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For most of us, work is the central, dominating fact of life. We spend more than half our conscious ...
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Itisdifficulttoseehowonecanteachifoneisnotlearning.Buttherearesomedistinctionstobemadehere.Torelyonlastyear’snotesor--evenworse--one’slastyear’smemoryasifthatwouldalwaysbeanadequatebasisforpassingonknowledgeistomistakewhathumanknowledgeis.46.Andsotheassimilationofbooksthereadingofarticlesthepursuitofmattersofconcernwillbecrucialtoone’sabilitytointroduceanddevelopastudent’sabilitytoparticipateinaspecificuniverseofdiscourse. Researchmightbethoughttobeanothermatterespeciallyifitisdefinedasaddingtothesumtotalofhumanknowledge.47.Theexpansionofhighereducationwhichhastakenplaceandmoreparticularlytheexpansionwhichislikelytotakeplacesimplymakesitunlikelythatallthosewhoarelegitimatelyinvolvedintheteachingandwhofulfilltheirresponsibilitiesutterlyinthatregardarethemselvesallcapableofaddinganythingworthhavingtothesumtotalofhumanknowledge.Itseemsbestthereforenottoassumeitandnottopresumewhatinprincipleisundeliverable.Ontheotherhandaninstitutionofhighereducationwhichisnotcommittedasacommunitytoresearchwillbedefective.48.Thelimitofwhatweknowmustbeapparentthemeansandopportunitiesofinquirymustbeunderstoodthevalueofresearchsharedevenifitisonlysomemembersofadepartmentafacultyoraninstitutionwhoareactuallyengagedinit.Scholarshipisforall;researchforthosewhoaremostadept.49.Ofcourseapropercelebrationoftheroleofteachingandtheartoftheteacherwillhelptoputfighttheveryseriousdisparityofesteemwhichisaffectingourjudgmentinthisarea. Butallthishasimplicationsforstaffdevelopment.Thedistributionofresourcesbytheinstitutionwillbeajudgmentonitsmoralperspective.Sotheidentificationandsupportofwaysinwhichteachingcanbeimprovedwillbeasimportantasthedevelopmentofresearchinthelifeofanacademiccommunity.50.Somethingsignificantisdonebythesupportofscholarshipbyfinancingattendanceatconferences;butattentiontoteachingstylesandlearningstrategiesthroughcoursesdiscussionvisitinglecturesschoolsmayallbeasimportant. 47
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 19
Inaworldwherebadnewshasbecomeeverydaynewspeopleareturningtoanancienttechniquetodealwithstress:meditation.AtmeditationcentersprayergroupsandyogastudiosaroundtheUnitedStatesmoreandmorearefindingpeaceofmindbybeingquiet.Someusemeditationtohelpdealwithlifechanges;otherstoprocessthepainfulrealityofpoliticalandsocialunrestaroundtheworldofthetypethathasbeenexperiencedmorerecently.StressfromtheSeptember11terroristattacksisprobablyabout70percentofthereasononeChicagomanstartedmeditatingandpracticingyogawithhisnewwife.Hebecamesoemotionallyaffectedthatherealizedheneededhelpinmanaginghisstress.Theyogaclasseshetakesbeginandendwithmeditation.Thisquiettimehelpshimfeelalotmorerelaxedandgiveshimmorebreathcontrol.Thefactisthoughthatheisnotalone.Acrossthecountrymanyareturningtomoremeditativeexerciseastheyseekbothpsychologicalandphysiologicalrelief.InadditiontohelpingpeopleworkouttheirstresstheseclassesbringpeopletogetherinthesamewaythatreligiousServicesorothercommunityactivitieshavedoneinthepast.Differentschoolsofmeditationteachparticulartechniquesbuttheyshareacommonbasis-focusingattentiononsomethingyourmindcanreturntoifyouaredistracted.Thismaybetherhythmofbreathinganobjectsuchasacandleflameorarepetitivemovementasinwalkingortaiji.Regardlessofthespecifictechniqueormodethatisfollowedmeditationhaswell-documentedbenefits.Medicalresearchindicatesthatitcausesasharpdecreaseinmetabolicactivityreducedmuscletensionslowerbreathingandashiftfromfasterbrainwavestoslowerwavesitalsoreduceshighbloodpressure.Practitionersareconvincedthatmeditationisgoodforhealthbecauseitrelaxesthebody.Foragesmeditationhasbeenacorepracticeofmanygroupsmeetingintheircommunalorreligiouscenters.Howeverlet’snotforgetthatthisisthetwenty-firstcentury.SoforthosepeoplewhoaretooshyorbusytogotothenearestmeditationcenterthereareInternetsitesthatofferonlineguidedmeditation.Onehasavarietyofmeditationsfromvariousreligioustraditions.AtanotherJesuitpriestspostmeditationsandreadingsfromtheScriptureseverydayandatstillanotherBuddhistandHindupractitionersincludemusicandvisualstoaccompanytheirofferings.Thesewebsites’allowanyonewithacomputeraccesstomeditationatanytime.Thefactisthatwhetheronlineatyogaclassesoratlocalspiritualcentersmorepeopleareturningtothepracticeofmeditation.Variousmeditativetechniquesallrequires
Inaworldwherebadnewshasbecomeeverydaynewspeopleareturningtoanancienttechniquetodealwithstress:meditation.AtmeditationcentersprayergroupsandyogastudiosaroundtheUnitedStatesmoreandmorearefindingpeaceofmindbybeingquiet.Someusemeditationtohelpdealwithlifechanges;otherstoprocessthepainfulrealityofpoliticalandsocialunrestaroundtheworldofthetypethathasbeenexperiencedmorerecently.StressfromtheSeptember11terroristattacksisprobablyabout70percentofthereasononeChicagomanstartedmeditatingandpracticingyogawithhisnewwife.Hebecamesoemotionallyaffectedthatherealizedheneededhelpinmanaginghisstress.Theyogaclasseshetakesbeginandendwithmeditation.Thisquiettimehelpshimfeelalotmorerelaxedandgiveshimmorebreathcontrol.Thefactisthoughthatheisnotalone.Acrossthecountrymanyareturningtomoremeditativeexerciseastheyseekbothpsychologicalandphysiologicalrelief.InadditiontohelpingpeopleworkouttheirstresstheseclassesbringpeopletogetherinthesamewaythatreligiousServicesorothercommunityactivitieshavedoneinthepast.Differentschoolsofmeditationteachparticulartechniquesbuttheyshareacommonbasis-focusingattentiononsomethingyourmindcanreturntoifyouaredistracted.Thismaybetherhythmofbreathinganobjectsuchasacandleflameorarepetitivemovementasinwalkingortaiji.Regardlessofthespecifictechniqueormodethatisfollowedmeditationhaswell-documentedbenefits.Medicalresearchindicatesthatitcausesasharpdecreaseinmetabolicactivityreducedmuscletensionslowerbreathingandashiftfromfasterbrainwavestoslowerwavesitalsoreduceshighbloodpressure.Practitionersareconvincedthatmeditationisgoodforhealthbecauseitrelaxesthebody.Foragesmeditationhasbeenacorepracticeofmanygroupsmeetingintheircommunalorreligiouscenters.Howeverlet’snotforgetthatthisisthetwenty-firstcentury.SoforthosepeoplewhoaretooshyorbusytogotothenearestmeditationcenterthereareInternetsitesthatofferonlineguidedmeditation.Onehasavarietyofmeditationsfromvariousreligioustraditions.AtanotherJesuitpriestspostmeditationsandreadingsfromtheScriptureseverydayandatstillanotherBuddhistandHindupractitionersincludemusicandvisualstoaccompanytheirofferings.Thesewebsites’allowanyonewithacomputeraccesstomeditationatanytime.Thefactisthatwhetheronlineatyogaclassesoratlocalspiritualcentersmorepeopleareturningtothepracticeofmeditation.Inthisnewerameditationischaracterizedby
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 3
OnSeptember30thstudentsattheUniversityofMassachusettsthrewatogaaceremonialgownparty.Thecopsshowedupuninvited.TheychargedthehostJamesConnollywithunderagedrinkingmakingtoomuchnoiseandhavingakegwithoutalicence.Forpunishmenthehadtoputonhistogaagainandstandinfrontofthepolicestationforanhour.DanMarkelofFloridaStateUniversityreckonsthatsuchshamingpunishmentsareontherise.In2003acoupleofteenagerswhodefacedanativitysceneinOhiohadtoparadethroughtownwithadonkey.ThepunishmentmustfitthecrimeexplainedthejudgeMichaelCicconetti.SeveralcitieshaveairedthenamesofmencaughtsolicitingprostitutesonJohnTV.In2004afederalappealscourtagreedthatamailthiefcouldbemadetostandoutsideaCaliforniapostofficewearingasandwichboard.Istolemailitread.Thisismypunishment.InVirginiaifyoufailtopaychildsupportyoumayfindyourcarwheel-clamped:pinkifyouareneglectingagirlblueforaboy.Manysupportshamingpunishments.AmitaiEtzioniofGeorgeWashingtonUniversityhasarguedthattheyareagoodwaytoexpresscommunalvalues.Finesincontrastimplythatyoucanbuyaclearconscience.Andshameseemstobeapowerfuldeterrent.MrCicconettisaysheseesfewrepeatoffenders.CheerfulHobbesiantypeswanteveryonetoknowwhothebadguysaresothatdecentcitizenscanavoidthem.Othersaredoubtful.AccordingtoMrMarkelshamingpunishmentsunderminehumandignity.Hesuggestsalternativepunishmentsthatomitthepublic-humiliationfactor.Alandlordwhofloutsthehealthcodeforexamplecouldbemadetostayinoneofhisownslums.Anditistruethatthereissomethingunpleasantaboutthedesiretoseeotherpeoplehumiliated.RememberthematronwhoobjectstoHesterPrynne’sscarletletter:Whylookyoushemaycoveritwithabroochorsuchlikeheathenishadornmentandsowalkthestreetsasbraveasever!Butvotersappeartobecomfortableonthehighhorse.TedPoeaformerdistrictjudgefromTexasmadehisreputationbyissuingastringofembarrassingsentences.HecalledthisPoeticjustice.OncehesentencedamanwhostolepistolsfromtheLoneRangertoshovelmanureintheHoustonpolicestables.In2004MrPoewaselectedtotheHouseofRepresentativesathisfirstattempt.Alotofpeopleapproveshamingpunishmentsbecause
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 17
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 13
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 11
[A]Demographicdeclineworriespeoplebecauseitisbelievedtogohandinhandwitheconomicdecline.Attheextremesitmaywellbetheresultofeconomicfactors:pessimismmaydepressthebirthrateandpushupratesofsuicideandalcoholism.Butinthemaindemographicdeclineistheconsequenceofthelowfertilitythatgenerallygoeswithgrowingprosperity.InJapanforinstancebirthratesfellbelowthereplacementrateof2.1childrenperwomaninthemid-1970sandhavebeenparticularlylowinthepast15years. [B]Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturytheglobalpopulationexplosionwasthebigdemographicannoyance.RobertMcNamarapresidentoftheWorldBankinthe1970scomparedthethreatofunmanageablepopulationpressureswiththedangerofnuclearwar.Nowthatworryhasevaporatedandthiscenturyisfrighteningitselfwiththeoppositefear:theonsetofdemographicdecline. [C]GovernmentshatetheideaofashrinkingpopulationbecausetheabsolutesizeofGDPmattersforgreat-powerstatus.Thebiggertheeconomythebiggerthemilitarythegreaterthegeopoliticalclout:annualGDPestimateswerefirstintroducedinAmericainthe1940saspartofitswareffort.Companiesworrytoo:theydonotliketheideaoftheirdomesticmarketsshrinking.Peopleshouldnotmindthough.WhatmattersforeconomicwelfareisGDPperperson. [D]Peoplelovetoworry--maybeit’sasymptomofageingpopulations--butthegloomsurroundingpopulationdeclinesmissesthemainpoint.Thenewdemographicsthatarecausingpopulationstoageandtoshrinkaresomethingtocelebrate.Humanitywasoncecaughtinthetrapofhighfertilityandhighmortality.Nowithasescapedintothefreedomoflowfertilityandlowmortality.Women’scontroloverthenumberofchildrentheyhaveisanunqualifiedgood--asistheaverageperson’senjoymentinrichcountriesoftenmoreyearsoflifethantheyhadin1960.Politiciansmayfearthedeclineoftheirnations’economicpowerbutpeopleshouldcelebratethenewdemographicsasheraldingagoldenage. [E]TheshrinkageofRussiaandeasternEuropeisfamiliarthoughnotperhapsthescaleofit:Russia’spopulationisexpectedtofallby22%between2005and2050Ukraine’sbyastaggering43%.Nowthephenomenoniscreepingintotherichworld:JapanhasstartedtoshrinkandotherssuchasItalyandGermanywillsoonfollow.EvenChina’spopulationwillbedecliningbytheearly2030saccordingtotheUNwhichprojectsthatby2050populationswillbelowerthantheyaretodayin50countries. [F]ButifdemographicdeclineisnotgenerallyaconsequenceofeconomicdeclinesurelyitmustbeacauseInacrudesenseyes.AspopulationsshrinkGDPgrowthwillslow.Someeconomiesmayevenstarttoshrinktoo.Theresultwillbealossofeconomicinfluence. [G]ThecrucialquestionisthereforewhattheeffectofdemographicdeclineisonthegrowthofGDPperperson.Thebadnewsisthatthislookslikelytoslowbecauseworking-agepopulationsWilldeclinemorerapidlythanoverallpopulations.Yetthisneednothappen.ProductivitygrowthmaykeepupgrowthinGDPperperson:aslabourbecomesscarcerandpressuretointroducenewtechnologiestoboostworkers’efficiencyincreasessotheproductivityoflabourmayrisefaster.Anywayretirementagescanbeliftedtoincreasethesupplyoflabourevenwhenthepopulationisdeclining. 43
[A]Demographicdeclineworriespeoplebecauseitisbelievedtogohandinhandwitheconomicdecline.Attheextremesitmaywellbetheresultofeconomicfactors:pessimismmaydepressthebirthrateandpushupratesofsuicideandalcoholism.Butinthemaindemographicdeclineistheconsequenceofthelowfertilitythatgenerallygoeswithgrowingprosperity.InJapanforinstancebirthratesfellbelowthereplacementrateof2.1childrenperwomaninthemid-1970sandhavebeenparticularlylowinthepast15years. [B]Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturytheglobalpopulationexplosionwasthebigdemographicannoyance.RobertMcNamarapresidentoftheWorldBankinthe1970scomparedthethreatofunmanageablepopulationpressureswiththedangerofnuclearwar.Nowthatworryhasevaporatedandthiscenturyisfrighteningitselfwiththeoppositefear:theonsetofdemographicdecline. [C]GovernmentshatetheideaofashrinkingpopulationbecausetheabsolutesizeofGDPmattersforgreat-powerstatus.Thebiggertheeconomythebiggerthemilitarythegreaterthegeopoliticalclout:annualGDPestimateswerefirstintroducedinAmericainthe1940saspartofitswareffort.Companiesworrytoo:theydonotliketheideaoftheirdomesticmarketsshrinking.Peopleshouldnotmindthough.WhatmattersforeconomicwelfareisGDPperperson. [D]Peoplelovetoworry--maybeit’sasymptomofageingpopulations--butthegloomsurroundingpopulationdeclinesmissesthemainpoint.Thenewdemographicsthatarecausingpopulationstoageandtoshrinkaresomethingtocelebrate.Humanitywasoncecaughtinthetrapofhighfertilityandhighmortality.Nowithasescapedintothefreedomoflowfertilityandlowmortality.Women’scontroloverthenumberofchildrentheyhaveisanunqualifiedgood--asistheaverageperson’senjoymentinrichcountriesoftenmoreyearsoflifethantheyhadin1960.Politiciansmayfearthedeclineoftheirnations’economicpowerbutpeopleshouldcelebratethenewdemographicsasheraldingagoldenage. [E]TheshrinkageofRussiaandeasternEuropeisfamiliarthoughnotperhapsthescaleofit:Russia’spopulationisexpectedtofallby22%between2005and2050Ukraine’sbyastaggering43%.Nowthephenomenoniscreepingintotherichworld:JapanhasstartedtoshrinkandotherssuchasItalyandGermanywillsoonfollow.EvenChina’spopulationwillbedecliningbytheearly2030saccordingtotheUNwhichprojectsthatby2050populationswillbelowerthantheyaretodayin50countries. [F]ButifdemographicdeclineisnotgenerallyaconsequenceofeconomicdeclinesurelyitmustbeacauseInacrudesenseyes.AspopulationsshrinkGDPgrowthwillslow.Someeconomiesmayevenstarttoshrinktoo.Theresultwillbealossofeconomicinfluence. [G]ThecrucialquestionisthereforewhattheeffectofdemographicdeclineisonthegrowthofGDPperperson.Thebadnewsisthatthislookslikelytoslowbecauseworking-agepopulationsWilldeclinemorerapidlythanoverallpopulations.Yetthisneednothappen.ProductivitygrowthmaykeepupgrowthinGDPperperson:aslabourbecomesscarcerandpressuretointroducenewtechnologiestoboostworkers’efficiencyincreasessotheproductivityoflabourmayrisefaster.Anywayretirementagescanbeliftedtoincreasethesupplyoflabourevenwhenthepopulationisdeclining. 41
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 9
Cleverrichorboth--almosteverycountryintheworldhassomesortofprogrammetoattractdesirablemigrants.TheonlyexceptionsareweirdplaceslikeBhutansaysChristianKalinofHenley&Partnerswhichspecializesinfixingvisasandpassportsforglobe-trotters.Competitionisfierceandaswithmostthingsthatlowersthepriceandincreaseschoice.Britainhastwoprogrammesonefortherich--whohavetoinvest￡750000$1.36minactivelytradedsecurities--andonemuchlargerfortalentedforeigners.Bothhaveworkedwell.UnlikesomeothercountriesBritaindoesnotmakeapplicantsfindajobfirst:withgoodqualificationstheycanjustturnupandlookforwork.ThathelpskeepBritain’seconomyflexibleandcompetitive.Butnowabureaucraticsnagisthreateningthescheme.TheproblemcomeswithanyonewantingtoconverthisvisaintoindefiniteleavetoremainBritain’sequivalentofAmerica’sGreenCard.Thisnormallyrequiresfouryears’continuousresidenceinBritain.AfterafurtheryearitnormallyleadstoBritishcitizenship.Thelawdefinescontinuousresidencesensibly.Businesstripsandholidaysdon’tcountiftheapplicant’smainhomeisinBritain.Asaruleofthumbanaverageof90daysabroadwasallowedeachyear.ButunpublishedguidelinesseenbyTheEconomistaretougher:theysaythatnoneoftheabsencesabroadshouldbeofmorethanthreemonthsandtheymustnotamounttomorethansixmonthsinall.Overthefouryearsneededtoqualitythataveragesonlysixweeksayear.Formanyjet-settersthisrestrictionisacareer-buster.Sixweeksabroadbarelycoversholidaysletalonebusinesstravel.AlexeiSidneyaRussianconsultanthastoturndownimportantjobsbecausehecannotaffordanymoredaysabroad.IfapplicantstraveltoomuchtheirchildrenrisklosingtherighttoremaininBritain.TheHomeOfficeinsiststhattheruleshavenotchangedsince2001.ThatwouldconfirmMr.Gherson’ssuspicionthatthenewpolicyhascomeinbyaccidentprobablyasaresultofzealorcarelessnessbymid-rankingofficials.Theirattitudeisatoddswiththestanceofthegovernmentwhichhasbeentryingforyearstomakethesystemmoreuser-friendlyfortheworld’selite.ItevenmovedprocessingofbusinessresidencycasesfromahugeofficeinCroydonnotoriousforitsslownessandhostilitytowould-beimmigrantstoanewoutfitinSheffield.ButlawyerssuchasMrKalinareinnodoubtoftheriskBritainisrunning.Americahesaysisalreadylosingoutintheglobaltalentmarketbecauseofitspainfulandhumiliatingimmigrationprocedures.IfBritain’srulesstaytighthesaysforeignerswillgoelsewhere.LikelybeneficiariesareIrelandandAustriaEuropeanUnioncountrieswhoseresidencyvisasandpassportsconferthesameconvenienceasBritishoneswithlesshassle.Thehomeofficeholdstheviewthat
[A]Demographicdeclineworriespeoplebecauseitisbelievedtogohandinhandwitheconomicdecline.Attheextremesitmaywellbetheresultofeconomicfactors:pessimismmaydepressthebirthrateandpushupratesofsuicideandalcoholism.Butinthemaindemographicdeclineistheconsequenceofthelowfertilitythatgenerallygoeswithgrowingprosperity.InJapanforinstancebirthratesfellbelowthereplacementrateof2.1childrenperwomaninthemid-1970sandhavebeenparticularlylowinthepast15years. [B]Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturytheglobalpopulationexplosionwasthebigdemographicannoyance.RobertMcNamarapresidentoftheWorldBankinthe1970scomparedthethreatofunmanageablepopulationpressureswiththedangerofnuclearwar.Nowthatworryhasevaporatedandthiscenturyisfrighteningitselfwiththeoppositefear:theonsetofdemographicdecline. [C]GovernmentshatetheideaofashrinkingpopulationbecausetheabsolutesizeofGDPmattersforgreat-powerstatus.Thebiggertheeconomythebiggerthemilitarythegreaterthegeopoliticalclout:annualGDPestimateswerefirstintroducedinAmericainthe1940saspartofitswareffort.Companiesworrytoo:theydonotliketheideaoftheirdomesticmarketsshrinking.Peopleshouldnotmindthough.WhatmattersforeconomicwelfareisGDPperperson. [D]Peoplelovetoworry--maybeit’sasymptomofageingpopulations--butthegloomsurroundingpopulationdeclinesmissesthemainpoint.Thenewdemographicsthatarecausingpopulationstoageandtoshrinkaresomethingtocelebrate.Humanitywasoncecaughtinthetrapofhighfertilityandhighmortality.Nowithasescapedintothefreedomoflowfertilityandlowmortality.Women’scontroloverthenumberofchildrentheyhaveisanunqualifiedgood--asistheaverageperson’senjoymentinrichcountriesoftenmoreyearsoflifethantheyhadin1960.Politiciansmayfearthedeclineoftheirnations’economicpowerbutpeopleshouldcelebratethenewdemographicsasheraldingagoldenage. [E]TheshrinkageofRussiaandeasternEuropeisfamiliarthoughnotperhapsthescaleofit:Russia’spopulationisexpectedtofallby22%between2005and2050Ukraine’sbyastaggering43%.Nowthephenomenoniscreepingintotherichworld:JapanhasstartedtoshrinkandotherssuchasItalyandGermanywillsoonfollow.EvenChina’spopulationwillbedecliningbytheearly2030saccordingtotheUNwhichprojectsthatby2050populationswillbelowerthantheyaretodayin50countries. [F]ButifdemographicdeclineisnotgenerallyaconsequenceofeconomicdeclinesurelyitmustbeacauseInacrudesenseyes.AspopulationsshrinkGDPgrowthwillslow.Someeconomiesmayevenstarttoshrinktoo.Theresultwillbealossofeconomicinfluence. [G]ThecrucialquestionisthereforewhattheeffectofdemographicdeclineisonthegrowthofGDPperperson.Thebadnewsisthatthislookslikelytoslowbecauseworking-agepopulationsWilldeclinemorerapidlythanoverallpopulations.Yetthisneednothappen.ProductivitygrowthmaykeepupgrowthinGDPperperson:aslabourbecomesscarcerandpressuretointroducenewtechnologiestoboostworkers’efficiencyincreasessotheproductivityoflabourmayrisefaster.Anywayretirementagescanbeliftedtoincreasethesupplyoflabourevenwhenthepopulationisdeclining. 45
Itisdifficulttoseehowonecanteachifoneisnotlearning.Buttherearesomedistinctionstobemadehere.Torelyonlastyear’snotesor--evenworse--one’slastyear’smemoryasifthatwouldalwaysbeanadequatebasisforpassingonknowledgeistomistakewhathumanknowledgeis.46.Andsotheassimilationofbooksthereadingofarticlesthepursuitofmattersofconcernwillbecrucialtoone’sabilitytointroduceanddevelopastudent’sabilitytoparticipateinaspecificuniverseofdiscourse. Researchmightbethoughttobeanothermatterespeciallyifitisdefinedasaddingtothesumtotalofhumanknowledge.47.Theexpansionofhighereducationwhichhastakenplaceandmoreparticularlytheexpansionwhichislikelytotakeplacesimplymakesitunlikelythatallthosewhoarelegitimatelyinvolvedintheteachingandwhofulfilltheirresponsibilitiesutterlyinthatregardarethemselvesallcapableofaddinganythingworthhavingtothesumtotalofhumanknowledge.Itseemsbestthereforenottoassumeitandnottopresumewhatinprincipleisundeliverable.Ontheotherhandaninstitutionofhighereducationwhichisnotcommittedasacommunitytoresearchwillbedefective.48.Thelimitofwhatweknowmustbeapparentthemeansandopportunitiesofinquirymustbeunderstoodthevalueofresearchsharedevenifitisonlysomemembersofadepartmentafacultyoraninstitutionwhoareactuallyengagedinit.Scholarshipisforall;researchforthosewhoaremostadept.49.Ofcourseapropercelebrationoftheroleofteachingandtheartoftheteacherwillhelptoputfighttheveryseriousdisparityofesteemwhichisaffectingourjudgmentinthisarea. Butallthishasimplicationsforstaffdevelopment.Thedistributionofresourcesbytheinstitutionwillbeajudgmentonitsmoralperspective.Sotheidentificationandsupportofwaysinwhichteachingcanbeimprovedwillbeasimportantasthedevelopmentofresearchinthelifeofanacademiccommunity.50.Somethingsignificantisdonebythesupportofscholarshipbyfinancingattendanceatconferences;butattentiontoteachingstylesandlearningstrategiesthroughcoursesdiscussionvisitinglecturesschoolsmayallbeasimportant. 49
WhenacustomerclaimedtohavefoundaseveredfingerinabowlofchilliservedataWendy’sfast-foodfranchiseinCaliforniathechain’ssalesfellbyhalfintheSanJoséareawheretheincidentwasreported.Wendy’sbrandandreputationwereatriskuntiltheclaimwasexposedasahoaxinlateAprilandthecompanyoperatorofAmerica’sthird-biggesthamburgerchainwasvindicated.YetthesharepriceofWendy’sInternationaltheparentcompanyrosesteadilythroughMarchandAprildespitethefingerfuroreanddowngradesfromanalysts.OnereasonwasheavybuyingbyhedgefundsledbyPershingSquareCapital.ThisweekPershingmadeitsintentionspublicsayingthatitwasworriedbymarketrumoursthatWendy’smightsoonbuymorefast-foodbrandsandarguingthatthefirmshouldbesellingassetsinstead.Pershing’sapproachindicatesrisingpressureonAmericanrestaurantcompaniestoperformatatimewhentheindustry’sgrowthprospectslookincreasinglytough.Thehitoncustomers’walletsfromhigherpetrolpricesandrisinginterestrateswillprobablymeanthatyear-on-yearsalesgrowthacrosstheAmericanrestaurantindustryslowstojust1%bythefourthquarterof2005downfromafive-yearhistoricaverageof5.6%sayUBSaninvestmentbankandGlobalInsightaforecastinggroup.LookingfurtheraheadsaysUBS’sDavidPalmertheindustrymayhavetostoprelyingonmostofthelong-termtrendsthatwerebehindmuchofitsrecentgrowth.Three-quartersofAmericansalreadylivewithinthreemilesofaMcDonald’srestaurantleavinglittlescopeforgreen-fieldgrowth.[ObesityisagrowingissueinAmericaandwithitcomethethreatofliabilitylawsuitsagainstbigrestaurantchainsandperhapslegallimitsonadvertising.]ThisweekAmerica’sbiggestfoodtradegrouptheGroceryManufacturers’Associationwassaidtobepreparingtougherguidelinesonthemarketingoffoodtochildreninthehopeofstavingoffstatutorycontrols.Homecookingmayalsobemakingacomebackhelpedbytwofactors.ThepercentageofwomenjoiningAmerica’sworkforcemayhavepeakedandsupermarketchainssuchasWal-Marthavebeenforcingdownretailfoodprices.ExpansionoverseasisoneoptionforAmericanrestaurantchains.BurgerKingtheprivatelyownednumbertwohamburgerchainopeneditsfirstoutletinChinalastmonthapparentlyaimingtomaintainstronggrowthaheadofaninitialpublicofferingnextyear.McDonald’shas600outletsinChinaandplans400more.Butathomethefutureseemstoholdonlyanevermorecompetitiveandcost-consciousrestaurantindustry.Fast-foodchainsaretryingtopoachcustomersfromcasualdiningchainssuchasApplebee’sNeighborhoodGrillwhilethosechainsaresqueezingoutindependentrestaurantsunabletocompeteoncostorinmarketingclout.Businessconditionsnotseveredfingersaretherealthreattotheweakerfirmsintherestaurantbusiness.HowcanAmericanrestaurantchainsacceleratetheirbusiness
Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyuncleansanityones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorleertheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.Theroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheory.Whilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Themainpurposeofthetextisto
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal--theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeepconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatworldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase..EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencearguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Thetextmainlytalksabout
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal--theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeepconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatworldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase..EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencearguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Whatcanweinferfromthelastparagraph’
Inaworldwherebadnewshasbecomeeverydaynewspeopleareturningtoanancienttechniquetodealwithstress:meditation.AtmeditationcentersprayergroupsandyogastudiosaroundtheUnitedStatesmoreandmorearefindingpeaceofmindbybeingquiet.Someusemeditationtohelpdealwithlifechanges;otherstoprocessthepainfulrealityofpoliticalandsocialunrestaroundtheworldofthetypethathasbeenexperiencedmorerecently.StressfromtheSeptember11terroristattacksisprobablyabout70percentofthereasononeChicagomanstartedmeditatingandpracticingyogawithhisnewwife.Hebecamesoemotionallyaffectedthatherealizedheneededhelpinmanaginghisstress.Theyogaclasseshetakesbeginandendwithmeditation.Thisquiettimehelpshimfeelalotmorerelaxedandgiveshimmorebreathcontrol.Thefactisthoughthatheisnotalone.Acrossthecountrymanyareturningtomoremeditativeexerciseastheyseekbothpsychologicalandphysiologicalrelief.InadditiontohelpingpeopleworkouttheirstresstheseclassesbringpeopletogetherinthesamewaythatreligiousServicesorothercommunityactivitieshavedoneinthepast.Differentschoolsofmeditationteachparticulartechniquesbuttheyshareacommonbasis-focusingattentiononsomethingyourmindcanreturntoifyouaredistracted.Thismaybetherhythmofbreathinganobjectsuchasacandleflameorarepetitivemovementasinwalkingortaiji.Regardlessofthespecifictechniqueormodethatisfollowedmeditationhaswell-documentedbenefits.Medicalresearchindicatesthatitcausesasharpdecreaseinmetabolicactivityreducedmuscletensionslowerbreathingandashiftfromfasterbrainwavestoslowerwavesitalsoreduceshighbloodpressure.Practitionersareconvincedthatmeditationisgoodforhealthbecauseitrelaxesthebody.Foragesmeditationhasbeenacorepracticeofmanygroupsmeetingintheircommunalorreligiouscenters.Howeverlet’snotforgetthatthisisthetwenty-firstcentury.SoforthosepeoplewhoaretooshyorbusytogotothenearestmeditationcenterthereareInternetsitesthatofferonlineguidedmeditation.Onehasavarietyofmeditationsfromvariousreligioustraditions.AtanotherJesuitpriestspostmeditationsandreadingsfromtheScriptureseverydayandatstillanotherBuddhistandHindupractitionersincludemusicandvisualstoaccompanytheirofferings.Thesewebsites’allowanyonewithacomputeraccesstomeditationatanytime.Thefactisthatwhetheronlineatyogaclassesoratlocalspiritualcentersmorepeopleareturningtothepracticeofmeditation.Theincreasingpopularityofmeditationresultsfrompeople’sneedfor
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal--theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeepconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatworldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase..EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencearguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Thecaseoftwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapeinparagraph3
OnSeptember30thstudentsattheUniversityofMassachusettsthrewatogaaceremonialgownparty.Thecopsshowedupuninvited.TheychargedthehostJamesConnollywithunderagedrinkingmakingtoomuchnoiseandhavingakegwithoutalicence.Forpunishmenthehadtoputonhistogaagainandstandinfrontofthepolicestationforanhour.DanMarkelofFloridaStateUniversityreckonsthatsuchshamingpunishmentsareontherise.In2003acoupleofteenagerswhodefacedanativitysceneinOhiohadtoparadethroughtownwithadonkey.ThepunishmentmustfitthecrimeexplainedthejudgeMichaelCicconetti.SeveralcitieshaveairedthenamesofmencaughtsolicitingprostitutesonJohnTV.In2004afederalappealscourtagreedthatamailthiefcouldbemadetostandoutsideaCaliforniapostofficewearingasandwichboard.Istolemailitread.Thisismypunishment.InVirginiaifyoufailtopaychildsupportyoumayfindyourcarwheel-clamped:pinkifyouareneglectingagirlblueforaboy.Manysupportshamingpunishments.AmitaiEtzioniofGeorgeWashingtonUniversityhasarguedthattheyareagoodwaytoexpresscommunalvalues.Finesincontrastimplythatyoucanbuyaclearconscience.Andshameseemstobeapowerfuldeterrent.MrCicconettisaysheseesfewrepeatoffenders.CheerfulHobbesiantypeswanteveryonetoknowwhothebadguysaresothatdecentcitizenscanavoidthem.Othersaredoubtful.AccordingtoMrMarkelshamingpunishmentsunderminehumandignity.Hesuggestsalternativepunishmentsthatomitthepublic-humiliationfactor.Alandlordwhofloutsthehealthcodeforexamplecouldbemadetostayinoneofhisownslums.Anditistruethatthereissomethingunpleasantaboutthedesiretoseeotherpeoplehumiliated.RememberthematronwhoobjectstoHesterPrynne’sscarletletter:Whylookyoushemaycoveritwithabroochorsuchlikeheathenishadornmentandsowalkthestreetsasbraveasever!Butvotersappeartobecomfortableonthehighhorse.TedPoeaformerdistrictjudgefromTexasmadehisreputationbyissuingastringofembarrassingsentences.HecalledthisPoeticjustice.OncehesentencedamanwhostolepistolsfromtheLoneRangertoshovelmanureintheHoustonpolicestables.In2004MrPoewaselectedtotheHouseofRepresentativesathisfirstattempt.Mr.PoebecametheHouseofRepresentativesmainlybecause
Cleverrichorboth--almosteverycountryintheworldhassomesortofprogrammetoattractdesirablemigrants.TheonlyexceptionsareweirdplaceslikeBhutansaysChristianKalinofHenley&Partnerswhichspecializesinfixingvisasandpassportsforglobe-trotters.Competitionisfierceandaswithmostthingsthatlowersthepriceandincreaseschoice.Britainhastwoprogrammesonefortherich--whohavetoinvest￡750000$1.36minactivelytradedsecurities--andonemuchlargerfortalentedforeigners.Bothhaveworkedwell.UnlikesomeothercountriesBritaindoesnotmakeapplicantsfindajobfirst:withgoodqualificationstheycanjustturnupandlookforwork.ThathelpskeepBritain’seconomyflexibleandcompetitive.Butnowabureaucraticsnagisthreateningthescheme.TheproblemcomeswithanyonewantingtoconverthisvisaintoindefiniteleavetoremainBritain’sequivalentofAmerica’sGreenCard.Thisnormallyrequiresfouryears’continuousresidenceinBritain.AfterafurtheryearitnormallyleadstoBritishcitizenship.Thelawdefinescontinuousresidencesensibly.Businesstripsandholidaysdon’tcountiftheapplicant’smainhomeisinBritain.Asaruleofthumbanaverageof90daysabroadwasallowedeachyear.ButunpublishedguidelinesseenbyTheEconomistaretougher:theysaythatnoneoftheabsencesabroadshouldbeofmorethanthreemonthsandtheymustnotamounttomorethansixmonthsinall.Overthefouryearsneededtoqualitythataveragesonlysixweeksayear.Formanyjet-settersthisrestrictionisacareer-buster.Sixweeksabroadbarelycoversholidaysletalonebusinesstravel.AlexeiSidneyaRussianconsultanthastoturndownimportantjobsbecausehecannotaffordanymoredaysabroad.IfapplicantstraveltoomuchtheirchildrenrisklosingtherighttoremaininBritain.TheHomeOfficeinsiststhattheruleshavenotchangedsince2001.ThatwouldconfirmMr.Gherson’ssuspicionthatthenewpolicyhascomeinbyaccidentprobablyasaresultofzealorcarelessnessbymid-rankingofficials.Theirattitudeisatoddswiththestanceofthegovernmentwhichhasbeentryingforyearstomakethesystemmoreuser-friendlyfortheworld’selite.ItevenmovedprocessingofbusinessresidencycasesfromahugeofficeinCroydonnotoriousforitsslownessandhostilitytowould-beimmigrantstoanewoutfitinSheffield.ButlawyerssuchasMrKalinareinnodoubtoftheriskBritainisrunning.Americahesaysisalreadylosingoutintheglobaltalentmarketbecauseofitspainfulandhumiliatingimmigrationprocedures.IfBritain’srulesstaytighthesaysforeignerswillgoelsewhere.LikelybeneficiariesareIrelandandAustriaEuropeanUnioncountrieswhoseresidencyvisasandpassportsconferthesameconvenienceasBritishoneswithlesshassle.Accordingtothe4thparagraphhowlongcanonestayaboard
Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyuncleansanityones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorleertheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.Theroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheory.Whilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Conger’sexperimentwithtwogroupsofrats
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 5
1anexpressionofyourgratitude2offertoreturnthefavoroneday3yourexpectationforhervisiting.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 1
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 7
Oneofthemanytheoriesaboutalcoholismisthelearningandreinforcementtheorywhichexplainsalcoholismbyconsideringalcoholdrinkingasareflexresponsetosomestimulusandasawaytoreduceaninnerdrivestatesuchasfearoranxiety.Characterizinglifesituationsintermsofapproachandavoidancethistheoryholdsthatpersonstendtobedrawntopleasantsituationsorrepelledbyuncleansanityones.Inthelattercasealcoholdrinkingissaidtoreducethetensionorfeelingsofunpleasantnessandtoreplacethemwiththefeelingofpleasuregenerallyobservedinmostpersonsaftertheyhaveconsumedoneormoredrinks.Someexperimentalevidencetendstoshowthatalcoholreducesfearinanapproach-avoidancesituation.Congertrainedonegroupofratstoapproachafoodgoalandtrainedanothergrouptoavoidelectricshock.Afteraninjectionofalcoholthepullawayfromtheshockwasmeasurablyweakerwhilethepulltowardfoodwasunchanged.Theobvioustroublesexperiencedbyalcoholicpersonsappeartocontradictthelearningtheoryintheexplanationofalcoholism.Thediscomfortpainandpunishmenttheyexperienceshouldpresumablydiscouragethealcoholicsfromdrinking.Thefactthatalcoholicpersonscontinuetodrinkinthefaceoffamilydiscordlossofjobandillnessisexplainedbytheproximityofthedriveofreductiontotheconsumptionofalcohol;thatisalcoholhastheimmediateeffectofreducingtensionwhiletheunpleasantconsequencesofdrunkenbehaviorcameonlylater.Thelearningpatternthereforefavorstheestablishmentandrepetitionoftheresorttoalcohol.Infacttheanxietiesandfeelingsofguiltcausedbytheconsequencesofexcessivealcoholdrinkingmaythemselvesbecomethesignalforanothertimeofalcoholabuse.Thewayinwhichthedesireforanotherdrinkcouldbecausedbyanxietyisexplainedbytheprocessofstimulusgeneralization:conditionsoreventssecuringatthetimeofreinforcementtendtoacquireallthefeaturesofstimuli.Whenalcoholisconsumedinassociationwithastateofanxietyorleertheemotionalstateitselftakesonthepropertiesofastimulusthustriggeringanothertimeofdrinking.Theroleofpunishmentisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinexplainingacauseofalcoholismbasedontheprinciplesoflearningtheory.Whilepunishmentmayservetosuppressaresponseexperimentshaveshownthatinsomecasesitcanserveasarewardandreinforcethebehavior.Thusifthealcoholicpersonhaslearnedtodrinkunderconditionsofbothrewardandpunishmenteithertypeofconditionmaytriggerreneweddrinking.Theauthorprovidesenoughinformationtoanswerthequestionof
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedfile3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforUPtofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:"Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies./ 15
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