheraprofessorofpsychologyattheUniversityofTorontoandaseniorscientistattheRotmanResearchInstitute."Butforolderadultsbecausethey’veretainedallthisextradatathey’renowsuddenlythebetterproblemsolvers.Theycantransfertheinformationthey’vesoakedupfromonesituationtoanother." Suchtendenciescanyieldbigadvantagesintherealworldwhereitisnotalwaysclearwhatinformationisimportantorwillbecomeimportant.Aseeminglyirrelevantpointorsuggestioninamemocantakeonnewmeaningiftheoriginalplanchanges.Orextradetailsthatstoleyourattentionlikeothers’yawningandfidgetingmayhelpyouassessthespeaker’srealimpact. Fromthefirsttwoparagraphswelearnthat
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 8
In1575--over400yearsagotheFrenchscholarLouisLeRoypublishedalearnedbookinwhichhevoiceddespairoverthechangescausedbythesocialandtechnologicalinnovationsofhistimewhatwenowcalltheRenaissance.Wealsofeelthatourtimesareoutofjoint;weevenhavereasontobelievethatourdescendantswillbeworseoffthanweare. Theearthwillsoonbeovercrowdedanditsresourcesexhausted.Pollutionwillruintheenvironmentupsettheclimateandendangerhumanhealth.Thegapinlivingstandardsbetweentherichandthepoorwillwidenandleadtheangryhungrypeopleoftheworldtoactsofdesperationincludingtheuseofnuclearweaponsasblackmail.Sucharetheinevitableconsequencesofpopulationandtechnologicalgrowthifpresenttrendscontinue. Thefutureisneveraprojectionofthepast.Animalsprobablyhavenochancetoescapefromthetyrannyofbiologicalevolutionbuthumanbeingsareblessedwiththefreedomofsocialevolution.Forustrendisnotdestinyfate.Theescapefromexistingtrendsisnowfacilitatedbythefactthatsocietiesanticipatefuturedangersandtakepreventivestepsagainstexpectedchanges. Despitethewidespreadbeliefthattheworldhasbecometoocomplexforcomprehensionbythehumanbrainmodernsocietieshaveoftenrespondedeffectivelytocriticalsituations.Thedecreaseinbirthratesthepartialprohibitionofpesticidesandtherethinkingoftechnologiesfortheproductionanduseofenergyarebutafewexamplesillustratingasuddenreversaloftrendscausednotbypoliticalupsetsorscientificbreakthroughsbutbypublicawarenessofconsequences. Evenmorestrikingarethesituationsinwhichsocialattitudesconcerningfuturedifficultiesundergorapidchangesbeforetheproblemshavecometopass--witnesstheheatedargumentsabouttheproblemsofbehaviorcontrolandofgeneticengineeringeventhoughthereisasyetnoproofthateffectivemethodscanbedevelopedtomanipulatebehaviorandgenesonapopulationscale. Oneofthecharacteristicsofourtimesisthustherapiditywithwhichstepscanbetakentochangetheorientationofcertaintrendsandeventoreversethem.Suchchangesusuallyemergefromgrassrootmovementsratherthanfromofficialdirectives. Thelogicalorganizationofthetextisthat
JamesShapirofollowshisaward-winningbookonWilliamShakespeare1599whichcameoutin2005withanunlikelysubject:aninvestigationintotheoldchestnutthatShakespearewasn’tthemanwhowrotetheworks. MostmainstreamShakespeareansstandalooffromit.ButapparentlytheclaimsofFrancisBaconEdwarddeVereandChristopherMarloweamongothersareontherise.46Anappetiteforconspiracytheoriescombinedwithacallfor"balance"fromsomesectorsofacademeandtheriseoftheInternethasgiventhethingnewlife.Respectableaudiencesturnuptolistentolecturesonit.Thecontroversyiseventaughtatuniversitylevel."Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhowrotetheplays"someoneaskedtheauthorwearily.Mr.ShapiroforwhomShakespearewasdefinitelythemanthinksitmattersalotandbytheendofthisbookhisreaderswillthinksotoo. Theauthorshipcontroversyturnsontwothings.snobberyandtheassumptionthatinaliteralwayyouarewhatyouwrite.Howcouldanuntutoreduntravelledglover’ssonfromhickvilletheargumentgoesunderstandkingsandcourtiersaffairsofstatephilosophylawmusic-letalonethenobleartoffalconry47Worsestillhowcouldthebusiness-mindedproperty-owningmoneylendingmaterialistthatemergesfromthedocumentaryscrapsbethesamemanasthepoetoftheplays Mr.Shapiroteasesoutthecuhuralprejudicesthehistoricalblindspotsandabovealltheanachronisminherentinthesequestions.Noonebeforethelate18thcenturyhadeveraskedthemorthoughttoreadtheplaysorsonnetsforbiographicalinsights.Noonehadevenbotheredtoworkoutachronologyforthem.48Theideathatworksofliteratureholdpersonalcluesorthat--moregrandly--writingisanexpressionandexplorationoftheselfisarelativelyrecentphenomenon. ContestedWillisdensewithlivesandstoriesandargument.Itisalsoentertaining.Thequestforthetrueclaimantdrovepeoplemad.49Herearesecretsandcodesanelaboratecipher-breakingmachineanobsessionwithgravesandcrazyadventurestofindlostmanuscripts.OnemanspentmonthsdredgingtheRiverSevern.Mr.Shapirohimselfturnssleuthexposingasfraudulentapieceofevidencelongthoughttobegenuine-onemorehoaxinthelonghistoryofShakespeareanwildgoosechases. 50TheShakespearethatemergesisbothsimpleandmysterious:amanofthetheatrewhoreadobservedlistenedandremembered.BeyondthatisimaginationInessencethat’swhatthebookisabout. 50TheShakespearethatemergesisbothsimpleandmysterious:amanofthetheatrewhoreadobservedlistenedandremembered.
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 6
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. Thepriceperclickdependsonthekeywordbecause
Theideathatsomegroupsofpeoplemaybemoreintelligentthanothersisoneofthosehypothesesthatdarenotspeakitsname.ButGregoryCochranis1tosayitanyway.Heisthat2birdascientistwhoworksindependently3anyinstitution.Hehelpedpopularizetheideathatsomediseasesnot4thoughttohaveabacterialcausewereactuallyinfectionswhicharousedmuchcontroversywhenitwasfirstsuggested. 5hehowevermighttrembleatthe6ofwhatheisabouttodo.Togetherwithanothertwoscientistsheispublishingapaperwhichnotonly7thatonegroupofhumanityismoreintelligentthantheothersbutexplainstheprocessthathasbroughtthisabout.Thegroupin8areaparticularpeopleoriginatedfromcentralEurope.Theprocessisnaturalselection. ThisgroupgenerallydowellinIQtest912-15pointsabovethe10valueof100andhavecontributed11totheintellectualandculturallifeoftheWestasthe12oftheirelitesincludingseveralworld-renownedscientists13.Theyalsosuffermoreoftenthanmostpeoplefromanumberofnastygeneticdiseasessuchasbreastcancer.Thesefacts14havepreviouslybeenthoughtunrelated.Theformerhasbeen15tosocialeffectssuchasastrongtraditionof16education.Thelatterwasseenasaan17ofgeneticisolation.Dr.Cochransuggeststhattheintelligenceanddiseasesareintimately18.Hisargumentisthattheunusualhistoryofthesepeoplehas19themtouniqueevolutionarypressuresthathaveresultedinthis20stateofaffairs. 4
JimBoonisahybridkindofguy.HedrivesaToyotahybridtoworkaHondahybridonweekendsandasamanagerforSeattlepublictransitherecentlyplacedtheworld’slargestorderforhybridelectricbuses. Nowwiththebiggesthybrid-busfleetintheworldSeattlehasbecomethemaintestinggroundforatechnologythatclaimsitcandrasticallycutairpollutionandfuelconsumption.Inthe1990sdemofleetsof35busesorfewerstartedcroppingupincitiessuchasTempeAriz.SixteenoftheseearlyhybridsstillserviceGenoaItalywheredriversswitchfromdieseltoelectricpowerwhenpassingthecity’sdowntownarchitecturaltreasures.ButnocityhasgoneasfarasSeattlewhichlastyearbought235GMhybridbusesat$645000apop.WhenthefinalonerollsoutthisDecembertheregion’sbussystemwillbe15percenthybrid. ButwhySeattleandwhynowThePacificNorthwesthaslongbeenahotbedofbothGreenpoliticsandcutting-edgetechnology.FourteenyearsagotheSeattleareabought236Italian-madeBredabusestoserviceamile-longdowntowntunnel.Theyweresupposedtooperateascleanelectrictrolleysundergroundbuttheswitchingmechanismoftenfailedand"thebusdrovethroughthetunnelasadiesel"saysBoon."Itwasprettyloudandsmoky." WhentheBredashitretirementagein2002Boonwentshopping.HechosetheGMbusesbecausetheyuseanautomatictransmissionanddieselboostersthatprovidepowertoscaleinclineswithoutstrain.InhillySeattletheprospectofahybridthatcouldclimblikeadieselbutacceleratewithoutbelchingblackfumeshelpedjustifyaprice$200000higherthanthatofaregularbus."Thedaysofseeingadieselpullawayandpouroutsmokeareover"saysBoon."AfterwedrovethesehybridbusesacrossthecountryIwipedahandkerchiefinsidethetailpipe.Itcameoutspotless." Expertssaybusesarecriticaltorealizingthehybriddreamofgreaterefficiencyandcleanerair.Itwouldtakethousandsofhybridcarstosaveasmanygallonsofgas750000asBoonexpectshisbusestosaveSeattleeachyear.GMclaimsthatcomparedwithconventionaldieselsitsnewbusesalsochurnout90percentlessparticulatematter—aknowncarcinogen."Busesareamajorsourceofpollutioninanycity"saysDaveKircherofthePugetSoundCleanAirAgency."Theyoperatewherepeoplearebreathingthisexhaustsothisisamajorstepforwardintermsofemissions." Andamajorstepforwardinthemarketplace:PhiladelphiaHonoluluLongBeachCalif.andAlbuquerqueN.M.haveallboughttheGMbusesinrecentmonths.GMisnowtoutingitselfinadsasthetophybrid-businnovatorbutSiemensisamongtheglobalgiantsduelingGMfornewbusinessandNewYorkplanstodeploy325BAESystemshybridsby2006."There’sroomforcompetition"saysJamesCannoneditorofHybridVehiclesnewsletter.SeemsSeattleisn’ttheonlycitytryingtoleavegrungebehind. Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
SomeoilcompaniesplantogetridofsomeofthepollutiontheyproducebypumpingitintorocksdeepinsidetheEarthwheretheysayitwillstayforthousandsofyears.Otherpeoplethougharen’tsosurethisisadvisable;environmentalgroupssaythatputtingthispollutionbackintotheEarthisabadidea. Whenoilburnsitdoesn’tjustproduceheat:italsoproducescarbondioxide.Carbondioxideisanaturalpartoftheairbutbecausepeopleburnsomuchoilthere’stoomuchcarbondioxideintheair.Thisextracarbondioxideispollution;somescientificstudiesshowthatcarbondioxideisoneofthe"greenhousegases"thatiscausingtheEarth’stemperaturetorise. Environmentalistssaythattheoilcompanies’plansmaynotwork.Theoilcompaniessaytheyaremakingsurethatthegaswillneverescapebutenvironmentalistswonderhowtheoilcompaniescanbesosurethatthegaswon’tseepintotheair.Theyalsopointoutthatthere’snowaytochecktomakesurethegasisn’tleaking.Inadditiontheenvironmentalistspointoutthatthepumpingcostsmoney--forresearchandforequipment--thattheoilcompaniesshouldbespendingonpreventingpollutionratherthanonjustmovingitsomeplaceelse. AnotherproblemsaysomepeoplewhoareconcernedabouttheEarthisthatiftheoilcompaniesfindacheapwaytogetridoftheirpollutiontheywon’tlookfornewkindsofenergy.Theseenvironmentalistssaythatenergycompaniesshouldberesearchingwaystousehydrogenwindpowerandsolarpowerinsteadoffindingbetterwaystouseoil.Theyarguethatcontinuingtouseoilmeansthatwewillstillneedtobuyoilfromothercountriesinsteadofproducingourowncheapcleanenergy. Environmentalistsalsosaythatburyingpollutionjustpushestheproblemintothefutureratherthanreallysolvingit.TheysaythatiftheoilcompaniespumpcarbondioxideintotherocksinsidetheEarthitwillbethereforthousandsofyearsandthatnooneknowsifthisplan--evenifitworks--mightturnintoapollutionproblemforallofusinthefuture. TheoilcompaniesinsistthattheirplanissafeandthatputtingthegasinsidetheEarthisareasonablewaytodealwithit.TheypointoutthatthereisalotofroomintheEarthforthisextragasandthatputtingcarbondioxideinsidetheEarthmeansthatthegaswon’tbeintheairandifit’snotintheairitwon’tmaketheEarthwarmer. Accordingtosomeenvironmentalisttheoilcompanies
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