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[A] Dr Daniel Stanley, an oceanographer, has found volcanic shards in Egypt that he believes are ...
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Thisbookiswrittenexpresslyforstudentsinanattempttopresentthematerialthatismostusefulandinterestingtothem.Previouscoursesinchemistryarenotnecessaryfortheunderstandingofthematerialalthoughthosestudentswhohavehadhighschoolchemistrywillfindthatareviewoftheinorganicsectionwillbetterenablethemtomastertheorganicandbiochemistrysectionsthatfollow. Theauthorhasfeltthatinthepasttherewasanimproperselectionofmaterialfrominorganicorganicandbiochemistryinthemajorityofthetextbooksofchemistryfornurse.Thetendencyhasbeentodeveloptheinorganicchemistrytosuchanextentthatorganicandbiochemistryiscoveredtoobriefly.Therecentadvancesinbiochemistryandtheirwidespreadapplicationtothepracticeofmedicineandnursinghaveconsiderablyalteredthesituation.Notonlyisbiochemistrymorecloselyalliedtothepracticalchemistryofmedicineandnursingbutalsoitisofmoreinteresttothestudent.Intheauthor’sexperiencetheresponsetobiochemistryhasalwaysbeenmorefavorablethantotheothersections.Withinthebriefperiodallottedtochemistrythereforethesectionsoninorganicorganicandbiochemistryshouldbesoarrangedthatagoodshareofthetimeisspentinthestudyofbiochemistry.Thisbookpresentsmainlythosefundamentalsofinorganicandorganicchemistrythatarenecessaryfortheunderstandingofthesectiononbiochemistry. ThefundamentalpointssuggestedintheCurriculumGuideareincludedinthebookwithsomeadditionsinthebiochemistrysection.Theauthorfeelsthatastudyofurinevitaminsnutritionandhormonesissoobviouslyapartofbiochemistrythatatleastthefundamentalsshouldbeincludedinthiscourse. Thebookhasbeenplannedinsuchawaythatitmaybeadaptedtovariouscoursesinchemistry.ThematerialsuggestedbytheCurriculumGuideiscoveredinthefirstnineteenchaptersandmaybeusedinacceleratedcoursesorwhereminimumtimeisallottedtochemistry.Whenthetimeallottedtothecourseissixtytoninetyhourstheentirecontentsofthebookmaybeusedtoadvantage.WhilethebookhasbeenwrittenespeciallytofittheneedsofSchoolsofNursingitcouldreadilybeappliedininstanceswherestudentsarerequiredtotakebutonecourseinchemistry. Theapatheticattitudeofnonprofessionalstudentstowardacourseininorganicchemistrymaywellbeovercomebytheproperpresentationofmaterialselectedfrominorganicorganicandbiochemistry. Intheauthor’sexperiencethestudentsaremostinterestedin
Inthefollowingtextsomesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblank.Therearetwoextrachoiceswhichdonotfitinanyofthegaps. Coffeeisworthapproximately$50-60bneachyearintermsofworldsales.Itisatrulyinternationalcommodityandtodaymorethan50countriesintheworldgrowcoffeebeans.ThismakesthecoffeeindustryfairlyuniversalaccordingtoPabloDuboisheadoftheInternationalCoffeeOrganisationICObasedinLondon.ICOorganizationhelpscoffeeproducersandpromotescoffeeconsumptionworldwide. ICOestimatesthatworldproductionnextyearwillreach97.5millionbags11.3millionbagshigherthanthecurrentyear.ThemainreasonforthisishigherBrazilianoutputasproductionrecoversfromweatherdamagetocrops.41．______In1994Brazilwasresponsiblefor25%ofworldproductionColombiawasnextwith13.4%Indonesiahad7.5%Mexico4.7%Guatemala3.8%andEthiopiaandVietnamwereequalwith3.4%. Coffeeisatoughcropandcanbegrowninareaswhereitisdifficultorimpossibletogrowothercrops.Itiscultivatedinmountainregionswhichcanonlybereachedbyanimaltransportandinotherdifficultareaswheremodernagriculturalequipmentcannotbeused.42．______ICOisactiveineducatingfarmersaboutavoidingdiseaseanddealingwithproblemswhentheyoccur. ThedistributionchainvariesfromcountrytocountryexplainsPabloDubois.Inmostcountriesthesmallerfarmersselltheircroptoalocaltraderwhothensellsitontoexporters.43．______Largercoffeegrowersforexamplefrequentlyexportdirectly.SomecountrieslikeVietnamhavespecialgovernmentmarketingorganizationsforcoffee. Coffeepricesoftenvarygreatlyfromoneyeartothenext.In1997forexampletherewasalargeriseintheworldpricewhichwasimmediatelyfeltbytheconsumer.44．______Insomeofthesecountriesthiscanamounttoasmuchas50%ofallexportearnings. IntheopinionofPabloDuboisthebiggestproblemforhisorganisationistocreategreaterconsumerawarenessofthedifferentvarietiesofcoffeeanddifferentwaysofpreparingit.InNorthAmericamostconsumersalreadyhaveaboveaverageknowledgeOftherangeavailable.45．______Itisalsoencouragingenvironmentallyfriendlycoffeeproductionandlastyear’sseminaroncoffeeandtheenvironmentcreatedalotofinterest. Thefuturelooksbrightforthecoffeeindustry.Itisestimatedthatconsumptionoverthenextfewyearswillcontinuetorisesteadily.NewmarketslikeEasternEuropeandChinaareexpectedtodevelopfast. [A]HoweverdiseaseisalwaysproblemforcoffeeproductionaswecanseeinsomepartsofSouthAmericaatthemoment. [B]Becausetheamountofcoffeedemandisonahighrise. [C]ICOisthereforeconcentratingitspromotionalactivitiesonRussiaandChina. [D]AsthelargestproducingcountryBrazilisparticularlyimportantinthecoffeeworld. [E]Risingpricesalwaysresultinadropinsaleswhichwillhaveabadeffectonthosedevelopingcountrieswhicharehighlydependentonforeignexchangefromcoffeeexports. [F]Therearehoweverotherdistributionsystems. [G]Almostallthecoffeegrowerssharethesamedistributionchannel. 43
WhoispoorinAmericaThisisahardquestiontoanswer.Despitepoverty’smessinesswe’vemeasuredprogressagainstitbyasinglestatistic:thefederalpovertyline.In2008thepovertythresholdwas$21834forafour-memberfamilywithtwochildrenunder18.By1hismeasurewehaven’tmademuchprogress.Exceptforrecessionswhenthepovertyratecanriseto15percentit’sstayedinanarrowrangefordecades.In2007—thepeakofthelastbusinesscycle—thepovertyratewas12.5percent;oneoutofeightAmericanswas"poor."In1969anotherbusiness-cyclepeakthepovertyratewas12.1percent.Buttheapparentlackofprogressismisleadingfortworeasons. Firstitignoresimmigration.Manyimmigrantsarepoorandlowskilled.Theyaddtothepoor.From1989to2007aboutthreequartersoftheincreaseinthepovertypopulationoccurredamongHispanics—mostlyimmigrantstheirchildrenandgrandchildren.Thepovertyrateforblacksfellduringthisperiodthoughitwasstillmuchtoohigh24.5percentin2007.Poverty"experts"don’tdwellonimmigrationbecauseitimpliesthatmorerestrictivepoliciesmightreduceU.S.poverty. Secondthepoor’smaterialwell-beinghasimproved.Theofficialpovertymeasureobscuresthisbycountingonlypretaxcashincomeandignoringothersourcesofsupport.Theseincludetheearned-incometaxcreditarebatetolow-incomeworkersfoodstampshealthinsuranceMedicaidandhousingsubsidies.Althoughmanypoorlivehandtomouththey’veparticipatedinrisinglivingstandards.In200591percenthadmicrowaves79percentair-conditioningand48percentcellphones. Theexistingpovertylinecouldbeimprovedbyaddingsomeincomesourcesandsubtractingsomeexpensesexample:childcare.Unfortunatelytheadministration’sproposalfora"supplementalpovertymeasure"in2011—tocomplementnotreplacetheexistingpovertyline—goesbeyondthat.Thenewpovertynumberwouldcompoundpublicconfusion.Italsoraisesquestionsaboutwhetherthestatisticistailoredtofavorapoliticalagenda. The"supplementalmeasure"tiesthepovertythresholdtowhatthepoorestthirdofAmericansspendonfoodhousingclothingandutilities.Theactualthresholdnotyetcalculated—willprobablybehigherthantoday’spovertyline.Moreoverthisdefinitionhasstrangeconsequences.SupposethatallAmericansdoubledtheirincometomorrowandsupposethattheirspendingonfoodclothinghousingandutilitiesalsodoubled.Thatwouldseemtosignifylesspoverty—butnotbythenewpovertymeasure.Itwouldn’tdeclinebecausethepovertythresholdwouldgoupasspendingwentup.ManyAmericanswouldfindthisweird.peoplegetricherbut"poverty"staysstuck. Whatproducesthisoutcomeisadifferentviewofpoverty.Thepresentconceptisanabsoluteone:thepovertythresholdreflectstheamountestimatedtomeetbasicneeds.Bycontrastthenewmeasureembracesarelativenotionofpoverty:peopleareautomaticallypoorifthey’reagivendistancefromthetopeveniftheirincomesareincreasing. Whatistheauthor’sattitudetowardsthenewmeasure
AsmallgroupofInternetsecurityspecialistsgatheredinSingaporetostartupaglobalsystemtomakee-mailande-commercemoresecureendtherapidgrowthofpasswordsandraisethebarsignificantlyforInternetfraudspiesandtroublemakers. TheSingaporeeventincludedanelaboratetechnicalceremonytocreateandthensecurelystorenumericalkeysthatwillbekeptinthreehardeneddatacentersthereinZurichandinSanJoseCalif.ThekeysanddatacentersareworkingpartsofatechnologyknownasSecureDNSorDNSSEC.DNSreferstotheDomainNameSystemwhichisadirectorythatconnectsnamestonumericalInternetaddresses.Preliminaryworkonthesecuritysystemhadbeengoingonformorethanayearbutthiswasthefirsttimethesystemwentintooperationeventhoughitisnotquitecomplete. Thethreecentersarefortressesmadeupoffivelayersofphysicalelectronicandcryptographicsecuritymakingitvirtuallyimpossibletodamagethesystem.Fourlayersareactivenow.Thefifthaphysicalbarrierisbeingbuiltinsidethedatacenter. Thetechnologyisviewedbymanycomputersecurityspecialistsasarayofhopeamidtherecentcascadeofdatatheftsattacksdisruptionsandscandalsincludingbreak-insatCitibankSonyLockheedMartinRSASecurityandelsewhere.ItallowsuserstocommunicateviatheInternetwithhighconfidencethattheidentityofthepersonororganizationtheyarecommunicatingwithisnotbeingtrickedorforged. InternetengineerslikeDanKaminskyanindependentnetworksecurityresearcherwhoisoneoftheengineersinvolvedintheprojectwanttocounteractthreemajordeficienciesintoday’sInternet.Thereisnomechanismforensuringtrustthequalityofsoftwareisunevenanditisdifficulttotrackdownbadactors. Onereasonfortheseflawsisthatfromthe1960sthroughthe1980stheengineerswhodesignedthenetwork’sunderlyingtechnologywereconcernedaboutreliableratherthansecurecommunications.ThatisstartingtochangewiththeintroductionofSecureDNSbygovernmentsandotherorganizations. TheeventinSingaporecappedaprocessthatbeganmorethanayearagoandisexpectedtobecompleteafter300so-calledtop-leveldomainshavebeendigitallysigned.BeforetheSingaporeevent70countrieshadadoptedthetechnologyand14morewereaddedaspartoftheevent.WhilelargecountriesaregenerallydoingthetechnicalworktoincludetheirowndomainsinthesystemtheassociationofInternetsecurityspecialistsishelpingsmallercountriesandorganizationswiththeprocess. ItissuggestedinParagraph4that
AsmallgroupofInternetsecurityspecialistsgatheredinSingaporetostartupaglobalsystemtomakee-mailande-commercemoresecureendtherapidgrowthofpasswordsandraisethebarsignificantlyforInternetfraudspiesandtroublemakers. TheSingaporeeventincludedanelaboratetechnicalceremonytocreateandthensecurelystorenumericalkeysthatwillbekeptinthreehardeneddatacentersthereinZurichandinSanJoseCalif.ThekeysanddatacentersareworkingpartsofatechnologyknownasSecureDNSorDNSSEC.DNSreferstotheDomainNameSystemwhichisadirectorythatconnectsnamestonumericalInternetaddresses.Preliminaryworkonthesecuritysystemhadbeengoingonformorethanayearbutthiswasthefirsttimethesystemwentintooperationeventhoughitisnotquitecomplete. Thethreecentersarefortressesmadeupoffivelayersofphysicalelectronicandcryptographicsecuritymakingitvirtuallyimpossibletodamagethesystem.Fourlayersareactivenow.Thefifthaphysicalbarrierisbeingbuiltinsidethedatacenter. Thetechnologyisviewedbymanycomputersecurityspecialistsasarayofhopeamidtherecentcascadeofdatatheftsattacksdisruptionsandscandalsincludingbreak-insatCitibankSonyLockheedMartinRSASecurityandelsewhere.ItallowsuserstocommunicateviatheInternetwithhighconfidencethattheidentityofthepersonororganizationtheyarecommunicatingwithisnotbeingtrickedorforged. InternetengineerslikeDanKaminskyanindependentnetworksecurityresearcherwhoisoneoftheengineersinvolvedintheprojectwanttocounteractthreemajordeficienciesintoday’sInternet.Thereisnomechanismforensuringtrustthequalityofsoftwareisunevenanditisdifficulttotrackdownbadactors. Onereasonfortheseflawsisthatfromthe1960sthroughthe1980stheengineerswhodesignedthenetwork’sunderlyingtechnologywereconcernedaboutreliableratherthansecurecommunications.ThatisstartingtochangewiththeintroductionofSecureDNSbygovernmentsandotherorganizations. TheeventinSingaporecappedaprocessthatbeganmorethanayearagoandisexpectedtobecompleteafter300so-calledtop-leveldomainshavebeendigitallysigned.BeforetheSingaporeevent70countrieshadadoptedthetechnologyand14morewereaddedaspartoftheevent.WhilelargecountriesaregenerallydoingthetechnicalworktoincludetheirowndomainsinthesystemtheassociationofInternetsecurityspecialistsishelpingsmallercountriesandorganizationswiththeprocess. ItisindicatedinParagraphs1and2thattheglobalsystemtheInternetsecurityspecialistsgatheredtostartup
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 3
Onceacirclemissedawedge.Thecirclewantedtobewholesoitwentaroundlookingforitsmissingpiece.Butbecauseitwasincompleteandthereforecouldrollonlyveryslowlyitadmiredtheflowersalongtheway.Itchattedwithworms.Itenjoyedthesunshine.Itfoundlotsofdifferentpiecesbutnoneofthemfit.Soitleftthemallbythesideoftheroadandkeptonsearching.Thenonedaythecirclefoundapiecethatfitperfectly.Itwassohappy.Nowitcouldbewholewithnothingmissing.Itincorporatedthemissingpieceintoitselfandbegantoroll.Nowthatitwasaperfectcircleitcouldrollveryfasttoofasttonoticeflowersortalktotheworms.46Whenitrealizedhowdifferenttheworldseemedwhenitrolledsoquicklyitstoppedleftitsfoundpiecebythesideoftheroadandrolledslowlyaway. 47ThelessonofthestoryIsuggestedwasthatinsomestrangesensewearemorewholewhenwearemissingsomething.Themanwhohaseverythingisinsomewaysapoorman.Hewillneverknowwhatitfeelsliketoyearntohopetonourishhissoulwiththedreamofsomethingbetter.Hewillneverknowtheexperienceofhavingsomeonewholoveshimgivehimsomethinghehasalwayswantedorneverhad. 48Thereisawholenessaboutthepersonwhohascronetotermswithhislimitationswhohasbeenbraveenoughtoletgoofhisunrealisticdreamsandnotfeellikeafailurefordoingso.Thereisawholenessaboutthemanorwomanwhohaslearnedthatheorsheisstrongenoughtogothroughatragedyandsurviveshecanlosesomeoneandstillfeellikeacompleteperson.LifeisnotatrapsetforusbyGodsothathecancondemnusforfailing.Lifeisnotaspellingbeewherenomatterhowmanywordsyou’vegottenright;you’redisqualifiedifyoumakeonemistake.49Lifeismorelikeabaseballseasonwhereeventhebestteamlosesonethirdofitsgamesandeventheworstteamhasitsdaysofbrilliance.Ourgoalistowinmoregamesthanwelose. Whenweacceptthatimperfectionispartofbeinghumanandwhenwecancontinuerollingthroughlifeandappreciateitwewillhaveachievedawholenessthatotherscanonlyaspireto.50ThatIbelieveiswhatGodasksofus—not"Beperfect"not"Don’tevenmakeamistake"but"Bewhole." 47ThelessonofthestoryIsuggestedwasthatinsomestrangesensewearemorewholewhenwearemissingsomething.
Inthefollowingtextsomesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblank.Therearetwoextrachoiceswhichdonotfitinanyofthegaps. Coffeeisworthapproximately$50-60bneachyearintermsofworldsales.Itisatrulyinternationalcommodityandtodaymorethan50countriesintheworldgrowcoffeebeans.ThismakesthecoffeeindustryfairlyuniversalaccordingtoPabloDuboisheadoftheInternationalCoffeeOrganisationICObasedinLondon.ICOorganizationhelpscoffeeproducersandpromotescoffeeconsumptionworldwide. ICOestimatesthatworldproductionnextyearwillreach97.5millionbags11.3millionbagshigherthanthecurrentyear.ThemainreasonforthisishigherBrazilianoutputasproductionrecoversfromweatherdamagetocrops.41．______In1994Brazilwasresponsiblefor25%ofworldproductionColombiawasnextwith13.4%Indonesiahad7.5%Mexico4.7%Guatemala3.8%andEthiopiaandVietnamwereequalwith3.4%. Coffeeisatoughcropandcanbegrowninareaswhereitisdifficultorimpossibletogrowothercrops.Itiscultivatedinmountainregionswhichcanonlybereachedbyanimaltransportandinotherdifficultareaswheremodernagriculturalequipmentcannotbeused.42．______ICOisactiveineducatingfarmersaboutavoidingdiseaseanddealingwithproblemswhentheyoccur. ThedistributionchainvariesfromcountrytocountryexplainsPabloDubois.Inmostcountriesthesmallerfarmersselltheircroptoalocaltraderwhothensellsitontoexporters.43．______Largercoffeegrowersforexamplefrequentlyexportdirectly.SomecountrieslikeVietnamhavespecialgovernmentmarketingorganizationsforcoffee. Coffeepricesoftenvarygreatlyfromoneyeartothenext.In1997forexampletherewasalargeriseintheworldpricewhichwasimmediatelyfeltbytheconsumer.44．______Insomeofthesecountriesthiscanamounttoasmuchas50%ofallexportearnings. IntheopinionofPabloDuboisthebiggestproblemforhisorganisationistocreategreaterconsumerawarenessofthedifferentvarietiesofcoffeeanddifferentwaysofpreparingit.InNorthAmericamostconsumersalreadyhaveaboveaverageknowledgeOftherangeavailable.45．______Itisalsoencouragingenvironmentallyfriendlycoffeeproductionandlastyear’sseminaroncoffeeandtheenvironmentcreatedalotofinterest. Thefuturelooksbrightforthecoffeeindustry.Itisestimatedthatconsumptionoverthenextfewyearswillcontinuetorisesteadily.NewmarketslikeEasternEuropeandChinaareexpectedtodevelopfast. [A]HoweverdiseaseisalwaysproblemforcoffeeproductionaswecanseeinsomepartsofSouthAmericaatthemoment. [B]Becausetheamountofcoffeedemandisonahighrise. [C]ICOisthereforeconcentratingitspromotionalactivitiesonRussiaandChina. [D]AsthelargestproducingcountryBrazilisparticularlyimportantinthecoffeeworld. [E]Risingpricesalwaysresultinadropinsaleswhichwillhaveabadeffectonthosedevelopingcountrieswhicharehighlydependentonforeignexchangefromcoffeeexports. [F]Therearehoweverotherdistributionsystems. [G]Almostallthecoffeegrowerssharethesamedistributionchannel. 41
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 7
Inthefollowingtextsomesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblank.Therearetwoextrachoiceswhichdonotfitinanyofthegaps. Coffeeisworthapproximately$50-60bneachyearintermsofworldsales.Itisatrulyinternationalcommodityandtodaymorethan50countriesintheworldgrowcoffeebeans.ThismakesthecoffeeindustryfairlyuniversalaccordingtoPabloDuboisheadoftheInternationalCoffeeOrganisationICObasedinLondon.ICOorganizationhelpscoffeeproducersandpromotescoffeeconsumptionworldwide. ICOestimatesthatworldproductionnextyearwillreach97.5millionbags11.3millionbagshigherthanthecurrentyear.ThemainreasonforthisishigherBrazilianoutputasproductionrecoversfromweatherdamagetocrops.41．______In1994Brazilwasresponsiblefor25%ofworldproductionColombiawasnextwith13.4%Indonesiahad7.5%Mexico4.7%Guatemala3.8%andEthiopiaandVietnamwereequalwith3.4%. Coffeeisatoughcropandcanbegrowninareaswhereitisdifficultorimpossibletogrowothercrops.Itiscultivatedinmountainregionswhichcanonlybereachedbyanimaltransportandinotherdifficultareaswheremodernagriculturalequipmentcannotbeused.42．______ICOisactiveineducatingfarmersaboutavoidingdiseaseanddealingwithproblemswhentheyoccur. ThedistributionchainvariesfromcountrytocountryexplainsPabloDubois.Inmostcountriesthesmallerfarmersselltheircroptoalocaltraderwhothensellsitontoexporters.43．______Largercoffeegrowersforexamplefrequentlyexportdirectly.SomecountrieslikeVietnamhavespecialgovernmentmarketingorganizationsforcoffee. Coffeepricesoftenvarygreatlyfromoneyeartothenext.In1997forexampletherewasalargeriseintheworldpricewhichwasimmediatelyfeltbytheconsumer.44．______Insomeofthesecountriesthiscanamounttoasmuchas50%ofallexportearnings. IntheopinionofPabloDuboisthebiggestproblemforhisorganisationistocreategreaterconsumerawarenessofthedifferentvarietiesofcoffeeanddifferentwaysofpreparingit.InNorthAmericamostconsumersalreadyhaveaboveaverageknowledgeOftherangeavailable.45．______Itisalsoencouragingenvironmentallyfriendlycoffeeproductionandlastyear’sseminaroncoffeeandtheenvironmentcreatedalotofinterest. Thefuturelooksbrightforthecoffeeindustry.Itisestimatedthatconsumptionoverthenextfewyearswillcontinuetorisesteadily.NewmarketslikeEasternEuropeandChinaareexpectedtodevelopfast. [A]HoweverdiseaseisalwaysproblemforcoffeeproductionaswecanseeinsomepartsofSouthAmericaatthemoment. [B]Becausetheamountofcoffeedemandisonahighrise. [C]ICOisthereforeconcentratingitspromotionalactivitiesonRussiaandChina. [D]AsthelargestproducingcountryBrazilisparticularlyimportantinthecoffeeworld. [E]Risingpricesalwaysresultinadropinsaleswhichwillhaveabadeffectonthosedevelopingcountrieswhicharehighlydependentonforeignexchangefromcoffeeexports. [F]Therearehoweverotherdistributionsystems. [G]Almostallthecoffeegrowerssharethesamedistributionchannel. 45
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 1
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 11
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 15
WhoispoorinAmericaThisisahardquestiontoanswer.Despitepoverty’smessinesswe’vemeasuredprogressagainstitbyasinglestatistic:thefederalpovertyline.In2008thepovertythresholdwas$21834forafour-memberfamilywithtwochildrenunder18.By1hismeasurewehaven’tmademuchprogress.Exceptforrecessionswhenthepovertyratecanriseto15percentit’sstayedinanarrowrangefordecades.In2007—thepeakofthelastbusinesscycle—thepovertyratewas12.5percent;oneoutofeightAmericanswas"poor."In1969anotherbusiness-cyclepeakthepovertyratewas12.1percent.Buttheapparentlackofprogressismisleadingfortworeasons. Firstitignoresimmigration.Manyimmigrantsarepoorandlowskilled.Theyaddtothepoor.From1989to2007aboutthreequartersoftheincreaseinthepovertypopulationoccurredamongHispanics—mostlyimmigrantstheirchildrenandgrandchildren.Thepovertyrateforblacksfellduringthisperiodthoughitwasstillmuchtoohigh24.5percentin2007.Poverty"experts"don’tdwellonimmigrationbecauseitimpliesthatmorerestrictivepoliciesmightreduceU.S.poverty. Secondthepoor’smaterialwell-beinghasimproved.Theofficialpovertymeasureobscuresthisbycountingonlypretaxcashincomeandignoringothersourcesofsupport.Theseincludetheearned-incometaxcreditarebatetolow-incomeworkersfoodstampshealthinsuranceMedicaidandhousingsubsidies.Althoughmanypoorlivehandtomouththey’veparticipatedinrisinglivingstandards.In200591percenthadmicrowaves79percentair-conditioningand48percentcellphones. Theexistingpovertylinecouldbeimprovedbyaddingsomeincomesourcesandsubtractingsomeexpensesexample:childcare.Unfortunatelytheadministration’sproposalfora"supplementalpovertymeasure"in2011—tocomplementnotreplacetheexistingpovertyline—goesbeyondthat.Thenewpovertynumberwouldcompoundpublicconfusion.Italsoraisesquestionsaboutwhetherthestatisticistailoredtofavorapoliticalagenda. The"supplementalmeasure"tiesthepovertythresholdtowhatthepoorestthirdofAmericansspendonfoodhousingclothingandutilities.Theactualthresholdnotyetcalculated—willprobablybehigherthantoday’spovertyline.Moreoverthisdefinitionhasstrangeconsequences.SupposethatallAmericansdoubledtheirincometomorrowandsupposethattheirspendingonfoodclothinghousingandutilitiesalsodoubled.Thatwouldseemtosignifylesspoverty—butnotbythenewpovertymeasure.Itwouldn’tdeclinebecausethepovertythresholdwouldgoupasspendingwentup.ManyAmericanswouldfindthisweird.peoplegetricherbut"poverty"staysstuck. Whatproducesthisoutcomeisadifferentviewofpoverty.Thepresentconceptisanabsoluteone:thepovertythresholdreflectstheamountestimatedtomeetbasicneeds.Bycontrastthenewmeasureembracesarelativenotionofpoverty:peopleareautomaticallypoorifthey’reagivendistancefromthetopeveniftheirincomesareincreasing. Theauthorthinkstheexistingpovertyline
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 19
Thisbookiswrittenexpresslyforstudentsinanattempttopresentthematerialthatismostusefulandinterestingtothem.Previouscoursesinchemistryarenotnecessaryfortheunderstandingofthematerialalthoughthosestudentswhohavehadhighschoolchemistrywillfindthatareviewoftheinorganicsectionwillbetterenablethemtomastertheorganicandbiochemistrysectionsthatfollow. Theauthorhasfeltthatinthepasttherewasanimproperselectionofmaterialfrominorganicorganicandbiochemistryinthemajorityofthetextbooksofchemistryfornurse.Thetendencyhasbeentodeveloptheinorganicchemistrytosuchanextentthatorganicandbiochemistryiscoveredtoobriefly.Therecentadvancesinbiochemistryandtheirwidespreadapplicationtothepracticeofmedicineandnursinghaveconsiderablyalteredthesituation.Notonlyisbiochemistrymorecloselyalliedtothepracticalchemistryofmedicineandnursingbutalsoitisofmoreinteresttothestudent.Intheauthor’sexperiencetheresponsetobiochemistryhasalwaysbeenmorefavorablethantotheothersections.Withinthebriefperiodallottedtochemistrythereforethesectionsoninorganicorganicandbiochemistryshouldbesoarrangedthatagoodshareofthetimeisspentinthestudyofbiochemistry.Thisbookpresentsmainlythosefundamentalsofinorganicandorganicchemistrythatarenecessaryfortheunderstandingofthesectiononbiochemistry. ThefundamentalpointssuggestedintheCurriculumGuideareincludedinthebookwithsomeadditionsinthebiochemistrysection.Theauthorfeelsthatastudyofurinevitaminsnutritionandhormonesissoobviouslyapartofbiochemistrythatatleastthefundamentalsshouldbeincludedinthiscourse. Thebookhasbeenplannedinsuchawaythatitmaybeadaptedtovariouscoursesinchemistry.ThematerialsuggestedbytheCurriculumGuideiscoveredinthefirstnineteenchaptersandmaybeusedinacceleratedcoursesorwhereminimumtimeisallottedtochemistry.Whenthetimeallottedtothecourseissixtytoninetyhourstheentirecontentsofthebookmaybeusedtoadvantage.WhilethebookhasbeenwrittenespeciallytofittheneedsofSchoolsofNursingitcouldreadilybeappliedininstanceswherestudentsarerequiredtotakebutonecourseinchemistry. Theapatheticattitudeofnonprofessionalstudentstowardacourseininorganicchemistrymaywellbeovercomebytheproperpresentationofmaterialselectedfrominorganicorganicandbiochemistry. Theauthor’sattitudetowardsthisbookis
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 9
WorklooksabettercureforpovertythanwelfareEspeciallyasfewerandfewercountrieswillbeabletoaffordtopaypotentialworkerstostayathomeaVictorianideaisbackinfavour:manypoorpeoplearebetteroffwhentheyarepulledbackintothelabourmarket.TheidearevivedfirstintheUnitedStates.Thereinitsharshestformtheunemployedworkinexchangeforwelfare.ButcountrieswithgovernmentstotheleftofAmerica’sincludingLabourAustraliaandSocialistFrancearenowalsoexploringwaystolinkincomesupportandemploymentpolicy. Comingfromdifferentdirectionstherightandtheleftaregraduallyfindingnewcommonground.Fortherightitseemsdeplorabletoencouragethepoortorelyonthestateforcashbecausetheygethookedongovernmenthelpandaccustomedtobeingpoor.Fortheleftitseemsdeplorabletoallowworkerstodropoutofthejobmarketforlongperiodsbecauseitmakesitharderforthemtofindnewjobs.Forboththeansweristogetthepoortowork. Mostindustrialcountrieshaveatwo-tiersystemofsocialprotection:asocial-securityschemewhereworkersandtheirbossesmakeregularcontributionsinexchangeforpaymentstoworkerswhentheyareunemployedsickorretired;andasafety-nettogivesomeincometothosepoorpeoplewhohaveexhaustedtheirsocialinsuranceorwhohavenoneTheformerisusuallynotmeans-testedbutfortheunemployedisoflimitedduration;thelatterisalmostalwaystiedtoincomeThepublictendstoapproveofcontributorybenefitswhichiswhatdesignersofsuchschemesintended. Safety-netbenefitscarrynosuchsenseofentitlementandarelesspopular.Yettheyhavegrownmorerapidlyinlargepartbecausethe1980-82recessionincreasedthenumberofpeopleofworkingagewhohadexhaustedtheirrighttocontributorybenefits.Andanincreasingproportionofthepoorarepeopleforwhomthecontributorysystemswereneverdesigned:theyoungandlonemothers.Inconsequencepaymentswhichcarryaclearentitlementhavebecomelesssignificantcomparedwiththosewhichappeartodependpurelyonstatecharity. Theriseinthebillfortheunpopularkindofsocialprotectioncomesatatimewhengovernmentswanttocurbstatespending.Itcomestooatatimewhenmanycountrieshavedonealmosteverythingtheycanthinkoftoprotectthepoor.Adecadeagomanyontheleftarguedthatpovertywasusuallycausedbycircumstancesoutsidethecontrolofthepoor—alackofjobsdisabilityoldageracialdiscriminationbrokenmarriages.Onewayoranothergovernmentshavetriedtotacklemostoftheseproblems.Stillthepoorremain. Asafety-netbenefitsystemisone
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 17
AsmallgroupofInternetsecurityspecialistsgatheredinSingaporetostartupaglobalsystemtomakee-mailande-commercemoresecureendtherapidgrowthofpasswordsandraisethebarsignificantlyforInternetfraudspiesandtroublemakers. TheSingaporeeventincludedanelaboratetechnicalceremonytocreateandthensecurelystorenumericalkeysthatwillbekeptinthreehardeneddatacentersthereinZurichandinSanJoseCalif.ThekeysanddatacentersareworkingpartsofatechnologyknownasSecureDNSorDNSSEC.DNSreferstotheDomainNameSystemwhichisadirectorythatconnectsnamestonumericalInternetaddresses.Preliminaryworkonthesecuritysystemhadbeengoingonformorethanayearbutthiswasthefirsttimethesystemwentintooperationeventhoughitisnotquitecomplete. Thethreecentersarefortressesmadeupoffivelayersofphysicalelectronicandcryptographicsecuritymakingitvirtuallyimpossibletodamagethesystem.Fourlayersareactivenow.Thefifthaphysicalbarrierisbeingbuiltinsidethedatacenter. Thetechnologyisviewedbymanycomputersecurityspecialistsasarayofhopeamidtherecentcascadeofdatatheftsattacksdisruptionsandscandalsincludingbreak-insatCitibankSonyLockheedMartinRSASecurityandelsewhere.ItallowsuserstocommunicateviatheInternetwithhighconfidencethattheidentityofthepersonororganizationtheyarecommunicatingwithisnotbeingtrickedorforged. InternetengineerslikeDanKaminskyanindependentnetworksecurityresearcherwhoisoneoftheengineersinvolvedintheprojectwanttocounteractthreemajordeficienciesintoday’sInternet.Thereisnomechanismforensuringtrustthequalityofsoftwareisunevenanditisdifficulttotrackdownbadactors. Onereasonfortheseflawsisthatfromthe1960sthroughthe1980stheengineerswhodesignedthenetwork’sunderlyingtechnologywereconcernedaboutreliableratherthansecurecommunications.ThatisstartingtochangewiththeintroductionofSecureDNSbygovernmentsandotherorganizations. TheeventinSingaporecappedaprocessthatbeganmorethanayearagoandisexpectedtobecompleteafter300so-calledtop-leveldomainshavebeendigitallysigned.BeforetheSingaporeevent70countrieshadadoptedthetechnologyand14morewereaddedaspartoftheevent.WhilelargecountriesaregenerallydoingthetechnicalworktoincludetheirowndomainsinthesystemtheassociationofInternetsecurityspecialistsishelpingsmallercountriesandorganizationswiththeprocess. Whatwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
Manypeopleareconcernedabouttheeconomicconditionofdevelopingcountries—countrieswhoseaveragepercapitaGNPisafractionofthatinmoreindustrializedcountries.Howeverforthedevelopingcountriesthereexistmanyobstaclestotheireconomicdevelopment. Onemajorobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentispopulationgrowth.46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.Manylessdevelopedcountriesdependextensivelyonagricultureaddingtotheproblem.Inthesecountriesanincentivetohavemanychildrenexists.47Mostfarmsareworkedbyfamiliesandchildrencanworkinthefieldsatanearlyagebecausemostfarmersbelievethatmorechildrenmeansmoreworkers.Inadditionhavingmanychildrenensurestheparentsthatsomeonewilllookafterthemintheiroldage. Anotherproblemfordevelopingcountriesisincreasingaveragelifeexpectancy—theaverageremaininglifetimeforpersonswhoreachacertainage.Bettereducationinternationalaidandemphasisonhealth-carefacilitieshelppeoplelivelonger.AhighlifeexpectancycoupledwithahighcrudebirthratemakesitdifficulttoincreasepercapitaGNP. Anotherobstacletoeconomicgrowthislimitednaturalresources.Nocountrycandevelopbeyonditsresourcepotential.Unproductivelandoraharshclimatecanlimiteconomicgrowth.48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry. Stillanotherobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentisalackofappropriateeducationandtechnology.Anydevelopingcountriesdonothaveahighlyliteratepopulationorthehighleveloftechnicalskillsneededtobuildanindustrialsociety.Inadditionmostdonothavemoneytotrainengineersandscientists.49Manydevelopingcountriescannotevenaffordtoprovidefreepubliceducationforschool-agechildrenandinthosethatcannoteverychildisabletotakeadvantageofitbecausemostofthemhavetoworktohelpfeedtheirfamilies.Asaresultmuchofthepopulationmaynothavethebasicskillsneededtocontinuewithhighereducationwhenitisoffered. Governmentalsocanbeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment.Acountrywhosegovernmentoftenchangeswillhaveahardtimedevelopingeconomically.Suchconstantchangesimpedelong-termplanning.50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed. 50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed.
"Hightech"and"stateoftheart"aretwoexpressionsthatdescribeverymoderntechnology.Hightechisjustashorterwayofsayinghightechnology.Andhightechnologydescribesanyinventionsystemofdevicethatusesthenewestideasordiscoveriesofscienceandengineering. WhatishightechAcomputerishightech.Soisacommunicationssatellite.Amodernmanufacturingsystemissurelyhightech. HightechbecameapopularexpressionintheUnitedStatesduringtheearly1980’s.BecauseofimprovementsintechnologypeoplecouldbuymanynewkindsofproductsinAmericanstoressuchashomecomputersmicrowaveovensetc. "Stateoftheart"issomethingthatisasmodernaspossible.Itisaproductthatisbasedontheverylatestmethodsandtechn01ogy.Somethingthatis"stateoftheart"isthenewestpossibledesignorproductofabusinessorindustry.Astateofthearttelevisionsetforexampleusesthemostmodernelectronicdesignandparts.Itisthebestthatonecanbuy. "Stateoftheart"isnotanewexpression.Engineershaveuseditforyearstodescribethebestandmostmodernwayofdoingsomething. MillionsofAmericansbegantousetheexpressioninthelate1970’s.Thereasonwasthecomputerrevolution.Everycomputercompanyclaimedthatitscomputerswere"stateoftheart". Computertechnologychangedsofastthatastateoftheartcomputertodaymightbeoldtomorrow.Theexpression"stateoftheart"becameascommonandpopularascomputersthemselves.Nowallkindsofproductsaresaidtobe"stateoftheart". Thebesttitleforthepassageis
Thankstotheriseofsocialmedianewsisnolongergatheredexclusivelybyreportersandturnedintoastorybutemergesfromanecosysteminwhichjournalistssourcesreadersandviewersexchangeinformation.Thechangebeganaround1999whenbloggingtoolsfirstbecamewidelyavailablesaysJayRosenprofessorofjournalismatNewYorkUniversity.Theresultwas"theshiftofthetoolsofproductiontothepeopleformerlyknownastheaudience"hesays. 41______. Atfirstmanynewsorganisationswereopenlyhostiletowardsthesenewtools.InAmericathehighpointoftheantagonismbetweenbloggersandthemainstreammediawasinlate2004when"60Minutes"aneveningnewsshowonCBSallegedonthebasisofleakedmemosthatGeorgeBushjuniorhadusedfamilyconnectionstowinfavourabletreatmentintheAirNationalGuardinthe1970s.42______CBSretractedthestoryandDanRatheroneofthemostrespectednamesinAmericannewsresignedastheshow’sanchorinearly2005. 43______Newspapersandnewschannelshavesincelaunchedblogsoftheirownhiredmanybloggersandallowedreaderstoleavecomments.TheyalsoinvitepicturesvideoandothercontributionsfromreadersandseekoutmaterialpublishedontheInternetthusincorporatingnon-journalistsintothenewssystem. 44______"Weseethesethingsasbeinghighlycomplementarytowhatwedo"saysMartinNisenholtzoftheNewYorkTimes.ManyjournalistswhoweredismissiveaboutsocialmediahavechangedtheirtuneinthepastfewmonthsastheirvaluebecameapparentinthecoverageoftheArabuprisingsandtheJapaneseearthquakesaysLizHeronsocial-mediaeditorattheNewYorkTimes. RatherthanthinkingofthemselvesassettingtheagendaandmanagingtheconversationnewsorganisationsneedtorecognisethatjournalismisnowjustpartofaconversationthatisgoingonanywayarguesJeffJarvisamediaguruattheCityUniversityofNewYork.45______.Allthisrequiresjournaliststoadmitthattheydonothaveamonopolyonwisdom."Tenyearsagothatwasaterriblythreateningideaanditstillistosomepeople"saystheGuardian’sAlanRusbridger."Butintherealworldtheaggregateofwhatpeopleknowisgoingtobeinmostcasesmorethanweknowinsidethebuilding." [A]JournalistsarebecomingmoreinclinedtoseeblogsFacebookTwitterandotherformsofsocialmediaasavaluableadjuncttotraditionalmediaandsometimesacorrectivetothem. [B]Theroleofjournalistsinthisnewworldistoaddvaluetotheconversationbyprovidingreportingcontextanalysisverificationanddebunkingandbymakingavailabletoolsandplatformsthatallowpeopletoparticipate. [C]Byprovidingmorerawmaterialthaneverfromwhichtodistilthenewssocialmediahavebothdoneawaywitheditorsandshownuptheneedforthem. [D]Thiswasfollowedbyafurthershift:theriseof"horizontalmedia"thatmadeitquickandeasyforanyonetosharelinksviaFacebookorTwitterforexamplewithlargenumbersofpeoplewithouttheinvolvementofatraditionalmediaorganisation.Inotherwordspeoplecancollectivelyactasabroadcastnetwork. [E]WithasingleclickofaFacebook"Like"buttonforexampleyoucanrecommendastoryvideoorslideshowtoyourentirenetworkoffriends. [F]Bloggersimmediatelyquestionedtheauthenticityofthememos.AformerCBSNewsexecutivederidedbloggingas"aguysittinginhislivingroominhispyjamaswritingwhathethinks".Butthebloggerswereright. [G]Butinthepastfewyearsmainstreammediaorganisationshavechangedtheirattitude.ThesuccessoftheHuffingtonPost博客网站whichlaunchedinMay2005withacombinationoforiginalreportingbymembersofstaffblogpostsfromvolunteersincludingmanycelebrityfriendsofAriannaHuffington’sthesite’sco-founderandlinkstonewsstoriesonothersitesshowedtheappealofwhatMsHuffingtoncallsa"hybrid"approachthatmeldsoldandnewprofessionalandamateur. 42
Manypeopleareconcernedabouttheeconomicconditionofdevelopingcountries—countrieswhoseaveragepercapitaGNPisafractionofthatinmoreindustrializedcountries.Howeverforthedevelopingcountriesthereexistmanyobstaclestotheireconomicdevelopment. Onemajorobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentispopulationgrowth.46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.Manylessdevelopedcountriesdependextensivelyonagricultureaddingtotheproblem.Inthesecountriesanincentivetohavemanychildrenexists.47Mostfarmsareworkedbyfamiliesandchildrencanworkinthefieldsatanearlyagebecausemostfarmersbelievethatmorechildrenmeansmoreworkers.Inadditionhavingmanychildrenensurestheparentsthatsomeonewilllookafterthemintheiroldage. Anotherproblemfordevelopingcountriesisincreasingaveragelifeexpectancy—theaverageremaininglifetimeforpersonswhoreachacertainage.Bettereducationinternationalaidandemphasisonhealth-carefacilitieshelppeoplelivelonger.AhighlifeexpectancycoupledwithahighcrudebirthratemakesitdifficulttoincreasepercapitaGNP. Anotherobstacletoeconomicgrowthislimitednaturalresources.Nocountrycandevelopbeyonditsresourcepotential.Unproductivelandoraharshclimatecanlimiteconomicgrowth.48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry. Stillanotherobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentisalackofappropriateeducationandtechnology.Anydevelopingcountriesdonothaveahighlyliteratepopulationorthehighleveloftechnicalskillsneededtobuildanindustrialsociety.Inadditionmostdonothavemoneytotrainengineersandscientists.49Manydevelopingcountriescannotevenaffordtoprovidefreepubliceducationforschool-agechildrenandinthosethatcannoteverychildisabletotakeadvantageofitbecausemostofthemhavetoworktohelpfeedtheirfamilies.Asaresultmuchofthepopulationmaynothavethebasicskillsneededtocontinuewithhighereducationwhenitisoffered. Governmentalsocanbeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment.Acountrywhosegovernmentoftenchangeswillhaveahardtimedevelopingeconomically.Suchconstantchangesimpedelong-termplanning.50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed. 46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 13
WorklooksabettercureforpovertythanwelfareEspeciallyasfewerandfewercountrieswillbeabletoaffordtopaypotentialworkerstostayathomeaVictorianideaisbackinfavour:manypoorpeoplearebetteroffwhentheyarepulledbackintothelabourmarket.TheidearevivedfirstintheUnitedStates.Thereinitsharshestformtheunemployedworkinexchangeforwelfare.ButcountrieswithgovernmentstotheleftofAmerica’sincludingLabourAustraliaandSocialistFrancearenowalsoexploringwaystolinkincomesupportandemploymentpolicy. Comingfromdifferentdirectionstherightandtheleftaregraduallyfindingnewcommonground.Fortherightitseemsdeplorabletoencouragethepoortorelyonthestateforcashbecausetheygethookedongovernmenthelpandaccustomedtobeingpoor.Fortheleftitseemsdeplorabletoallowworkerstodropoutofthejobmarketforlongperiodsbecauseitmakesitharderforthemtofindnewjobs.Forboththeansweristogetthepoortowork. Mostindustrialcountrieshaveatwo-tiersystemofsocialprotection:asocial-securityschemewhereworkersandtheirbossesmakeregularcontributionsinexchangeforpaymentstoworkerswhentheyareunemployedsickorretired;andasafety-nettogivesomeincometothosepoorpeoplewhohaveexhaustedtheirsocialinsuranceorwhohavenoneTheformerisusuallynotmeans-testedbutfortheunemployedisoflimitedduration;thelatterisalmostalwaystiedtoincomeThepublictendstoapproveofcontributorybenefitswhichiswhatdesignersofsuchschemesintended. Safety-netbenefitscarrynosuchsenseofentitlementandarelesspopular.Yettheyhavegrownmorerapidlyinlargepartbecausethe1980-82recessionincreasedthenumberofpeopleofworkingagewhohadexhaustedtheirrighttocontributorybenefits.Andanincreasingproportionofthepoorarepeopleforwhomthecontributorysystemswereneverdesigned:theyoungandlonemothers.Inconsequencepaymentswhichcarryaclearentitlementhavebecomelesssignificantcomparedwiththosewhichappeartodependpurelyonstatecharity. Theriseinthebillfortheunpopularkindofsocialprotectioncomesatatimewhengovernmentswanttocurbstatespending.Itcomestooatatimewhenmanycountrieshavedonealmosteverythingtheycanthinkoftoprotectthepoor.Adecadeagomanyontheleftarguedthatpovertywasusuallycausedbycircumstancesoutsidethecontrolofthepoor—alackofjobsdisabilityoldageracialdiscriminationbrokenmarriages.Onewayoranothergovernmentshavetriedtotacklemostoftheseproblems.Stillthepoorremain. Thegeneralattitudeofthepublictowardsbenefitsisthat
Manypeopleareconcernedabouttheeconomicconditionofdevelopingcountries—countrieswhoseaveragepercapitaGNPisafractionofthatinmoreindustrializedcountries.Howeverforthedevelopingcountriesthereexistmanyobstaclestotheireconomicdevelopment. Onemajorobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentispopulationgrowth.46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.Manylessdevelopedcountriesdependextensivelyonagricultureaddingtotheproblem.Inthesecountriesanincentivetohavemanychildrenexists.47Mostfarmsareworkedbyfamiliesandchildrencanworkinthefieldsatanearlyagebecausemostfarmersbelievethatmorechildrenmeansmoreworkers.Inadditionhavingmanychildrenensurestheparentsthatsomeonewilllookafterthemintheiroldage. Anotherproblemfordevelopingcountriesisincreasingaveragelifeexpectancy—theaverageremaininglifetimeforpersonswhoreachacertainage.Bettereducationinternationalaidandemphasisonhealth-carefacilitieshelppeoplelivelonger.AhighlifeexpectancycoupledwithahighcrudebirthratemakesitdifficulttoincreasepercapitaGNP. Anotherobstacletoeconomicgrowthislimitednaturalresources.Nocountrycandevelopbeyonditsresourcepotential.Unproductivelandoraharshclimatecanlimiteconomicgrowth.48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry. Stillanotherobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentisalackofappropriateeducationandtechnology.Anydevelopingcountriesdonothaveahighlyliteratepopulationorthehighleveloftechnicalskillsneededtobuildanindustrialsociety.Inadditionmostdonothavemoneytotrainengineersandscientists.49Manydevelopingcountriescannotevenaffordtoprovidefreepubliceducationforschool-agechildrenandinthosethatcannoteverychildisabletotakeadvantageofitbecausemostofthemhavetoworktohelpfeedtheirfamilies.Asaresultmuchofthepopulationmaynothavethebasicskillsneededtocontinuewithhighereducationwhenitisoffered. Governmentalsocanbeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment.Acountrywhosegovernmentoftenchangeswillhaveahardtimedevelopingeconomically.Suchconstantchangesimpedelong-termplanning.50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed. 48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry.
SomeoftheconcernssurroundingTurkey’sapplicationtojointheEuropeanUniontobe1onbytheEU’sCouncilofMinistersonDecember17thareeconomic--inparticularthecountry’srelativepoverty.ItsGDPperheadislessthanathirdoftheaverageforthe15pre-2004membersoftheEU.2itisnotfaroffthatofLatvia--oneofthetennewmemberswhich3onMay1st2004anditismuchthesameas4oftwocountriesBulgariaandRomaniawhichthisweekconcluded5talkswiththeEUthatcouldmakethemfullmembersonJanuary1st2007. 6thecountry’srecenteconomicprogresshasbeenaccordingtoDonaldJohnstonthesecretary-generaloftheOECDstunning.GDPinthesecondquarteroftheyearwas13.4%higherthanayearearliera7ofgrowththatnoEUcountrycomescloseto8.Turkey’s9ratehasjustfallenintosinglefiguresforthefirsttimesince1972andthisweekthecountry10agreementwiththeIMFonanewthree-year$10billioneconomicprogramthatwillhelpTurkey11inflationtowardEuropeanlevelsandenhancetheeconomy’sresilience. Resiliencehasnothistoricallybeenthecountry’seconomicstrongpoint.12throughoutthe1990sgrowthoscillatedlikeanelectrocardiogram13aviolentheartattack.This14hasbeenoneofthemainreasonswhythecountryhasfaileddismallytoattractmuch-neededforeigndirectinvestment.Itsstockofsuchinvestmentislowernowthanitwasinthe1980sandannual15havescarcelyeverreached$1billion. Onedeterrenttoforeigninvestorsisdueto16onJanuary1st2005.OnthatdayTurkeywilltakeawaytherightofvirtuallyeveryoneofitscitizenstocallthemselvesamillionaire.Sixzeroswillberemovedfromthefacevalueofthelira里拉土耳其货币单位;oneunitofthelocal17willhenceforthbeworthwhat1millionarenow--ieabout￡0.530.53欧元.Goodswillhavetobe18inboththenewandoldliraforthewholeoftheyear19foreignbankersand20canbegintolookforwardtoatimeinTurkeywhentheywillnolongerhavetojugglementallywithindeterminatestringsofzeros. 5
WhoispoorinAmericaThisisahardquestiontoanswer.Despitepoverty’smessinesswe’vemeasuredprogressagainstitbyasinglestatistic:thefederalpovertyline.In2008thepovertythresholdwas$21834forafour-memberfamilywithtwochildrenunder18.By1hismeasurewehaven’tmademuchprogress.Exceptforrecessionswhenthepovertyratecanriseto15percentit’sstayedinanarrowrangefordecades.In2007—thepeakofthelastbusinesscycle—thepovertyratewas12.5percent;oneoutofeightAmericanswas"poor."In1969anotherbusiness-cyclepeakthepovertyratewas12.1percent.Buttheapparentlackofprogressismisleadingfortworeasons. Firstitignoresimmigration.Manyimmigrantsarepoorandlowskilled.Theyaddtothepoor.From1989to2007aboutthreequartersoftheincreaseinthepovertypopulationoccurredamongHispanics—mostlyimmigrantstheirchildrenandgrandchildren.Thepovertyrateforblacksfellduringthisperiodthoughitwasstillmuchtoohigh24.5percentin2007.Poverty"experts"don’tdwellonimmigrationbecauseitimpliesthatmorerestrictivepoliciesmightreduceU.S.poverty. Secondthepoor’smaterialwell-beinghasimproved.Theofficialpovertymeasureobscuresthisbycountingonlypretaxcashincomeandignoringothersourcesofsupport.Theseincludetheearned-incometaxcreditarebatetolow-incomeworkersfoodstampshealthinsuranceMedicaidandhousingsubsidies.Althoughmanypoorlivehandtomouththey’veparticipatedinrisinglivingstandards.In200591percenthadmicrowaves79percentair-conditioningand48percentcellphones. Theexistingpovertylinecouldbeimprovedbyaddingsomeincomesourcesandsubtractingsomeexpensesexample:childcare.Unfortunatelytheadministration’sproposalfora"supplementalpovertymeasure"in2011—tocomplementnotreplacetheexistingpovertyline—goesbeyondthat.Thenewpovertynumberwouldcompoundpublicconfusion.Italsoraisesquestionsaboutwhetherthestatisticistailoredtofavorapoliticalagenda. The"supplementalmeasure"tiesthepovertythresholdtowhatthepoorestthirdofAmericansspendonfoodhousingclothingandutilities.Theactualthresholdnotyetcalculated—willprobablybehigherthantoday’spovertyline.Moreoverthisdefinitionhasstrangeconsequences.SupposethatallAmericansdoubledtheirincometomorrowandsupposethattheirspendingonfoodclothinghousingandutilitiesalsodoubled.Thatwouldseemtosignifylesspoverty—butnotbythenewpovertymeasure.Itwouldn’tdeclinebecausethepovertythresholdwouldgoupasspendingwentup.ManyAmericanswouldfindthisweird.peoplegetricherbut"poverty"staysstuck. Whatproducesthisoutcomeisadifferentviewofpoverty.Thepresentconceptisanabsoluteone:thepovertythresholdreflectstheamountestimatedtomeetbasicneeds.Bycontrastthenewmeasureembracesarelativenotionofpoverty:peopleareautomaticallypoorifthey’reagivendistancefromthetopeveniftheirincomesareincreasing. Thatthepovertyratedoesnotvarymuch
Thankstotheriseofsocialmedianewsisnolongergatheredexclusivelybyreportersandturnedintoastorybutemergesfromanecosysteminwhichjournalistssourcesreadersandviewersexchangeinformation.Thechangebeganaround1999whenbloggingtoolsfirstbecamewidelyavailablesaysJayRosenprofessorofjournalismatNewYorkUniversity.Theresultwas"theshiftofthetoolsofproductiontothepeopleformerlyknownastheaudience"hesays. 41______. Atfirstmanynewsorganisationswereopenlyhostiletowardsthesenewtools.InAmericathehighpointoftheantagonismbetweenbloggersandthemainstreammediawasinlate2004when"60Minutes"aneveningnewsshowonCBSallegedonthebasisofleakedmemosthatGeorgeBushjuniorhadusedfamilyconnectionstowinfavourabletreatmentintheAirNationalGuardinthe1970s.42______CBSretractedthestoryandDanRatheroneofthemostrespectednamesinAmericannewsresignedastheshow’sanchorinearly2005. 43______Newspapersandnewschannelshavesincelaunchedblogsoftheirownhiredmanybloggersandallowedreaderstoleavecomments.TheyalsoinvitepicturesvideoandothercontributionsfromreadersandseekoutmaterialpublishedontheInternetthusincorporatingnon-journalistsintothenewssystem. 44______"Weseethesethingsasbeinghighlycomplementarytowhatwedo"saysMartinNisenholtzoftheNewYorkTimes.ManyjournalistswhoweredismissiveaboutsocialmediahavechangedtheirtuneinthepastfewmonthsastheirvaluebecameapparentinthecoverageoftheArabuprisingsandtheJapaneseearthquakesaysLizHeronsocial-mediaeditorattheNewYorkTimes. RatherthanthinkingofthemselvesassettingtheagendaandmanagingtheconversationnewsorganisationsneedtorecognisethatjournalismisnowjustpartofaconversationthatisgoingonanywayarguesJeffJarvisamediaguruattheCityUniversityofNewYork.45______.Allthisrequiresjournaliststoadmitthattheydonothaveamonopolyonwisdom."Tenyearsagothatwasaterriblythreateningideaanditstillistosomepeople"saystheGuardian’sAlanRusbridger."Butintherealworldtheaggregateofwhatpeopleknowisgoingtobeinmostcasesmorethanweknowinsidethebuilding." [A]JournalistsarebecomingmoreinclinedtoseeblogsFacebookTwitterandotherformsofsocialmediaasavaluableadjuncttotraditionalmediaandsometimesacorrectivetothem. [B]Theroleofjournalistsinthisnewworldistoaddvaluetotheconversationbyprovidingreportingcontextanalysisverificationanddebunkingandbymakingavailabletoolsandplatformsthatallowpeopletoparticipate. [C]Byprovidingmorerawmaterialthaneverfromwhichtodistilthenewssocialmediahavebothdoneawaywitheditorsandshownuptheneedforthem. [D]Thiswasfollowedbyafurthershift:theriseof"horizontalmedia"thatmadeitquickandeasyforanyonetosharelinksviaFacebookorTwitterforexamplewithlargenumbersofpeoplewithouttheinvolvementofatraditionalmediaorganisation.Inotherwordspeoplecancollectivelyactasabroadcastnetwork. [E]WithasingleclickofaFacebook"Like"buttonforexampleyoucanrecommendastoryvideoorslideshowtoyourentirenetworkoffriends. [F]Bloggersimmediatelyquestionedtheauthenticityofthememos.AformerCBSNewsexecutivederidedbloggingas"aguysittinginhislivingroominhispyjamaswritingwhathethinks".Butthebloggerswereright. [G]Butinthepastfewyearsmainstreammediaorganisationshavechangedtheirattitude.ThesuccessoftheHuffingtonPost博客网站whichlaunchedinMay2005withacombinationoforiginalreportingbymembersofstaffblogpostsfromvolunteersincludingmanycelebrityfriendsofAriannaHuffington’sthesite’sco-founderandlinkstonewsstoriesonothersitesshowedtheappealofwhatMsHuffingtoncallsa"hybrid"approachthatmeldsoldandnewprofessionalandamateur. 44
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