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教育的经济功能表现在哪些方面
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CouldHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDSbeweakeningTheresultsofastudyconductedinBelgiumattheInstituteofTropicalMedicineinAntwerpseemtosuggestthatinonecorneroftheworlditmightbe.ThereportpublishedinthelatestissueofAIDSaspecialistjournalconcludesthatHIV’sabilitytoreplicateknowntechnicallyasitsvirulencemayhavedecreasedsincethestartofthepandemic.KevinAdentheleadauthorofthepaperstressesthatthestudyisbasedonasmallsetofsamplesanddoesnotprovethatHIV’svirulenceisattenuatingaroundtheworld.Howeveritdoesoffernewinsightsintotheevolutionofthedisease. Dr.Arienlookedat24bloodsamplescollectedfromuntreatedpatientsattendinganHIV/AIDSclinicinAntwerp.Adozenofthesesamplesweretakenbetween1986and1989;theother12werecollectedbetween2002and2003.Firstheanalyzedthesamplestofindtheirviralloadthenumberofvirusparticlespercubiccentimeterandthesubtypeofvirusinvolved.InEuropeandNorthAmericathepredominantsubtypeisB;insub-SaharanAfricawheretheepidemicisatitsworstthepredominantsubtypeisC.MostofDr.Arien’ssampleswereofsubtypeB.Havingdonethisanalysishepairedthesamplesoffforaseriesofreplicative"duels".Eachsamplefromtheearlierserieswasmatchedwiththemostsimilaronefromthelaterseriesandtheywereplacedinidenticalcellculturestoseewhichwouldmultiplythemost.Theresultwasthat75%ofthevirusesfrom2002-03werelessvirulentthanapparentlysimilarcounterpartsfrom1986-89--astatisticallysignificantobservation. Dr.Arien’scautionissensibleatleastuntilsomeonereplicatestheworkelsewhere.Buthisconclusionisnotnecessarilysurprising.Suchviralattenuationasitisknownisonewaythatvaccinesareproduced. Whatcausesattenuationinwildvirusesthoughisamatterofspeculation.DrArienbelievesthatinthiscasetheattenuationcouldbetheresultofwhathecalls"serialgeneticbottlenecks"duringtransmissionfromhosttohost.Theseacttoreducethegeneticdiversityandthusthereplicativefitnessofthevirus.GeneticdiversityisknowntobeanimportantcomponentofHIV’svirulence.Butwhatmightcausethebottlenecksisstillunclear. AsecondreasonforcautionbesidesthesmallsizeofthestudyisasGeoffreyGarnettaprofessorofmicroparasiteepidemiologyatImperialCollegeLondonpointsoutthattheabilityofavirustoinfectcellsinatest-tubeisnotthesameasitsabilitytocausediseaseanddeathinahumanhost.NeverthelessDrAden’sresultisintriguingandsurelyworthfollowingupinalargerpieceofresearch. Whichisthebesttitleforthetext
1abriefintroductionofyourself 2youreducationalqualification 3arequestforaninterview. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Agrowingnumberofwomenarerisingtothetop--andbeginningtochangethecultureoftheworkplace. Thisshouldbeaseasonofcelebration.Afterallbymanymeasuresthere’sneverbeenabettertimetobeawoman.InplaceslikeScandinaviaandBritainathirdormoreofallcorporatemanagersarenowwomen.ThenumberoffemaleexecutivedirectorsofFISE100companiesnearlydoubledfrom2000to2004.LatinAmericahasseena50percentjumpinthenumberofwomenpoliticiansinthelastdecade.Japanvoted26newfemaleparliamentariansintoofficethisyear.Ofcoursethejewelintheequal-opportunitycrownwasthisfall’selectionofAngelaMerkel--oncenicknamed"theGirl"byHelmutKohl--toGermany’shighestoffice. Butasalwaysstatisticstellamultifacetedstory.Sureit’snolongerananomalytohaveafemaleCEO--buttherearestillonly17femaleexecutivedirectorsinthelargestFTSE100companies.IntheEUParliamentonly23outof162membersarefemale.InBritainstudiesshowthatwomenhaveneverbeenmoredissatisfiedwiththeworkplace.Nowonder:theEUpaygapbetweenmenandwomenshrankonlyonepointinthelastcoupleofyearsto17.5percent. SowheredoesallthisleaveusWithsomebigchallengesthatrequiremorefemaleleadershiptosolve.Atsomemajorcompanies--includingShellandBritishTelecom--womenarecombatingtheold-boys’clubatmospherebystartingtheirownnetworkslinkingtopfemaleleaderswithup-and-comerstheycanmentor.Laborflexibilityisalsoontheagenda;inpartsofEuropetopfemalelegislatorshavefoughttogiveemployeeswithchildrenorelderlyparentstherighttoaskforadjustablehours.Perhapsmostimportantthereisanincreasinglyvibrantdebatearoundwork-lifebalance.Studyafterstudyshowsthatitisaworkingwoman’ssecondfull-timejob--ascaregiver--thatmakesitmostdifficultforhertostayonthecareerladder.Whileextrabenefitsandlongermaternityleavecanhelptheyaren’tacompletesolution. Clearlysomeout-of-the-boxthinkingisrequired.Andthat’swherewomencomein.IncountrieslikeCameroonBoliviaandMalaysiagreaternumbersofwomeninpublicofficehaveresultedinlessspendingonthemilitaryandmoreonhealtheducationandinfrastructure.Norway’swoman-heavyParliamentrecentlypassedalawmandatingthat40percentofdirectorsoncorporateboardsbewomen.AndinGermanythearchetypaloutsider--awomanwhogrewuponthewrongsideoftheIronCurtain--willlikelytakethehelminacountrywithvirtuallynootherwomenintoppositionsofpower.Nolonger"theGirl"butpoisedtobecomethechancellorMerkelisasymbolofhowfarwomenhavecome--andtheworkthatremainstobedone. Accordingtoparagraphtwowhatisthemostimportantissueofwomen’sachievementinpolitics
YoucannotbuyPradashoesonPrada.com.InfacttherearenoworkinglinksontheWebsite.Thisisnotatechnicaldisorder.Sincethelate’9OsthesitehasbeenasinglepagewithonlythenameoftheItalianfashionhouseandtwophotographs.Nostorelocationsorhelpnumbers.Nothing."IlovePrada"pondersNinaDietzelpresidentofWeb-designcompany300FeetOut."Butwhat’supwiththeir’site’" PradaclaimsanewWebsiteis"underdevelopment."Buthavingamysteriouslyuselesshomepageitadmitshasanallure.Itscreamsexclusivity:youcanseebutyoucan’tclick.It’sauniquelyPradasolutiontothisriddle:howtomakeyourluxurybrandworkontheInternetwithoutdiminishingitsvalue.InasensetheInternetisantitheticaltothe"hightouch"luxuryexperience.ThereisnoindulgencebysalesstaffandcustomershavecometoseetheNetasapathtocheappricesnottop-dollargoods.There’snovelvetrope:anyonecanplaceanorderorsetupshop.That’swhyPradastrivestomaintainthelinkbetweenitsnameandtheextravagantexperienceofshoppingatstoreslikeits$40millionNewYorkflagshipdesignedbyRemKoolhaas. UnlikePradamostluxurycompaniescan’taffordtoignoretheWeb:intheUnitedStatesecommerceaccountedfor$2.5billioninluxurysales.Thatfigureisexpectedtogrowto$7billionby2010saysForresterResearch.It’sstillasmallfractionofthetotalmarketcomparedtootherretailsectorsbutfiveyearsagoanalystssaidtherewas"noway"luxurywouldsellonline.Theywerebettingcustomerswouldn’tpaythatmuchontheWebandtopbrandswouldn’tgoslumminginthisbargainbasement.Oneofthefirsthigh-endluxuryretailersAshford.comhadmanywell-publicizedstruggleswithitsstockdroppingtonearrockbottomin2001. CompanieslikeNeimanMarcusthathavestrongcatalogsaleshavemadethetransitiontotheWebmoreeasily;onlinesalesarethecompany’sfastest-growingsourceofrevenue.SwisswatchmakersBreitlingandPatekPhilippehavetakenanothertackwithWebsitesthatofferonlyinformationnotsales.BreitlingdirectorofmarketingBenBalmersaysaluxurybrandneedstooffer"abuyingexperience"thatonlyawell-runstorecanprovide.Howeverhenotesthatsince2002ithaspresented30percentfewercatalogsintheUnitedStatesandseensalesrisemorethan35percentthankstoexposureontheInternet.PradamaynotneedaworkingWebsiteafterall. Wecaninferfromthelastparagraphthat
Agrowingnumberofwomenarerisingtothetop--andbeginningtochangethecultureoftheworkplace. Thisshouldbeaseasonofcelebration.Afterallbymanymeasuresthere’sneverbeenabettertimetobeawoman.InplaceslikeScandinaviaandBritainathirdormoreofallcorporatemanagersarenowwomen.ThenumberoffemaleexecutivedirectorsofFISE100companiesnearlydoubledfrom2000to2004.LatinAmericahasseena50percentjumpinthenumberofwomenpoliticiansinthelastdecade.Japanvoted26newfemaleparliamentariansintoofficethisyear.Ofcoursethejewelintheequal-opportunitycrownwasthisfall’selectionofAngelaMerkel--oncenicknamed"theGirl"byHelmutKohl--toGermany’shighestoffice. Butasalwaysstatisticstellamultifacetedstory.Sureit’snolongerananomalytohaveafemaleCEO--buttherearestillonly17femaleexecutivedirectorsinthelargestFTSE100companies.IntheEUParliamentonly23outof162membersarefemale.InBritainstudiesshowthatwomenhaveneverbeenmoredissatisfiedwiththeworkplace.Nowonder:theEUpaygapbetweenmenandwomenshrankonlyonepointinthelastcoupleofyearsto17.5percent. SowheredoesallthisleaveusWithsomebigchallengesthatrequiremorefemaleleadershiptosolve.Atsomemajorcompanies--includingShellandBritishTelecom--womenarecombatingtheold-boys’clubatmospherebystartingtheirownnetworkslinkingtopfemaleleaderswithup-and-comerstheycanmentor.Laborflexibilityisalsoontheagenda;inpartsofEuropetopfemalelegislatorshavefoughttogiveemployeeswithchildrenorelderlyparentstherighttoaskforadjustablehours.Perhapsmostimportantthereisanincreasinglyvibrantdebatearoundwork-lifebalance.Studyafterstudyshowsthatitisaworkingwoman’ssecondfull-timejob--ascaregiver--thatmakesitmostdifficultforhertostayonthecareerladder.Whileextrabenefitsandlongermaternityleavecanhelptheyaren’tacompletesolution. Clearlysomeout-of-the-boxthinkingisrequired.Andthat’swherewomencomein.IncountrieslikeCameroonBoliviaandMalaysiagreaternumbersofwomeninpublicofficehaveresultedinlessspendingonthemilitaryandmoreonhealtheducationandinfrastructure.Norway’swoman-heavyParliamentrecentlypassedalawmandatingthat40percentofdirectorsoncorporateboardsbewomen.AndinGermanythearchetypaloutsider--awomanwhogrewuponthewrongsideoftheIronCurtain--willlikelytakethehelminacountrywithvirtuallynootherwomenintoppositionsofpower.Nolonger"theGirl"butpoisedtobecomethechancellorMerkelisasymbolofhowfarwomenhavecome--andtheworkthatremainstobedone. Whichstatementistrueaboutthechallengefacedbythefemaleleadership
YoucannotbuyPradashoesonPrada.com.InfacttherearenoworkinglinksontheWebsite.Thisisnotatechnicaldisorder.Sincethelate’9OsthesitehasbeenasinglepagewithonlythenameoftheItalianfashionhouseandtwophotographs.Nostorelocationsorhelpnumbers.Nothing."IlovePrada"pondersNinaDietzelpresidentofWeb-designcompany300FeetOut."Butwhat’supwiththeir’site’" PradaclaimsanewWebsiteis"underdevelopment."Buthavingamysteriouslyuselesshomepageitadmitshasanallure.Itscreamsexclusivity:youcanseebutyoucan’tclick.It’sauniquelyPradasolutiontothisriddle:howtomakeyourluxurybrandworkontheInternetwithoutdiminishingitsvalue.InasensetheInternetisantitheticaltothe"hightouch"luxuryexperience.ThereisnoindulgencebysalesstaffandcustomershavecometoseetheNetasapathtocheappricesnottop-dollargoods.There’snovelvetrope:anyonecanplaceanorderorsetupshop.That’swhyPradastrivestomaintainthelinkbetweenitsnameandtheextravagantexperienceofshoppingatstoreslikeits$40millionNewYorkflagshipdesignedbyRemKoolhaas. UnlikePradamostluxurycompaniescan’taffordtoignoretheWeb:intheUnitedStatesecommerceaccountedfor$2.5billioninluxurysales.Thatfigureisexpectedtogrowto$7billionby2010saysForresterResearch.It’sstillasmallfractionofthetotalmarketcomparedtootherretailsectorsbutfiveyearsagoanalystssaidtherewas"noway"luxurywouldsellonline.Theywerebettingcustomerswouldn’tpaythatmuchontheWebandtopbrandswouldn’tgoslumminginthisbargainbasement.Oneofthefirsthigh-endluxuryretailersAshford.comhadmanywell-publicizedstruggleswithitsstockdroppingtonearrockbottomin2001. CompanieslikeNeimanMarcusthathavestrongcatalogsaleshavemadethetransitiontotheWebmoreeasily;onlinesalesarethecompany’sfastest-growingsourceofrevenue.SwisswatchmakersBreitlingandPatekPhilippehavetakenanothertackwithWebsitesthatofferonlyinformationnotsales.BreitlingdirectorofmarketingBenBalmersaysaluxurybrandneedstooffer"abuyingexperience"thatonlyawell-runstorecanprovide.Howeverhenotesthatsince2002ithaspresented30percentfewercatalogsintheUnitedStatesandseensalesrisemorethan35percentthankstoexposureontheInternet.PradamaynotneedaworkingWebsiteafterall. WhatdoesthewordantitheticalLine4Paragraph2mostprobablymean
Soyou’vebeenwithyourcompanyforawhileandhavebeenexceedingallofyourmanager’sexpectations.Youworkhardareagreatteamplayercomeupwithnewideastotakethebusinessfurtherandareanall-aroundjoyintheworkplace. Ifyouhaven’tbeenpromotedorbeenbumpedupinsalaryautomaticallyitmightbetimetotakethebullbythehornsandapproachthistopicyourself.Whileaskingforaraisemakesmanypeopleuncomfortableandnervousthesituationcanbeabreezeifhandledcorrectly. Thefollowingareafewstepstofollowtomakesureyourrequestdoesnotfallondeafears: 41.Doyourresearch. Likeanyotherelementofyourcareeritallstartswithresearch.Inordertopresentyourmanagerwithacompellingcaseinyourfavoryouneedtoknowwhatthegoingrateisforsomeonewithyourexperienceandinyourposition. 42.Outlineacaseforyourself. Whengoingintoanykindofnegotiationsessionyouneedtobeequippedwiththerightamountofammunition.Beforeyouwalkintoyourmeetinglookbackatyourtimewiththecompanyandhighlightyouraceomplishments.Comeupwithalistofspecificexamplesofwaysyouhavebeenavaluableassettothebusiness.Findfactsandfiguresthatdemonstratewhatyouhaveexcelledusingnumberswheneverpossible. Ifyoureallywanttoknocktheirsocksoffputyouraccomplishmentsintoaformalpresentationalbeitbriefthatoutlineseachofyourgoalsandhowyouhaveachievedthem.Thiswilldemonstratethatyouareprofessionalwillingtogotheextramileandhavethoughtaboutyourrequestthoroughly. 43.Knowwhat’sgoingoninyourneighborhood. Therearegoodtimesandbadtimestoaskforaraiseatanycompany. Scheduleampletimetopresentyourcaseandmakesureyourtimingisright. Askingforaraiseontheflyafterjustwalkingintoyourmanager’sofficetochatwillnotbenefityouorimpressyourboss. Makesureyouhavetimetopresentyourcaseandthatyourmanagerhastimetothinkaboutyourpresentation.Requestameetingwithyoursupervisoratleastahalf-hourlong.Thinkaboutyourtimingwhenyouschedulethemeetingtoo.Ifyourdepartmenthasabevyofdeadlinestomeetattheendofeachmonthdon’tscheduleyourmeetingonthe29th.Pickatimewhenyourmanagerwillbesuretobeinagoodmoodandnotoverlystressed. 44.Avoidthreatsordemands. Thelastthingyouwanttodoistoputyoursupervisoronthedefensive. Beprofessionalandifyourjobisworthkeepingwillingtolistentotheotherside.Keepthemeetingpositiveandyouroutcomewillbemorepositive. 45.Rememberthatnotallperksaremonetary. Don’tfallintothetrapofthinkingyouarenotvaluedifyoudonotgetexactlywhatyouhadexpected. [A]Ifyouapproachyourmanagerforaraiseinatimeofdownsizingandcost-cuttingyouwillnotonlybedeniedbutwillalsoshowthatyouarenotintunewiththecompany’sneeds.Makesureyouunderstandyourcompany’soverallfinancialsituation. [B]Forexampleifyoudevelopedamarketingplanthathelpedincreasesalesmakesureyouhavethosesalesfiguresonhandaswellasyourroleintheplananditsexecution.Besuretotieyourownsuccessintotheoverallsuccessofthecompany. [C]Ifyourcompanyisstrappedfinanciallybutyouandyourmanagerstillcometotheconclusionthatitistimeforyoutoberewardedforyourperformanceyoumightbeabletonegotiateforstockoptionsmorevacationtimeorothernon-monetarybenefits. [D]Whenyoucomeupwithyourdesiredraiseinyourbasesalarygoover2%.Ifyouwant8%thenaskfor10%. [E]YoucanfindoutwhatothersinyourindustryandincomparablepositionsarerakinginbylookingatonlineresourcesthroughtheBureauofLaborStatisticsorinbookslike"TheAmericanAlmanacofJobsandSalaries"byJohnW.WrightQuill. [F]Goingintoameetingwiththe"ifIdon’tgetitI’mleaving"attitudewillonlytellyourcompanyyouareuncompromisingandonlyoutfornumberone. 41
DespitethedoubtsanddespitecomplaintsfromshopownersLondon’scongestioncharge--introducedinFebruary2003--hasmanagedtoeasethegridlockinthecitycentre.Trafficisdownby18%jamsby30%.Thescheme’sbiggestweaknessisthatitiscrude:driverspay￡8$14toenterthezonebetween7amand6:30pmregardlessofhowcongestedtheroadsareorhowlongtheystay. Soroad-pricingfansarewatchingtrialsbyTransportforLondonTfLofanewdetectionsystemcalledtag-and-beaconwithinterest.UndersuchaschemeusedinSingaporeandonsomeEuropeanroadscarsarefittedwithelectronictagsthatarereadbyroadsidemasts.IfthetrialissuccessfulTfLsaysthatthecitycouldswitchtothesystemoncethecontracttorunthecongestionchargeisre-letin2009. Currentlycamerasareusedtoreadlicenseplatesandtrackmotorists.Theyarenotalwaysreliable:anindividualcameraidentifiesonlyaround70%ofcars.Mostdrivengetphotographedmorethanoncewhichbooststhesystem’seffectivenesstoover95%butthatstillleavesseveralthousandvehiclesperdaywhosedetailsmustbelaboriouslycheckedbyhand.Tag-and-beacontechnologyismuchmoreaccuratewithanidentificationrateofover99%. TfLsaysthetrialispartlydesignedtoseewhetherthenewsystemcouldallowdriverstopaychargesbydirectdebit.Thatwouldbepopularwithmotoristswhocomplainthatthecurrentpaymentsystemisunfriendly:thetollforaday’stravelmustbepaidmanually--onlinebyphoneorinashop--bymidnightwithsteepfinesleviedonforgetfuldrivers. Moreprecisedetectionalsoallowsformoreprecisioninpolicyandroad-pricingenthusiastsseeradicalpossibilitiesahead.TfLsaysitisconsideringusingthenewtechnologytochargedriverseachtimetheycrossthezoneboundaryuptoadailymaximuminsteadofpayingonceforanentireday’stravel.Thatwouldbecheaperfordriverswhomakefewtripsintothezonealthoughdriverswhospendalongtimetrundlingaroundwithoutleavingtherebycausingthemostcongestionwouldgetofflightlytoo. Furtherrefinementsmaybepossible.Thecurrentsystemhascuttrafficmostdrasticallyinthemiddleofthedaywhencongestionisatitslowest.Demandforroadspacewouldbettermatchsupplyifchargeswerevariable--highatthebusiesttimesofdayandlowinquietperiods. Suchatime-sensitivevariable-chargingschemeusingatag-and-beaconsystemwasendorsedlastyearbyBobKileytheTfL’sbosswhoalsosaidthathewantedtoextendthecongestionchargetootherpartsofLondon.ThatwouldbecontroversialandMr.Kiley’sunderlingswerequicktoinsistthathismusingswerenotofficialpolicy.ButtheoriginalschemewascontroversialtooyetKenLivingstoneLondon’smayoranditsbiggestbackerwasre-electedafterintroducingit.Itwouldbeashameiftimiditytookholdnow. WhichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaboutTfL
DespitethedoubtsanddespitecomplaintsfromshopownersLondon’scongestioncharge--introducedinFebruary2003--hasmanagedtoeasethegridlockinthecitycentre.Trafficisdownby18%jamsby30%.Thescheme’sbiggestweaknessisthatitiscrude:driverspay￡8$14toenterthezonebetween7amand6:30pmregardlessofhowcongestedtheroadsareorhowlongtheystay. Soroad-pricingfansarewatchingtrialsbyTransportforLondonTfLofanewdetectionsystemcalledtag-and-beaconwithinterest.UndersuchaschemeusedinSingaporeandonsomeEuropeanroadscarsarefittedwithelectronictagsthatarereadbyroadsidemasts.IfthetrialissuccessfulTfLsaysthatthecitycouldswitchtothesystemoncethecontracttorunthecongestionchargeisre-letin2009. Currentlycamerasareusedtoreadlicenseplatesandtrackmotorists.Theyarenotalwaysreliable:anindividualcameraidentifiesonlyaround70%ofcars.Mostdrivengetphotographedmorethanoncewhichbooststhesystem’seffectivenesstoover95%butthatstillleavesseveralthousandvehiclesperdaywhosedetailsmustbelaboriouslycheckedbyhand.Tag-and-beacontechnologyismuchmoreaccuratewithanidentificationrateofover99%. TfLsaysthetrialispartlydesignedtoseewhetherthenewsystemcouldallowdriverstopaychargesbydirectdebit.Thatwouldbepopularwithmotoristswhocomplainthatthecurrentpaymentsystemisunfriendly:thetollforaday’stravelmustbepaidmanually--onlinebyphoneorinashop--bymidnightwithsteepfinesleviedonforgetfuldrivers. Moreprecisedetectionalsoallowsformoreprecisioninpolicyandroad-pricingenthusiastsseeradicalpossibilitiesahead.TfLsaysitisconsideringusingthenewtechnologytochargedriverseachtimetheycrossthezoneboundaryuptoadailymaximuminsteadofpayingonceforanentireday’stravel.Thatwouldbecheaperfordriverswhomakefewtripsintothezonealthoughdriverswhospendalongtimetrundlingaroundwithoutleavingtherebycausingthemostcongestionwouldgetofflightlytoo. Furtherrefinementsmaybepossible.Thecurrentsystemhascuttrafficmostdrasticallyinthemiddleofthedaywhencongestionisatitslowest.Demandforroadspacewouldbettermatchsupplyifchargeswerevariable--highatthebusiesttimesofdayandlowinquietperiods. Suchatime-sensitivevariable-chargingschemeusingatag-and-beaconsystemwasendorsedlastyearbyBobKileytheTfL’sbosswhoalsosaidthathewantedtoextendthecongestionchargetootherpartsofLondon.ThatwouldbecontroversialandMr.Kiley’sunderlingswerequicktoinsistthathismusingswerenotofficialpolicy.ButtheoriginalschemewascontroversialtooyetKenLivingstoneLondon’smayoranditsbiggestbackerwasre-electedafterintroducingit.Itwouldbeashameiftimiditytookholdnow. Thetag-and-beaconsystem
46.TheAmericansociologistTalcottParsonsbelievedthatthetwomostimportantfunctionsofthemodernfamilyaretheprimarysocializationofchildrenandthestabilizationofadultpersonalitiesthroughmarriageandtheraisingofchildren.Hisownconcernwasparticularlywiththemiddle-classAmericanfamilybuttheseimportantaspectsoffamilylifearealsoapplicablemuchmorewidely.Inthepresentcontextitisworthwhiletolookespeciallyatprimarysocialization. 47.Primarysocializationreferstothetrainingofchildrenduringtheirearliestyearswhereassecondarysocializationreferstolaterinfluencesonthedevelopmentofthechild’spersonalityandlearningactivitiessuchashisinvolvementwithteachersandwithotherchildrenatschool.Primarysocializationisinmostsocietiescarriedoutessentiallywithinthefamilyaspartofchildrearing.Inthemodernfamilyparentstakeresponsibilityforraisingandteachingtheirchildrensuchbasicthingsaslanguageandcorrectbehavior.Toilettrainingteachingchildrenhowtoeatcorrectlyandencouragingchildrentogetalongwithothersareallaspectsofchildrearing.Howeveritisnotonlythesemoremundaneaspectsofbehaviorthatchildrenlearn.Childrenarealsoimplicitlyencouragedtodevelopthevaluesoftheparentsandoftilesocietyinwhichtheylive.InAmericansocietywhichwasParsons’mainconcernthesevaluesincludeindependencemotivationforachievementandcompetition.Inothersocietiesdifferentvaluessuchascooperationandegalitarianismmaybestressed.48.Yettheprinciplebehindprimarysocializationindifferentsocietiesisthesame:thedevelopmentofsocialvaluesmustbeachievedinanenvironmentofloveandsecurityasisfoundintheidealfamilyanywhereintheworld. Howeverfewfamiliesareideal.Studiesofthefamiliesofemotionallydisturbedchildrenhaveshownthatunsatisfactoryrelationshipsbetweenhusbandsandwivescanhavedetrimentaleffectsonchildren. Sometimesachildisusedasascapegoat.Theparentsblameorevenphysicallyabusethechildinordertocoveruptheirowndifficulties.49.Insuchaeasethechildoftenfailstodevelopthevaluestheparentswishtoinstillinhimdevelopinginsteadantisocialhabitsleadingtodeviantbehaviorinlaterlife.Indeedthecyclemayberepeatedifsuchapersonintimemarrieshasafamilyofhisownandtreatshischildreninthesameway.Nonethelessthereisnoreasontosupposethatallchildrenofunsatisfactorymarriagesaretreatedinsuchawayorfailtoovercomethedifficultiestheyhaveaschildren. 50.SomesocialscientistshaveevensuggestedthattheisolatednuclearfamilyasitexistsinWesternindustrializedsocietiesistoblameforthesocialillsfoundinthosesocieties.Theyclaimthatinthepastmoresupportwasofferedfromthewiderkinnetworkandfromthecommunityasawhole--asisstillthecaseinless-developedpartsoftheworldTheBritishpsychiatristsR.D.LaingandDavidCoopersuggestedthatthemodernfamilyisdysfunctionalinthatbyitsverynatureitforcesuponchildrenanundueemphasisonobediencetoauthority.Thesenegativeviewpointsasidemostexpertsaswellasmostparentsagreethattheprimarysocializationprocessinthemodernfamilyoffersbenefitsbotht6thechildandtotheparents. Primarysocializationreferstothetrainingofchildrenduringtheirearliestyearswhereassecondarysocializationreferstolaterinfluencesonthedevelopmentofthechild’spersonalityandlearningactivitiessuchashisinvolvementwithteachersandwithotherchildrenatschool
Soyou’vebeenwithyourcompanyforawhileandhavebeenexceedingallofyourmanager’sexpectations.Youworkhardareagreatteamplayercomeupwithnewideastotakethebusinessfurtherandareanall-aroundjoyintheworkplace. Ifyouhaven’tbeenpromotedorbeenbumpedupinsalaryautomaticallyitmightbetimetotakethebullbythehornsandapproachthistopicyourself.Whileaskingforaraisemakesmanypeopleuncomfortableandnervousthesituationcanbeabreezeifhandledcorrectly. Thefollowingareafewstepstofollowtomakesureyourrequestdoesnotfallondeafears: 41.Doyourresearch. Likeanyotherelementofyourcareeritallstartswithresearch.Inordertopresentyourmanagerwithacompellingcaseinyourfavoryouneedtoknowwhatthegoingrateisforsomeonewithyourexperienceandinyourposition. 42.Outlineacaseforyourself. Whengoingintoanykindofnegotiationsessionyouneedtobeequippedwiththerightamountofammunition.Beforeyouwalkintoyourmeetinglookbackatyourtimewiththecompanyandhighlightyouraceomplishments.Comeupwithalistofspecificexamplesofwaysyouhavebeenavaluableassettothebusiness.Findfactsandfiguresthatdemonstratewhatyouhaveexcelledusingnumberswheneverpossible. Ifyoureallywanttoknocktheirsocksoffputyouraccomplishmentsintoaformalpresentationalbeitbriefthatoutlineseachofyourgoalsandhowyouhaveachievedthem.Thiswilldemonstratethatyouareprofessionalwillingtogotheextramileandhavethoughtaboutyourrequestthoroughly. 43.Knowwhat’sgoingoninyourneighborhood. Therearegoodtimesandbadtimestoaskforaraiseatanycompany. Scheduleampletimetopresentyourcaseandmakesureyourtimingisright. Askingforaraiseontheflyafterjustwalkingintoyourmanager’sofficetochatwillnotbenefityouorimpressyourboss. Makesureyouhavetimetopresentyourcaseandthatyourmanagerhastimetothinkaboutyourpresentation.Requestameetingwithyoursupervisoratleastahalf-hourlong.Thinkaboutyourtimingwhenyouschedulethemeetingtoo.Ifyourdepartmenthasabevyofdeadlinestomeetattheendofeachmonthdon’tscheduleyourmeetingonthe29th.Pickatimewhenyourmanagerwillbesuretobeinagoodmoodandnotoverlystressed. 44.Avoidthreatsordemands. Thelastthingyouwanttodoistoputyoursupervisoronthedefensive. Beprofessionalandifyourjobisworthkeepingwillingtolistentotheotherside.Keepthemeetingpositiveandyouroutcomewillbemorepositive. 45.Rememberthatnotallperksaremonetary. Don’tfallintothetrapofthinkingyouarenotvaluedifyoudonotgetexactlywhatyouhadexpected. [A]Ifyouapproachyourmanagerforaraiseinatimeofdownsizingandcost-cuttingyouwillnotonlybedeniedbutwillalsoshowthatyouarenotintunewiththecompany’sneeds.Makesureyouunderstandyourcompany’soverallfinancialsituation. [B]Forexampleifyoudevelopedamarketingplanthathelpedincreasesalesmakesureyouhavethosesalesfiguresonhandaswellasyourroleintheplananditsexecution.Besuretotieyourownsuccessintotheoverallsuccessofthecompany. [C]Ifyourcompanyisstrappedfinanciallybutyouandyourmanagerstillcometotheconclusionthatitistimeforyoutoberewardedforyourperformanceyoumightbeabletonegotiateforstockoptionsmorevacationtimeorothernon-monetarybenefits. [D]Whenyoucomeupwithyourdesiredraiseinyourbasesalarygoover2%.Ifyouwant8%thenaskfor10%. [E]YoucanfindoutwhatothersinyourindustryandincomparablepositionsarerakinginbylookingatonlineresourcesthroughtheBureauofLaborStatisticsorinbookslike"TheAmericanAlmanacofJobsandSalaries"byJohnW.WrightQuill. [F]Goingintoameetingwiththe"ifIdon’tgetitI’mleaving"attitudewillonlytellyourcompanyyouareuncompromisingandonlyoutfornumberone. 45
CouldHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDSbeweakeningTheresultsofastudyconductedinBelgiumattheInstituteofTropicalMedicineinAntwerpseemtosuggestthatinonecorneroftheworlditmightbe.ThereportpublishedinthelatestissueofAIDSaspecialistjournalconcludesthatHIV’sabilitytoreplicateknowntechnicallyasitsvirulencemayhavedecreasedsincethestartofthepandemic.KevinAdentheleadauthorofthepaperstressesthatthestudyisbasedonasmallsetofsamplesanddoesnotprovethatHIV’svirulenceisattenuatingaroundtheworld.Howeveritdoesoffernewinsightsintotheevolutionofthedisease. Dr.Arienlookedat24bloodsamplescollectedfromuntreatedpatientsattendinganHIV/AIDSclinicinAntwerp.Adozenofthesesamplesweretakenbetween1986and1989;theother12werecollectedbetween2002and2003.Firstheanalyzedthesamplestofindtheirviralloadthenumberofvirusparticlespercubiccentimeterandthesubtypeofvirusinvolved.InEuropeandNorthAmericathepredominantsubtypeisB;insub-SaharanAfricawheretheepidemicisatitsworstthepredominantsubtypeisC.MostofDr.Arien’ssampleswereofsubtypeB.Havingdonethisanalysishepairedthesamplesoffforaseriesofreplicative"duels".Eachsamplefromtheearlierserieswasmatchedwiththemostsimilaronefromthelaterseriesandtheywereplacedinidenticalcellculturestoseewhichwouldmultiplythemost.Theresultwasthat75%ofthevirusesfrom2002-03werelessvirulentthanapparentlysimilarcounterpartsfrom1986-89--astatisticallysignificantobservation. Dr.Arien’scautionissensibleatleastuntilsomeonereplicatestheworkelsewhere.Buthisconclusionisnotnecessarilysurprising.Suchviralattenuationasitisknownisonewaythatvaccinesareproduced. Whatcausesattenuationinwildvirusesthoughisamatterofspeculation.DrArienbelievesthatinthiscasetheattenuationcouldbetheresultofwhathecalls"serialgeneticbottlenecks"duringtransmissionfromhosttohost.Theseacttoreducethegeneticdiversityandthusthereplicativefitnessofthevirus.GeneticdiversityisknowntobeanimportantcomponentofHIV’svirulence.Butwhatmightcausethebottlenecksisstillunclear. AsecondreasonforcautionbesidesthesmallsizeofthestudyisasGeoffreyGarnettaprofessorofmicroparasiteepidemiologyatImperialCollegeLondonpointsoutthattheabilityofavirustoinfectcellsinatest-tubeisnotthesameasitsabilitytocausediseaseanddeathinahumanhost.NeverthelessDrAden’sresultisintriguingandsurelyworthfollowingupinalargerpieceofresearch. Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
Soyou’vebeenwithyourcompanyforawhileandhavebeenexceedingallofyourmanager’sexpectations.Youworkhardareagreatteamplayercomeupwithnewideastotakethebusinessfurtherandareanall-aroundjoyintheworkplace. Ifyouhaven’tbeenpromotedorbeenbumpedupinsalaryautomaticallyitmightbetimetotakethebullbythehornsandapproachthistopicyourself.Whileaskingforaraisemakesmanypeopleuncomfortableandnervousthesituationcanbeabreezeifhandledcorrectly. Thefollowingareafewstepstofollowtomakesureyourrequestdoesnotfallondeafears: 41.Doyourresearch. Likeanyotherelementofyourcareeritallstartswithresearch.Inordertopresentyourmanagerwithacompellingcaseinyourfavoryouneedtoknowwhatthegoingrateisforsomeonewithyourexperienceandinyourposition. 42.Outlineacaseforyourself. Whengoingintoanykindofnegotiationsessionyouneedtobeequippedwiththerightamountofammunition.Beforeyouwalkintoyourmeetinglookbackatyourtimewiththecompanyandhighlightyouraceomplishments.Comeupwithalistofspecificexamplesofwaysyouhavebeenavaluableassettothebusiness.Findfactsandfiguresthatdemonstratewhatyouhaveexcelledusingnumberswheneverpossible. Ifyoureallywanttoknocktheirsocksoffputyouraccomplishmentsintoaformalpresentationalbeitbriefthatoutlineseachofyourgoalsandhowyouhaveachievedthem.Thiswilldemonstratethatyouareprofessionalwillingtogotheextramileandhavethoughtaboutyourrequestthoroughly. 43.Knowwhat’sgoingoninyourneighborhood. Therearegoodtimesandbadtimestoaskforaraiseatanycompany. Scheduleampletimetopresentyourcaseandmakesureyourtimingisright. Askingforaraiseontheflyafterjustwalkingintoyourmanager’sofficetochatwillnotbenefityouorimpressyourboss. Makesureyouhavetimetopresentyourcaseandthatyourmanagerhastimetothinkaboutyourpresentation.Requestameetingwithyoursupervisoratleastahalf-hourlong.Thinkaboutyourtimingwhenyouschedulethemeetingtoo.Ifyourdepartmenthasabevyofdeadlinestomeetattheendofeachmonthdon’tscheduleyourmeetingonthe29th.Pickatimewhenyourmanagerwillbesuretobeinagoodmoodandnotoverlystressed. 44.Avoidthreatsordemands. Thelastthingyouwanttodoistoputyoursupervisoronthedefensive. Beprofessionalandifyourjobisworthkeepingwillingtolistentotheotherside.Keepthemeetingpositiveandyouroutcomewillbemorepositive. 45.Rememberthatnotallperksaremonetary. Don’tfallintothetrapofthinkingyouarenotvaluedifyoudonotgetexactlywhatyouhadexpected. [A]Ifyouapproachyourmanagerforaraiseinatimeofdownsizingandcost-cuttingyouwillnotonlybedeniedbutwillalsoshowthatyouarenotintunewiththecompany’sneeds.Makesureyouunderstandyourcompany’soverallfinancialsituation. [B]Forexampleifyoudevelopedamarketingplanthathelpedincreasesalesmakesureyouhavethosesalesfiguresonhandaswellasyourroleintheplananditsexecution.Besuretotieyourownsuccessintotheoverallsuccessofthecompany. [C]Ifyourcompanyisstrappedfinanciallybutyouandyourmanagerstillcometotheconclusionthatitistimeforyoutoberewardedforyourperformanceyoumightbeabletonegotiateforstockoptionsmorevacationtimeorothernon-monetarybenefits. [D]Whenyoucomeupwithyourdesiredraiseinyourbasesalarygoover2%.Ifyouwant8%thenaskfor10%. [E]YoucanfindoutwhatothersinyourindustryandincomparablepositionsarerakinginbylookingatonlineresourcesthroughtheBureauofLaborStatisticsorinbookslike"TheAmericanAlmanacofJobsandSalaries"byJohnW.WrightQuill. [F]Goingintoameetingwiththe"ifIdon’tgetitI’mleaving"attitudewillonlytellyourcompanyyouareuncompromisingandonlyoutfornumberone. 43
Agrowingnumberofwomenarerisingtothetop--andbeginningtochangethecultureoftheworkplace. Thisshouldbeaseasonofcelebration.Afterallbymanymeasuresthere’sneverbeenabettertimetobeawoman.InplaceslikeScandinaviaandBritainathirdormoreofallcorporatemanagersarenowwomen.ThenumberoffemaleexecutivedirectorsofFISE100companiesnearlydoubledfrom2000to2004.LatinAmericahasseena50percentjumpinthenumberofwomenpoliticiansinthelastdecade.Japanvoted26newfemaleparliamentariansintoofficethisyear.Ofcoursethejewelintheequal-opportunitycrownwasthisfall’selectionofAngelaMerkel--oncenicknamed"theGirl"byHelmutKohl--toGermany’shighestoffice. Butasalwaysstatisticstellamultifacetedstory.Sureit’snolongerananomalytohaveafemaleCEO--buttherearestillonly17femaleexecutivedirectorsinthelargestFTSE100companies.IntheEUParliamentonly23outof162membersarefemale.InBritainstudiesshowthatwomenhaveneverbeenmoredissatisfiedwiththeworkplace.Nowonder:theEUpaygapbetweenmenandwomenshrankonlyonepointinthelastcoupleofyearsto17.5percent. SowheredoesallthisleaveusWithsomebigchallengesthatrequiremorefemaleleadershiptosolve.Atsomemajorcompanies--includingShellandBritishTelecom--womenarecombatingtheold-boys’clubatmospherebystartingtheirownnetworkslinkingtopfemaleleaderswithup-and-comerstheycanmentor.Laborflexibilityisalsoontheagenda;inpartsofEuropetopfemalelegislatorshavefoughttogiveemployeeswithchildrenorelderlyparentstherighttoaskforadjustablehours.Perhapsmostimportantthereisanincreasinglyvibrantdebatearoundwork-lifebalance.Studyafterstudyshowsthatitisaworkingwoman’ssecondfull-timejob--ascaregiver--thatmakesitmostdifficultforhertostayonthecareerladder.Whileextrabenefitsandlongermaternityleavecanhelptheyaren’tacompletesolution. Clearlysomeout-of-the-boxthinkingisrequired.Andthat’swherewomencomein.IncountrieslikeCameroonBoliviaandMalaysiagreaternumbersofwomeninpublicofficehaveresultedinlessspendingonthemilitaryandmoreonhealtheducationandinfrastructure.Norway’swoman-heavyParliamentrecentlypassedalawmandatingthat40percentofdirectorsoncorporateboardsbewomen.AndinGermanythearchetypaloutsider--awomanwhogrewuponthewrongsideoftheIronCurtain--willlikelytakethehelminacountrywithvirtuallynootherwomenintoppositionsofpower.Nolonger"theGirl"butpoisedtobecomethechancellorMerkelisasymbolofhowfarwomenhavecome--andtheworkthatremainstobedone. Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
46.TheAmericansociologistTalcottParsonsbelievedthatthetwomostimportantfunctionsofthemodernfamilyaretheprimarysocializationofchildrenandthestabilizationofadultpersonalitiesthroughmarriageandtheraisingofchildren.Hisownconcernwasparticularlywiththemiddle-classAmericanfamilybuttheseimportantaspectsoffamilylifearealsoapplicablemuchmorewidely.Inthepresentcontextitisworthwhiletolookespeciallyatprimarysocialization. 47.Primarysocializationreferstothetrainingofchildrenduringtheirearliestyearswhereassecondarysocializationreferstolaterinfluencesonthedevelopmentofthechild’spersonalityandlearningactivitiessuchashisinvolvementwithteachersandwithotherchildrenatschool.Primarysocializationisinmostsocietiescarriedoutessentiallywithinthefamilyaspartofchildrearing.Inthemodernfamilyparentstakeresponsibilityforraisingandteachingtheirchildrensuchbasicthingsaslanguageandcorrectbehavior.Toilettrainingteachingchildrenhowtoeatcorrectlyandencouragingchildrentogetalongwithothersareallaspectsofchildrearing.Howeveritisnotonlythesemoremundaneaspectsofbehaviorthatchildrenlearn.Childrenarealsoimplicitlyencouragedtodevelopthevaluesoftheparentsandoftilesocietyinwhichtheylive.InAmericansocietywhichwasParsons’mainconcernthesevaluesincludeindependencemotivationforachievementandcompetition.Inothersocietiesdifferentvaluessuchascooperationandegalitarianismmaybestressed.48.Yettheprinciplebehindprimarysocializationindifferentsocietiesisthesame:thedevelopmentofsocialvaluesmustbeachievedinanenvironmentofloveandsecurityasisfoundintheidealfamilyanywhereintheworld. Howeverfewfamiliesareideal.Studiesofthefamiliesofemotionallydisturbedchildrenhaveshownthatunsatisfactoryrelationshipsbetweenhusbandsandwivescanhavedetrimentaleffectsonchildren. Sometimesachildisusedasascapegoat.Theparentsblameorevenphysicallyabusethechildinordertocoveruptheirowndifficulties.49.Insuchaeasethechildoftenfailstodevelopthevaluestheparentswishtoinstillinhimdevelopinginsteadantisocialhabitsleadingtodeviantbehaviorinlaterlife.Indeedthecyclemayberepeatedifsuchapersonintimemarrieshasafamilyofhisownandtreatshischildreninthesameway.Nonethelessthereisnoreasontosupposethatallchildrenofunsatisfactorymarriagesaretreatedinsuchawayorfailtoovercomethedifficultiestheyhaveaschildren. 50.SomesocialscientistshaveevensuggestedthattheisolatednuclearfamilyasitexistsinWesternindustrializedsocietiesistoblameforthesocialillsfoundinthosesocieties.Theyclaimthatinthepastmoresupportwasofferedfromthewiderkinnetworkandfromthecommunityasawhole--asisstillthecaseinless-developedpartsoftheworldTheBritishpsychiatristsR.D.LaingandDavidCoopersuggestedthatthemodernfamilyisdysfunctionalinthatbyitsverynatureitforcesuponchildrenanundueemphasisonobediencetoauthority.Thesenegativeviewpointsasidemostexpertsaswellasmostparentsagreethattheprimarysocializationprocessinthemodernfamilyoffersbenefitsbotht6thechildandtotheparents. Insuchaeasethechildoftenfailstodevelopthevaluestheparentswishtoinstillinhimdevelopinginsteadantisocialhabitsleadingtodeviantbehaviorinlaterlife.
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