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46Globalizationmightbewelcomedonmanygrounds—theeconomicpoliticalcommunicationalandevenlinguisticonescomereadilytomindbutitalsohassomeunfortunatesideeffectsthatmightprovedeadlytotheveryfutureofmankind.Thisisnomeresurmiseofcongenitalmisanthropesbuttheexpressedfearofsomewhoareotherwisewelldisposedtoit.ThusThomasFriedmaninanotherwiseoptimisticallymindedbookneverthelesswritesasfollows:47ThemoreIobservedthesystemofglobalizationatworkthemoreobviousitwasthatithadunleashedforest-crushingforcesofdevelopmentwhichifleftuncheckedhadthepotentialtodestroytheenvironmentanduprootculture...48Andbecauseglobalizationasaculturallyhomogenizingandenvironment-devouringforceiscomingonsofastthereisrealdangerthatinjustafewdecadesitwillwipeouttheecologicalandculturaldiversitythattookmillionsofyearsofhumanandbiologicalforcestoproduce.Somethingisasominousasallthatisarealthreatindeed.49AndyetdespitesuchapprehensionsFriedmanandotherswhothinklikehimbelievethateffectsofthismagnitudecansomehowbesidesteppedwithoutinterferingwiththetechnicizingsweepofglobalization.IsthatmerelywishfulthinkingoraninabilitytotakeinthefullimportofhisownwordsAsFriedmanpointsouttheglobalizationthreatisatoncetonatureandtoculture:totheenvironmentandthewholeecologicalvarietyofplantsandanimalsaswellastothequalityofhumanlifeandtheculturaldiversityonwhichitdepends.Damagetonatureeventuallytranslatesitselfasdamagetocultureandviceversa.Thefateofmanyancientcivilizationsthatcollapsedbecausetheyoutgrewtheirnaturalresourcesishistoricalproofofthatfact.Ourmoderncivilizationissubjecttothesameself-limitingconditions.50ThusifallagricultureisreducedtoanagribusinessindustrythenthediversifiedcountrysidelandscapethathumanshavecreatedsincetheNeolithicrevolutionwillbecomeamonoculturalecologicaldesertforwithitwilldisappearahostofanimalandplantspeciesaswellasawholeruralwayoflifewithitsmyriadvarietiesoffolkculturesthathavebeencarriedonformillennia.Thelossofnaturalspeciesthroughthedestructionoftheirnaturalhabitatisparalleledstepbystepbythelossofculturalspeciesthroughtheeliminationoftheirsocialhabitatwhichisrootedinanaturalenvironment.Theclearingofjunglesdoesnotmerelyexterminatetheanimalslivingtherebutalsothenativepeoplewhosehomeshavebeenthereforcountlessgenerations.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 15
Directions. SupposeyouweretakengoodcareofbyAuntWangwhenyouvisitedShanghaiwhereshelived.Writealettertohertoextendyourappreciation. Beginyourletterasfollows: DearAuntWang Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameusing"LiMing"instead.Donotwritetheaddress.
46Along-heldviewofthehistoryoftheEnglishcoloniesthatbecametheUnitedStateshasbeenthatEngland’spolicytowardthesecoloniesbefore1763wasdictatedbycommercialinterestsandthatachangetoamoreimperialpolicydominatedbyexpansionistmilitaristobjectivesgeneratedthetensionsthatultimatelyledtotheAmericanRevolution.InarecentstudyStephenSaundersWebbhasresentedaformidablechallengetothisview.AccordingtoWebbEnglandalreadyhadamilitaryimperialpolicyformorethanacenturybeforetheAmericanRevolution.HeseesCharlesⅡtheEnglishmonarchbetween1660and1685asthepropersuccessoroftheTudormonarchsofthesixteenthcenturyandofOliverCromwellallofwhomwerebentonextendingcentralizedexecutivepoweroverEngland’spossessionsthroughtheuseofwhatWebbcallsgarrisongovernment.GarrisongovernmentallowedthecolonistsalegislativeassemblybutrealauthorityinWebb’sviewbelongedtothecolonialgovernorwhowasappointedbythekingandsupportedbythegarrisonthatis.bythelocalcontingentofEnglishtroopsunderthecolonialgovernor’scommand.AccordingtoWebbthepurposeofgarrisongovernmentwastoprovidemilitarysupportforaroyalpolicydesignedtolimitthepoweroftheupperclassesintheAmericancolonies.47Webbarguesthatthecoloniallegislativeassembliesrepresentedtheinterestsnotofthecommonpeoplebutofthecolonialupperclassesacoalitionofmerchantsandnobilitywhofavoredself-ruleandsoughttoelevatelegislativeauthorityattheexpenseoftheexecutive.ItwasaccordingtoWebbthecolonialgovernorswhofavoredthesmallfarmeropposedtheplantationsystemandtriedthroughtaxationtobreakuplargeholdingsofland.BackedbythemilitarypresenceofthegarrisonthesegovernorstriedtopreventthegentryandmerchantsalliedinthecolonialassembliesfromtransformingcolonialAmericaintoacapitalisticoligarchy.48Webb’sstudyilluminatesthepoliticalalignmentsthatexistedinthecoloniesinthecenturypriortotheAmericanRevolutionbuthisviewofthecrown’suseofthemilitaryasaninstrumentofcolonialpolicyisnotentirelyconvincing.Englandduringtheseventeenthcenturywasnotnotedforitsmilitaryachievements.CromwelldidmountEngland’smostambitiousoverseasmilitaryexpeditioninmorethanacenturybutitprovedtobeanutterfailure.UnderCharlesⅡtheEnglisharmywastoosmalltobeamajorinstrumentofgovernment.49NotuntilthewarinFrancein1697didWilliamⅢpersuadeParliamenttocreateaprofessionalstandingarmyandParliament’spricefordoingsowastokeepthearmyundertightlegislativecontrol.50WhileitmaybetruethatthecrownattemptedtodiminishthepowerofthecolonialupperclassesitishardtoimaginehowtheEnglisharmyduringtheseventeenthcenturycouldhaveprovidedsignificantmilitarysupportforsuchapolicy.
Underpressurefromanimalwelfaregroupstwonationalscienceteachersassociationshaveadoptedguidelinesthatbanclassroomexperimentsharminganimals.TheNationalAssociationofBiologyTeachersandtheNationalScienceTeachersAssociationhopetoendanimalabuseinelementaryandsecondaryschoolsandinturndiscouragestudentsfrommishandlinganimalsinhomeexperimentsandsciencefairprojects. Animalwelfaregroupsareapparentlymostconcernedwithhighschoolstudentsexperimentingwithanimalsinextracurricularprojects.BarbaraOrlansPresidentoftheScientists’CenterforAnimalWelfaresaidthatstudentshavebeenperformingsurgeryatrandomtestingknownpoisonoussubstancesandrunningotherpathologyexperimentsonanimalswithoutevenknowingnormalphysiology. Atonesciencefairastudentcutoffthelegandtailofalizardtodemonstratethatonlythetailcanregenerateshesaid.Inanothercaseastudentboundsparrowsstarvedthemandobservedtheirbehavior. "Theamountofabusehasbeenquitehorrifying"Orlanssaid. Administratorsofmajorsciencefairsareshort-temperedovertheteachers’policychangeandtheimpressionithascreated.’"TheteachersweresoldabillofgoodsbyBarbaraOrlans"saidThurmanGraftonwhoheadstherulescommitteefortheInternationalScienceandEngineeringFair."Backyardtabletopsurgeryisjustnonsense.Thenewpoliciesthrowcoldwateronstudents’inquisitiveness"hesaid. Graftonsaidhewouldn’tdenythattherehasn’tbeenanimalabuseamongprojectsattheinternationalfairbutheaddedthatjudgesrejectcontestantswhohaveunnecessarilyinjuredanimals.Thejudgeshaveahardtimemonitoringlocalandregionalfairsthatmayormaynotchoosetocomplywiththeinternationalfair’srulesthatstresspropercareofanimalsGraftonsaid. HesaidthatseveralyearsagotheWestinghouseScienceTalentSearchbannedharmfulexperimentstoanimalswhensponsorsthreatenedtocanceltheirsupportafteranimalwelfaregroupslobbiedforchange. Theteachersadoptedthenewpoliciesalsotofendoffproposedlegislation--instatesincludingMissouriandNewYorkthatwouldrestrictorprohibitexperimentsonanimals. Officialsofthetwoteachersorganizationssaythattheydon’tknowhowmanyanimalshavebeenabusedintheclassroom.OntheonehandmanybiologyteachersarenottrainedinthepropercareofanimalssaidWayneMoyerexecutivedirectorofthebiologyteachers’association.Ontheothertheuseofanimalsinexperimentshasdroppedinrecentyearsbecauseofschoolbudgetcuts.Theassociationmaysetupseminarstoteachbetteranimalcaretoitsmembers. Itcanbelearnedfromthetextthattheteachersbanharmfulexperimentstoanimalsinorderto
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 13
[A]Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced.Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleornospecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshiporbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelasbulkfreight.Butfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationofcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruck.Thismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiresquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgoods. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporations.Aswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingaporeanothertpeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarket.Theymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservices.Suchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblemthusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketing.Buttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproduct.Orwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedsthemorbroughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutilityitaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproduction.Whichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [H]Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct. 45
46Globalizationmightbewelcomedonmanygrounds—theeconomicpoliticalcommunicationalandevenlinguisticonescomereadilytomindbutitalsohassomeunfortunatesideeffectsthatmightprovedeadlytotheveryfutureofmankind.Thisisnomeresurmiseofcongenitalmisanthropesbuttheexpressedfearofsomewhoareotherwisewelldisposedtoit.ThusThomasFriedmaninanotherwiseoptimisticallymindedbookneverthelesswritesasfollows:47ThemoreIobservedthesystemofglobalizationatworkthemoreobviousitwasthatithadunleashedforest-crushingforcesofdevelopmentwhichifleftuncheckedhadthepotentialtodestroytheenvironmentanduprootculture...48Andbecauseglobalizationasaculturallyhomogenizingandenvironment-devouringforceiscomingonsofastthereisrealdangerthatinjustafewdecadesitwillwipeouttheecologicalandculturaldiversitythattookmillionsofyearsofhumanandbiologicalforcestoproduce.Somethingisasominousasallthatisarealthreatindeed.49AndyetdespitesuchapprehensionsFriedmanandotherswhothinklikehimbelievethateffectsofthismagnitudecansomehowbesidesteppedwithoutinterferingwiththetechnicizingsweepofglobalization.IsthatmerelywishfulthinkingoraninabilitytotakeinthefullimportofhisownwordsAsFriedmanpointsouttheglobalizationthreatisatoncetonatureandtoculture:totheenvironmentandthewholeecologicalvarietyofplantsandanimalsaswellastothequalityofhumanlifeandtheculturaldiversityonwhichitdepends.Damagetonatureeventuallytranslatesitselfasdamagetocultureandviceversa.Thefateofmanyancientcivilizationsthatcollapsedbecausetheyoutgrewtheirnaturalresourcesishistoricalproofofthatfact.Ourmoderncivilizationissubjecttothesameself-limitingconditions.50ThusifallagricultureisreducedtoanagribusinessindustrythenthediversifiedcountrysidelandscapethathumanshavecreatedsincetheNeolithicrevolutionwillbecomeamonoculturalecologicaldesertforwithitwilldisappearahostofanimalandplantspeciesaswellasawholeruralwayoflifewithitsmyriadvarietiesoffolkculturesthathavebeencarriedonformillennia.Thelossofnaturalspeciesthroughthedestructionoftheirnaturalhabitatisparalleledstepbystepbythelossofculturalspeciesthroughtheeliminationoftheirsocialhabitatwhichisrootedinanaturalenvironment.Theclearingofjunglesdoesnotmerelyexterminatetheanimalslivingtherebutalsothenativepeoplewhosehomeshavebeenthereforcountlessgenerations.
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.OnestudyconductedinSwedenofallplaces--showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.ConnollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchyMaleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantia123%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect--namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair: Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Accordingtothetexttheauthorplacesinterpretationon
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 11
AccordingtocomScoreFacebookistheleadingsocialnetworkingsitebasedonmonthlyuniquevisitorshavingovertakenmaincompetitorMySpaceinApril2008.AccordingtoAlexathewebsite’srankingamongallwebsitesincreasedfrom60thto7thintermsofworldwidetrafficfromSeptember2006toSeptember2007andiscurrently5th.Quantcastranksthewebsite15thinU.S.intermsoftrafficandCompete.comranksit14thinU.S. TheInternetphenomenonwhichboasts80millionusersworldwideexplodedinpopularityoverthepastyearasaconvenientwayforWebuserstocommunicateandsharepersonaldetailswithselectedgroupsoffriendsoracquaintances.ButgrammaticalerrorsintheautomatedmessagesFacebookusestopersonalizepronounswhenmembersshareinformationwiththeirfriendshaveproliferatedsincethesiteexpandedfromEnglish-onlyinto15newlanguagesinrecentmonths. AndnowFacebookwillpressmemberstodeclarewhethertheyaremaleorfemaleseekingtoendthegrammaticaldevicethatleadsthesitetorefertoindividualusersas"they"or"themself.""We’vegottenfeedbackfromtranslatorsandusersinothercountriesthattranslationswindupbeingtooconfusingwhenpeoplehavenotspecifiedasexontheirprofiles"FacebookproductmanagerNaomiGleitsaidinacompanystatement. InEnglishwhenusersfailtospecifywhatgendertheyareFacebookdefaultstosomeformofthegenderneutralpluralpronoun"they."Thatoptionisunavailablewhenthepluralisalwaysmasculineorfeminineinotherlanguages."Peoplewhohaven’tselectedwhatsextheyarefrequentlygetdefaultedtothewrongsex"Gleitwrote. UnlessthegenderoftheuserisclearFacebookdoesnotknowwhichpronountousetonotifyothermembersaddinformationtothesite.ThiscommonEnglishproblemismultipliedinlanguageswheremasculineandfemininedistinctionsaregrammaticallyingrained. Thesitewillnowaskuserstospecifywhethertheyaremaleorfemaleontheirbasicmember-shipprofile.Itwillpromptexistinguserstodefinethemselves.Facebookhasanopt-outoptionformemberswhochoosenottospecifytheirgenderordonotconsidergendertobeclearcut.Memberscanremovementionofgenderfrommessagesabouttheiractivities."We’vereceivedpushbackinthepastfromgroupsthatfindthemale/femaledistinctiontoolimiting"Gleitsaid. WhatdoesthewordtrafficLine3Paragraph1mostprobablymean
IncreasinglyhistoriansareblamingdiseasesimportedfromtheOldWorldforthegreatdisparitybetweenthenativepopulationofAmericain1492--newestimatesofwhichjumpashighas100millionorapproximatelyone-sixthofthehumanraceatthattime--andthefewmillionfull-bloodedNativeAmericansaliveattheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thereisnodoubtthatchronicdiseasewasanimportantfactorinthesharpdeclineanditishighlyprobablethatthegreatestkillerwasepidemicdiseaseespeciallyasmanifestedinvirgin-soilepidemics. Virgin-soilepidemicsarethoseinwhichthepopulationsatriskhavehadnopreviouscontactwiththediseasesthatstrikethemandarethereforeimmunologicallyalmostdefenseless.Thatvirgin-soilepidemicswereimportantinAmericanhistoryisstronglyindicatedbyevidencethatanumberofdangerousmaladies--smallpoxmeaslesmalariayellowfeverandundoubtedlyseveralmore--wereunknowninthepre-ColumbianNewWorld.TheeffectsoftheirsuddenintroductionaredemonstratedintheearlychroniclesofAmericawhichcontainreportsofhorribleepidemicsandsteeppopulationdeclinesconfirmedinmanycasesbyquantitativeanalyzesofSpanishtributerecordsandothersources.TheevidenceprovidedbythedocumentsofBritishandFrenchcoloniesisnotasdefinitivebecausetheconquerorsofthoseareasdidnotestablishpermanentsettlementsandbegantokeepcontinuousrecordsuntiltheseventeenthcenturybywhichtimetheworstepidemicshadprobablyalreadytakenplace.FurthermoretheBritishtendedtodrivethenativepopulationsawayratherthantoenslavethemastheSpaniardsdidsothattheepidemicsofBritishAmericaoccurredbeyondtherangeofcolonists’directobservation. EvensothesurvivingrecordsofNorthAmericadocontainreferencestodeadlyepidemicsamongthenativepopulation.In1616--1619anepidemicpossiblyofpneumonicplaguesweptcoastalNewEnglandkillingasmanyasnineoutoftenDuringthe1630’ssmallpoxthediseasemostfataltotheNativeAmericanpeopleeliminatedhalfthepopulationoftheHuronandIroquoisconfederations.Inthe1820’sfeverruinedthepeopleoftheColumbiaRiverareakillingeightoutoftenofthem. UnfortunatelythedocumentationoftheseandotherepidemicsisslightandfrequentlyunreliableanditisnecessarytosupplementwhatlittlewedoknowwithevidencefromrecentepidemicsamongNativeAmericans.Forexamplein1952anoutbreakofmeaslesamongtheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBayQuebecaffected99percentofthepopulationandkilled7percenteventhoughsomehadthebenefitofmodernmedicine.Casessuchasthisdemonstratethatevendiseasesthatarenotnormallyfatalcanhavedestroyingconsequenceswhentheystrikeanimmunologicallydefenselesscommunity. Theauthormentionsthe1952measlesoutbreakmostprobablyto
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 3
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 7
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 17
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 1
JustunderayearagoasharpdropinequatorialPacificsea-surfacetemperatureindicatedtheendofthe1997~1998E1Nino.Calledbysomeonetheclimateeventofthecenturyitwasbyseveralmeasuresthestrongestonrecord.41______.Thisismorethansimplyanacademicquestion:the1997~1998E1NinoseverelydisruptedglobalweatherpatternsandPacificmarineecosystemsandbyoneestimatecaused＄033billionindamageandcost23000livesworldwide.42______.Clearlywehavemuchtolearnfromthisexperience.43______.NowE1NinomoregenerallyreferstoawarmingofthetropicalPacificbasinthatoccursroughlyeverythreetosevenyearsinassociationwithaweakeningofthetradewinds.TheoppositesideofElNinoLaNinaischaracterizedbystronger-than-normaltradewindsandunusuallycoldsea-surfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacific.BothE1NinoandLaNinaareaccompaniedbyswingsinatmosphericpressurebetweentheeasternandwesternPacific.TheseswingsareknownastheSouthernOscillation.ThesephenomenaarecollectivelyreferredtoasENSOorE1Nino/SouthernOscillation.ThegeneralmechanismsunderlyingtheENSOinvolvelarge-scaleocean-atmosphereinteractionsandequatorialoceandynamics.ButeachElNinoandLaNinaisuniqueinthecombinationofitsstrengthdurationandpatternofdevelopment.IrregularityintheENSOcyclecanbeseenbothintherecorddatingbacktothemiddleofthe19thcenturyandinothersupportingdatasuchaslakesedimentscoralgrowthringsandtreeringsgoingbackhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.44______.Nonethelessthe1997~1998E1Ninowasanunusualone.ItdevelopedsorapidlythateverymonthbetweenJuneandDecember1997setanewmonthlyrecordhighforsea-surfacetemperaturesintheeasternequatorialPacific.AnomaliesthatisdeviationsfromnormalinDecember1997werethehighesteverrecordedalongtheEquatorintheeasternPacific.Moreoverbefore1997~1998thepreviousrecord-settingE1Ninooccurredin1982~1983.45______.Severalfactorsmayhavecontributedtothestrengthofthe1997~1998E1Nino.OneischaoswhichsometheoriesinvoketoaccountfortheirregularityoftheENSOcycle.NonlinearresonancesinvolvingENSOandtheseasonalcyclehavereceivedspecialattentionbutotherchaoticinteractionsmayaffectENSOaswell.In1997~1998eventspossiblyactedtogethertoproduceanextraordinarilystrongE1Ninosimplyduetotheunderlyingtendencytowardschaosintheelimatesystem.[A]SoinprincipleitshouldnotbesurprisingthatanunusuallystrongE1Ninooccurseversooften.[B]IdentifyingwhyitwassostrongchallengesourunderstandingofthephysicalmechanismsresponsibleforE1Nino.[C]Fromthatperspectivethestrengthofthe1997~1998E1NinomaybebutonemanifestationofalinkagebetweeninterannualanddecadalclimatevariationsinthePacific.[D]ThesetwosuperE1Ninoswereseparatedbyonly15yearscomparedwithatypical30~40yeargapbetweensucheventsearlierinthe20thcentury.[E]E1NinoSpanishforthechildandspecificallytheChristchildisthenamePeruvianfishermangavetocoastalsea-temperaturewarningsthatfirstappearedaroundChristmastime.[F]TherewerewarningsofacomingE1Ninobeforeitoccurred.Butalthoughmanycomputerforecastmodelspredictedthat1997wouldbewarminthetropicalPacificuptothreeseasonsinadvancenonepredictedtherapiddevelopmentorultimateintensityoftheeventbeforeitbegan.[G]InassociationwiththePacificDecadalOscillationsea-surfacetemperatureshavegenerallybeenhigherinthetropicalPacificfromtheMid-1970s.SincethentherehavebeenmoreE1NinosthanLaNinas.
AccordingtocomScoreFacebookistheleadingsocialnetworkingsitebasedonmonthlyuniquevisitorshavingovertakenmaincompetitorMySpaceinApril2008.AccordingtoAlexathewebsite’srankingamongallwebsitesincreasedfrom60thto7thintermsofworldwidetrafficfromSeptember2006toSeptember2007andiscurrently5th.Quantcastranksthewebsite15thinU.S.intermsoftrafficandCompete.comranksit14thinU.S. TheInternetphenomenonwhichboasts80millionusersworldwideexplodedinpopularityoverthepastyearasaconvenientwayforWebuserstocommunicateandsharepersonaldetailswithselectedgroupsoffriendsoracquaintances.ButgrammaticalerrorsintheautomatedmessagesFacebookusestopersonalizepronounswhenmembersshareinformationwiththeirfriendshaveproliferatedsincethesiteexpandedfromEnglish-onlyinto15newlanguagesinrecentmonths. AndnowFacebookwillpressmemberstodeclarewhethertheyaremaleorfemaleseekingtoendthegrammaticaldevicethatleadsthesitetorefertoindividualusersas"they"or"themself.""We’vegottenfeedbackfromtranslatorsandusersinothercountriesthattranslationswindupbeingtooconfusingwhenpeoplehavenotspecifiedasexontheirprofiles"FacebookproductmanagerNaomiGleitsaidinacompanystatement. InEnglishwhenusersfailtospecifywhatgendertheyareFacebookdefaultstosomeformofthegenderneutralpluralpronoun"they."Thatoptionisunavailablewhenthepluralisalwaysmasculineorfeminineinotherlanguages."Peoplewhohaven’tselectedwhatsextheyarefrequentlygetdefaultedtothewrongsex"Gleitwrote. UnlessthegenderoftheuserisclearFacebookdoesnotknowwhichpronountousetonotifyothermembersaddinformationtothesite.ThiscommonEnglishproblemismultipliedinlanguageswheremasculineandfemininedistinctionsaregrammaticallyingrained. Thesitewillnowaskuserstospecifywhethertheyaremaleorfemaleontheirbasicmember-shipprofile.Itwillpromptexistinguserstodefinethemselves.Facebookhasanopt-outoptionformemberswhochoosenottospecifytheirgenderordonotconsidergendertobeclearcut.Memberscanremovementionofgenderfrommessagesabouttheiractivities."We’vereceivedpushbackinthepastfromgroupsthatfindthemale/femaledistinctiontoolimiting"Gleitsaid. WhichoneofthefollowingistrueunderthenewregulationsofFacebook
AccordingtocomScoreFacebookistheleadingsocialnetworkingsitebasedonmonthlyuniquevisitorshavingovertakenmaincompetitorMySpaceinApril2008.AccordingtoAlexathewebsite’srankingamongallwebsitesincreasedfrom60thto7thintermsofworldwidetrafficfromSeptember2006toSeptember2007andiscurrently5th.Quantcastranksthewebsite15thinU.S.intermsoftrafficandCompete.comranksit14thinU.S. TheInternetphenomenonwhichboasts80millionusersworldwideexplodedinpopularityoverthepastyearasaconvenientwayforWebuserstocommunicateandsharepersonaldetailswithselectedgroupsoffriendsoracquaintances.ButgrammaticalerrorsintheautomatedmessagesFacebookusestopersonalizepronounswhenmembersshareinformationwiththeirfriendshaveproliferatedsincethesiteexpandedfromEnglish-onlyinto15newlanguagesinrecentmonths. AndnowFacebookwillpressmemberstodeclarewhethertheyaremaleorfemaleseekingtoendthegrammaticaldevicethatleadsthesitetorefertoindividualusersas"they"or"themself.""We’vegottenfeedbackfromtranslatorsandusersinothercountriesthattranslationswindupbeingtooconfusingwhenpeoplehavenotspecifiedasexontheirprofiles"FacebookproductmanagerNaomiGleitsaidinacompanystatement. InEnglishwhenusersfailtospecifywhatgendertheyareFacebookdefaultstosomeformofthegenderneutralpluralpronoun"they."Thatoptionisunavailablewhenthepluralisalwaysmasculineorfeminineinotherlanguages."Peoplewhohaven’tselectedwhatsextheyarefrequentlygetdefaultedtothewrongsex"Gleitwrote. UnlessthegenderoftheuserisclearFacebookdoesnotknowwhichpronountousetonotifyothermembersaddinformationtothesite.ThiscommonEnglishproblemismultipliedinlanguageswheremasculineandfemininedistinctionsaregrammaticallyingrained. Thesitewillnowaskuserstospecifywhethertheyaremaleorfemaleontheirbasicmember-shipprofile.Itwillpromptexistinguserstodefinethemselves.Facebookhasanopt-outoptionformemberswhochoosenottospecifytheirgenderordonotconsidergendertobeclearcut.Memberscanremovementionofgenderfrommessagesabouttheiractivities."We’vereceivedpushbackinthepastfromgroupsthatfindthemale/femaledistinctiontoolimiting"Gleitsaid. FromthepassageweknowthatFacebookisnowfacedwiththeproblemthat
46Along-heldviewofthehistoryoftheEnglishcoloniesthatbecametheUnitedStateshasbeenthatEngland’spolicytowardthesecoloniesbefore1763wasdictatedbycommercialinterestsandthatachangetoamoreimperialpolicydominatedbyexpansionistmilitaristobjectivesgeneratedthetensionsthatultimatelyledtotheAmericanRevolution.InarecentstudyStephenSaundersWebbhasresentedaformidablechallengetothisview.AccordingtoWebbEnglandalreadyhadamilitaryimperialpolicyformorethanacenturybeforetheAmericanRevolution.HeseesCharlesⅡtheEnglishmonarchbetween1660and1685asthepropersuccessoroftheTudormonarchsofthesixteenthcenturyandofOliverCromwellallofwhomwerebentonextendingcentralizedexecutivepoweroverEngland’spossessionsthroughtheuseofwhatWebbcallsgarrisongovernment.GarrisongovernmentallowedthecolonistsalegislativeassemblybutrealauthorityinWebb’sviewbelongedtothecolonialgovernorwhowasappointedbythekingandsupportedbythegarrisonthatis.bythelocalcontingentofEnglishtroopsunderthecolonialgovernor’scommand.AccordingtoWebbthepurposeofgarrisongovernmentwastoprovidemilitarysupportforaroyalpolicydesignedtolimitthepoweroftheupperclassesintheAmericancolonies.47Webbarguesthatthecoloniallegislativeassembliesrepresentedtheinterestsnotofthecommonpeoplebutofthecolonialupperclassesacoalitionofmerchantsandnobilitywhofavoredself-ruleandsoughttoelevatelegislativeauthorityattheexpenseoftheexecutive.ItwasaccordingtoWebbthecolonialgovernorswhofavoredthesmallfarmeropposedtheplantationsystemandtriedthroughtaxationtobreakuplargeholdingsofland.BackedbythemilitarypresenceofthegarrisonthesegovernorstriedtopreventthegentryandmerchantsalliedinthecolonialassembliesfromtransformingcolonialAmericaintoacapitalisticoligarchy.48Webb’sstudyilluminatesthepoliticalalignmentsthatexistedinthecoloniesinthecenturypriortotheAmericanRevolutionbuthisviewofthecrown’suseofthemilitaryasaninstrumentofcolonialpolicyisnotentirelyconvincing.Englandduringtheseventeenthcenturywasnotnotedforitsmilitaryachievements.CromwelldidmountEngland’smostambitiousoverseasmilitaryexpeditioninmorethanacenturybutitprovedtobeanutterfailure.UnderCharlesⅡtheEnglisharmywastoosmalltobeamajorinstrumentofgovernment.49NotuntilthewarinFrancein1697didWilliamⅢpersuadeParliamenttocreateaprofessionalstandingarmyandParliament’spricefordoingsowastokeepthearmyundertightlegislativecontrol.50WhileitmaybetruethatthecrownattemptedtodiminishthepowerofthecolonialupperclassesitishardtoimaginehowtheEnglisharmyduringtheseventeenthcenturycouldhaveprovidedsignificantmilitarysupportforsuchapolicy.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 5
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 9
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 19
IncreasinglyhistoriansareblamingdiseasesimportedfromtheOldWorldforthegreatdisparitybetweenthenativepopulationofAmericain1492--newestimatesofwhichjumpashighas100millionorapproximatelyone-sixthofthehumanraceatthattime--andthefewmillionfull-bloodedNativeAmericansaliveattheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thereisnodoubtthatchronicdiseasewasanimportantfactorinthesharpdeclineanditishighlyprobablethatthegreatestkillerwasepidemicdiseaseespeciallyasmanifestedinvirgin-soilepidemics. Virgin-soilepidemicsarethoseinwhichthepopulationsatriskhavehadnopreviouscontactwiththediseasesthatstrikethemandarethereforeimmunologicallyalmostdefenseless.Thatvirgin-soilepidemicswereimportantinAmericanhistoryisstronglyindicatedbyevidencethatanumberofdangerousmaladies--smallpoxmeaslesmalariayellowfeverandundoubtedlyseveralmore--wereunknowninthepre-ColumbianNewWorld.TheeffectsoftheirsuddenintroductionaredemonstratedintheearlychroniclesofAmericawhichcontainreportsofhorribleepidemicsandsteeppopulationdeclinesconfirmedinmanycasesbyquantitativeanalyzesofSpanishtributerecordsandothersources.TheevidenceprovidedbythedocumentsofBritishandFrenchcoloniesisnotasdefinitivebecausetheconquerorsofthoseareasdidnotestablishpermanentsettlementsandbegantokeepcontinuousrecordsuntiltheseventeenthcenturybywhichtimetheworstepidemicshadprobablyalreadytakenplace.FurthermoretheBritishtendedtodrivethenativepopulationsawayratherthantoenslavethemastheSpaniardsdidsothattheepidemicsofBritishAmericaoccurredbeyondtherangeofcolonists’directobservation. EvensothesurvivingrecordsofNorthAmericadocontainreferencestodeadlyepidemicsamongthenativepopulation.In1616--1619anepidemicpossiblyofpneumonicplaguesweptcoastalNewEnglandkillingasmanyasnineoutoftenDuringthe1630’ssmallpoxthediseasemostfataltotheNativeAmericanpeopleeliminatedhalfthepopulationoftheHuronandIroquoisconfederations.Inthe1820’sfeverruinedthepeopleoftheColumbiaRiverareakillingeightoutoftenofthem. UnfortunatelythedocumentationoftheseandotherepidemicsisslightandfrequentlyunreliableanditisnecessarytosupplementwhatlittlewedoknowwithevidencefromrecentepidemicsamongNativeAmericans.Forexamplein1952anoutbreakofmeaslesamongtheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBayQuebecaffected99percentofthepopulationandkilled7percenteventhoughsomehadthebenefitofmodernmedicine.Casessuchasthisdemonstratethatevendiseasesthatarenotnormallyfatalcanhavedestroyingconsequenceswhentheystrikeanimmunologicallydefenselesscommunity. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthetextconcerningSpanishtributerecords
JustunderayearagoasharpdropinequatorialPacificsea-surfacetemperatureindicatedtheendofthe1997~1998E1Nino.Calledbysomeonetheclimateeventofthecenturyitwasbyseveralmeasuresthestrongestonrecord.41______.Thisismorethansimplyanacademicquestion:the1997~1998E1NinoseverelydisruptedglobalweatherpatternsandPacificmarineecosystemsandbyoneestimatecaused＄033billionindamageandcost23000livesworldwide.42______.Clearlywehavemuchtolearnfromthisexperience.43______.NowE1NinomoregenerallyreferstoawarmingofthetropicalPacificbasinthatoccursroughlyeverythreetosevenyearsinassociationwithaweakeningofthetradewinds.TheoppositesideofElNinoLaNinaischaracterizedbystronger-than-normaltradewindsandunusuallycoldsea-surfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacific.BothE1NinoandLaNinaareaccompaniedbyswingsinatmosphericpressurebetweentheeasternandwesternPacific.TheseswingsareknownastheSouthernOscillation.ThesephenomenaarecollectivelyreferredtoasENSOorE1Nino/SouthernOscillation.ThegeneralmechanismsunderlyingtheENSOinvolvelarge-scaleocean-atmosphereinteractionsandequatorialoceandynamics.ButeachElNinoandLaNinaisuniqueinthecombinationofitsstrengthdurationandpatternofdevelopment.IrregularityintheENSOcyclecanbeseenbothintherecorddatingbacktothemiddleofthe19thcenturyandinothersupportingdatasuchaslakesedimentscoralgrowthringsandtreeringsgoingbackhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.44______.Nonethelessthe1997~1998E1Ninowasanunusualone.ItdevelopedsorapidlythateverymonthbetweenJuneandDecember1997setanewmonthlyrecordhighforsea-surfacetemperaturesintheeasternequatorialPacific.AnomaliesthatisdeviationsfromnormalinDecember1997werethehighesteverrecordedalongtheEquatorintheeasternPacific.Moreoverbefore1997~1998thepreviousrecord-settingE1Ninooccurredin1982~1983.45______.Severalfactorsmayhavecontributedtothestrengthofthe1997~1998E1Nino.OneischaoswhichsometheoriesinvoketoaccountfortheirregularityoftheENSOcycle.NonlinearresonancesinvolvingENSOandtheseasonalcyclehavereceivedspecialattentionbutotherchaoticinteractionsmayaffectENSOaswell.In1997~1998eventspossiblyactedtogethertoproduceanextraordinarilystrongE1Ninosimplyduetotheunderlyingtendencytowardschaosintheelimatesystem.[A]SoinprincipleitshouldnotbesurprisingthatanunusuallystrongE1Ninooccurseversooften.[B]IdentifyingwhyitwassostrongchallengesourunderstandingofthephysicalmechanismsresponsibleforE1Nino.[C]Fromthatperspectivethestrengthofthe1997~1998E1NinomaybebutonemanifestationofalinkagebetweeninterannualanddecadalclimatevariationsinthePacific.[D]ThesetwosuperE1Ninoswereseparatedbyonly15yearscomparedwithatypical30~40yeargapbetweensucheventsearlierinthe20thcentury.[E]E1NinoSpanishforthechildandspecificallytheChristchildisthenamePeruvianfishermangavetocoastalsea-temperaturewarningsthatfirstappearedaroundChristmastime.[F]TherewerewarningsofacomingE1Ninobeforeitoccurred.Butalthoughmanycomputerforecastmodelspredictedthat1997wouldbewarminthetropicalPacificuptothreeseasonsinadvancenonepredictedtherapiddevelopmentorultimateintensityoftheeventbeforeitbegan.[G]InassociationwiththePacificDecadalOscillationsea-surfacetemperatureshavegenerallybeenhigherinthetropicalPacificfromtheMid-1970s.SincethentherehavebeenmoreE1NinosthanLaNinas.
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.OnestudyconductedinSwedenofallplaces--showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.ConnollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchyMaleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantia123%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect--namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair: Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Whichoffollowingscouldbethebesttitleforthetext
JustunderayearagoasharpdropinequatorialPacificsea-surfacetemperatureindicatedtheendofthe1997~1998E1Nino.Calledbysomeonetheclimateeventofthecenturyitwasbyseveralmeasuresthestrongestonrecord.41______.Thisismorethansimplyanacademicquestion:the1997~1998E1NinoseverelydisruptedglobalweatherpatternsandPacificmarineecosystemsandbyoneestimatecaused＄033billionindamageandcost23000livesworldwide.42______.Clearlywehavemuchtolearnfromthisexperience.43______.NowE1NinomoregenerallyreferstoawarmingofthetropicalPacificbasinthatoccursroughlyeverythreetosevenyearsinassociationwithaweakeningofthetradewinds.TheoppositesideofElNinoLaNinaischaracterizedbystronger-than-normaltradewindsandunusuallycoldsea-surfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacific.BothE1NinoandLaNinaareaccompaniedbyswingsinatmosphericpressurebetweentheeasternandwesternPacific.TheseswingsareknownastheSouthernOscillation.ThesephenomenaarecollectivelyreferredtoasENSOorE1Nino/SouthernOscillation.ThegeneralmechanismsunderlyingtheENSOinvolvelarge-scaleocean-atmosphereinteractionsandequatorialoceandynamics.ButeachElNinoandLaNinaisuniqueinthecombinationofitsstrengthdurationandpatternofdevelopment.IrregularityintheENSOcyclecanbeseenbothintherecorddatingbacktothemiddleofthe19thcenturyandinothersupportingdatasuchaslakesedimentscoralgrowthringsandtreeringsgoingbackhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.44______.Nonethelessthe1997~1998E1Ninowasanunusualone.ItdevelopedsorapidlythateverymonthbetweenJuneandDecember1997setanewmonthlyrecordhighforsea-surfacetemperaturesintheeasternequatorialPacific.AnomaliesthatisdeviationsfromnormalinDecember1997werethehighesteverrecordedalongtheEquatorintheeasternPacific.Moreoverbefore1997~1998thepreviousrecord-settingE1Ninooccurredin1982~1983.45______.Severalfactorsmayhavecontributedtothestrengthofthe1997~1998E1Nino.OneischaoswhichsometheoriesinvoketoaccountfortheirregularityoftheENSOcycle.NonlinearresonancesinvolvingENSOandtheseasonalcyclehavereceivedspecialattentionbutotherchaoticinteractionsmayaffectENSOaswell.In1997~1998eventspossiblyactedtogethertoproduceanextraordinarilystrongE1Ninosimplyduetotheunderlyingtendencytowardschaosintheelimatesystem.[A]SoinprincipleitshouldnotbesurprisingthatanunusuallystrongE1Ninooccurseversooften.[B]IdentifyingwhyitwassostrongchallengesourunderstandingofthephysicalmechanismsresponsibleforE1Nino.[C]Fromthatperspectivethestrengthofthe1997~1998E1NinomaybebutonemanifestationofalinkagebetweeninterannualanddecadalclimatevariationsinthePacific.[D]ThesetwosuperE1Ninoswereseparatedbyonly15yearscomparedwithatypical30~40yeargapbetweensucheventsearlierinthe20thcentury.[E]E1NinoSpanishforthechildandspecificallytheChristchildisthenamePeruvianfishermangavetocoastalsea-temperaturewarningsthatfirstappearedaroundChristmastime.[F]TherewerewarningsofacomingE1Ninobeforeitoccurred.Butalthoughmanycomputerforecastmodelspredictedthat1997wouldbewarminthetropicalPacificuptothreeseasonsinadvancenonepredictedtherapiddevelopmentorultimateintensityoftheeventbeforeitbegan.[G]InassociationwiththePacificDecadalOscillationsea-surfacetemperatureshavegenerallybeenhigherinthetropicalPacificfromtheMid-1970s.SincethentherehavebeenmoreE1NinosthanLaNinas.
Underpressurefromanimalwelfaregroupstwonationalscienceteachersassociationshaveadoptedguidelinesthatbanclassroomexperimentsharminganimals.TheNationalAssociationofBiologyTeachersandtheNationalScienceTeachersAssociationhopetoendanimalabuseinelementaryandsecondaryschoolsandinturndiscouragestudentsfrommishandlinganimalsinhomeexperimentsandsciencefairprojects. Animalwelfaregroupsareapparentlymostconcernedwithhighschoolstudentsexperimentingwithanimalsinextracurricularprojects.BarbaraOrlansPresidentoftheScientists’CenterforAnimalWelfaresaidthatstudentshavebeenperformingsurgeryatrandomtestingknownpoisonoussubstancesandrunningotherpathologyexperimentsonanimalswithoutevenknowingnormalphysiology. Atonesciencefairastudentcutoffthelegandtailofalizardtodemonstratethatonlythetailcanregenerateshesaid.Inanothercaseastudentboundsparrowsstarvedthemandobservedtheirbehavior. "Theamountofabusehasbeenquitehorrifying"Orlanssaid. Administratorsofmajorsciencefairsareshort-temperedovertheteachers’policychangeandtheimpressionithascreated.’"TheteachersweresoldabillofgoodsbyBarbaraOrlans"saidThurmanGraftonwhoheadstherulescommitteefortheInternationalScienceandEngineeringFair."Backyardtabletopsurgeryisjustnonsense.Thenewpoliciesthrowcoldwateronstudents’inquisitiveness"hesaid. Graftonsaidhewouldn’tdenythattherehasn’tbeenanimalabuseamongprojectsattheinternationalfairbutheaddedthatjudgesrejectcontestantswhohaveunnecessarilyinjuredanimals.Thejudgeshaveahardtimemonitoringlocalandregionalfairsthatmayormaynotchoosetocomplywiththeinternationalfair’srulesthatstresspropercareofanimalsGraftonsaid. HesaidthatseveralyearsagotheWestinghouseScienceTalentSearchbannedharmfulexperimentstoanimalswhensponsorsthreatenedtocanceltheirsupportafteranimalwelfaregroupslobbiedforchange. Theteachersadoptedthenewpoliciesalsotofendoffproposedlegislation--instatesincludingMissouriandNewYorkthatwouldrestrictorprohibitexperimentsonanimals. Officialsofthetwoteachersorganizationssaythattheydon’tknowhowmanyanimalshavebeenabusedintheclassroom.OntheonehandmanybiologyteachersarenottrainedinthepropercareofanimalssaidWayneMoyerexecutivedirectorofthebiologyteachers’association.Ontheothertheuseofanimalsinexperimentshasdroppedinrecentyearsbecauseofschoolbudgetcuts.Theassociationmaysetupseminarstoteachbetteranimalcaretoitsmembers. Accordingtothetextanimalwelfaregroupshavesucceededin
全球化的兴起是席卷全世界的经济和文化趋势当我们步人21世纪时它已形成新的基础但全球化的作用总是好的吗一些人并不这么认为 亚特兰大国际外交关系所所长麦克尔·特内特担心时下全世界对全球化兴起的厌恶之情他说“从20世纪80年代及亚洲龙在90年代后期的经济滑坡以来人们就开始重新评价全球化能带来好处的观点许多国家收入下降贫富悬殊加大若没有政府的进一步干预我们在拉美和亚洲就会看到贫困升级的悲剧” 在华尔街工作的一位有影响的经济学家乔治·弗兰克认为情况没那么糟“即使市场机制可能引起短期动荡的问题经济自由化透明度增加和基于市场的改革都能带来长远的好处”他说“最重要的是要进一步解除贸易壁垒这样消费品的竞争就会使价格降低反过来提高收入的平均水平” 其他人认为全球化的文化影响比经济意义更为重要非洲土著人贾妮斯·伊威强烈地感受到全球化严重削弱了她的本土文化和语言她说“全球化趋势下世界上大多数方言都会消失这个世界上到处都是麦当劳快餐广告和英语俚语这让我忧心忡忡” 各国政府对全球化浪潮的反响有好有坏美国被看成是国际贸易高度自由化的积极倡导者由于它几乎垄断了全球娱乐业它当然有极大的文化影响力但其他国家最明显的是欧洲和发展中国家力图减少全球化对本国事务的影响 一位新加坡居民说“我还是个孩子的时候我们国家没什么值得一提的现在我们国家已成为了一个繁荣的国际金融中心”不过其他人可没有这么乐观底特 律汽车制造厂一位工会委员评论道“全球化是一股邪恶势力必须被制止它使工作机会减少国家精神沦丧”
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.OnestudyconductedinSwedenofallplaces--showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.ConnollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchyMaleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantia123%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect--namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair: Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Thephrasecropupinthefirstparagraphmostprobablymeans
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