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在六淫中，易致疼痛的病邪是
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六淫中最易致疼痛是
风邪
寒邪
暑邪
湿邪
燥邪
在六淫中易扰心神的病邪是
风邪
寒邪
暑邪
火邪
六淫中最易致疼痛的是
湿邪
燥邪
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六淫中易致气机阻滞的是_______邪易致筋脉挛急的是______邪
六淫中最易致肿疡的病邪是
暑
寒
燥
火
风
六淫中易致疮痈的邪气是
风邪
湿邪
暑邪
燥邪
火邪
在六淫中易致筋脉挛急的病邪是
风邪
寒邪
暑邪
火邪
六淫中最易导致疼痛的病邪是
风邪
寒邪
燥邪
湿邪
下列六淫中最易致肿疡的病邪是
燥
暑
火
风
寒
六淫中易致疮痈的邪气是
寒邪
风邪
暑邪
湿邪
火邪
六淫中易致肿疡的邪气是
风邪
寒邪
湿邪
火邪
燥邪
六淫中易致肿疡的病邪是
风邪
湿邪
寒邪
燥邪
火热之邪
六淫中易导致疼痛的邪气是
风邪
寒邪
暑邪
湿邪
燥邪
六淫中最易导致无汗的病邪是
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六淫中最易致肿病的病邪是
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Text4 Mostofushaveseenadogstaringat sometimessnarlingatandapproachingareflectionofitself.Formostanimals seeingtheirownimageinamirroractsasasocialstimulus.Butdoesthedog recognizeitselfordoesthereflectionsimplysignalapotentialcompanionor threatThisquestionisinterestingforanumberofmasons.Apartfrom curiosityaboutthelevelofanimals’understandingresearchonserf- recognitioninanimalshasseveralbenefits.Itprovidessomeinsightintothe evolutionarysignificanceofthisskillofserf-recognitionandintothelevel andkindsofcognitivecompetencethattheskillrequires.Suchresearchalso indicatesthekindsoflearningexperiencesthatdeterminethedevelopmentof self-recognition.Inadditionworkwithanimalsfosterstheuseoftechniques thatarenotdependentonverbalresponsesandthatmaythereforebesuitable forusewithpreverbalchildren.Theevidenceindicatesthat dogsandalmostallothernonhumansdonotrecognizethemselves.Inaseriesof cleverexperimentshoweverGalluphasshownthatthechimpanzeedoeshavethis capacity.Gallupexposedchimpanzeesinasmallcagetoafull-lengthmirrorfor tenconsecutivedays.Itwasobservedthatoverthisperiodoftimethenumber ofserf-directedresponsesincreased.Thesebehaviorsincludedgroomingpartsof thebodywhilewatchingtheresultsguidingfingersinthemirrorandpicking atteethwiththeaidofthemirror.DescribingonechimpGallupsaidMarge usedthemirrortoplaywithandinspectthebottomofherfeet;shealsolooked atherselfupsidedowninthemirrorwhilesuspendedbyherfeetfromthetopof thecage;shewasalsoobservedtostuffceleryleavesuphernoseusingthe mirrorforpurposesofvisuallyguidingthestemsintoeachnostril. Thentheresearchersdevisedafurthertestofserf-recognition.The chimpswereanesthetizedandmarkswereplacedovertheireyebrowsandbehind theirearsareasthechimpscouldnotdirectlyobserve.Themirrorwas temporarilyremovedfromthecageandbaselinedataregardingtheirattemptsin touchtheseareaswererecorded.Thedataclearlysuggestthatchimpsdo recognizethemselvesorareself-awarefortheirattemptstotouchthemarks increasedwhentheyviewedthemselves.Citingfurtherevidenceforthis argumentGallupnotedthatchimpanzeeswithnopriormirrorexperiencedidnot directbehaviortothemarkswhentheywerefirstexposedtothemirror;that istheotherchimpanzeesappearedtohaverememberedwhattheylookedlikeand dohaverespondedtothemarksbecausetheynoticedchangesintheir appearance.Theevidenceindicates...Line1Para.2maybeinterpretedtomeanthat______.
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadof throughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoes bybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasour understandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizations whenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchas ourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknown buildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfields ofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownas thescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown.41__________. Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelastic objectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactson them.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676this simplelawStillholdstrue.42__________.Sometimesscientific predictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyet known.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitry Mendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustrate patternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideas becausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryof platetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrust isactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartof geology.Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeis constantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermore detailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe 18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthe waywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgefor practical45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesits existencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporatea phenomenonknownaslatentheat.A.Scientistsutilizeexisting knowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave. Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredict howthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexact makeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwill happenwhentheycombine.B.Foralargepartofrecorded historysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientific knowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpractical applications.C.Duringscientificinvestigations scientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.In mostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurther evidencethatexistingideasarecorrect.D.Tileprincipleof latentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigerator hasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirst automobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsand engineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhile thefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesin electronicsandmathematics.E.Someformsoftechnologyhave becomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientific achievementsthattheyrepresent.F.Inscienceimportant advancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassic caseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologist AlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnecteda theoryknownascontinentaldrift.G.Otherfieldsofscience alsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Research infoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatwe eat.
Directions:YouareaseniorstudentatBeijingUnionUniversitymajoringincomputerscience.Youarepreparingtotakethenationalexaminationforthepostgraduatesnextyear.WritealettertoProfWangexpressingyourhopetoattendhisEnglishWritingclass. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginsteadYoudonotneedtowritetheaddress.
清代汉学中不属于以惠栋为代表的吴派的是
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Text3 Apatentisanexclusiverightgivento aninventorforhisorherinvention.Inotherwordsapatentisamonopoly rightgiventotheinventorfortheinvention.Apatentconfersontheinventor therighttopriceandtoselltheinventioninanywayheorshedesiresin theUnitedStatespatentsaregrantedbythePatentOfficefor17years. Althougheconomistsgenerallycondemnmonopolyasaformofmarketorganization sincemonopolyimposescostsontheeconomypatentspresentamoresubtlecase formonopolytheory.Specificallycanpatentmonopoliesbejustified Ingeneraleconomistscomplainaboutthecostsofmonopolybecausethey believethatthesameindustrycouldbeorganizedcompetitively.Apatent monopolygrantfor17yearspresentsadifferentproblem.Thatisthepurpose ofthepatentsystemistoencourageinvention.Theissueisnotmonopolyversus competitionbutmorefundamentallyinventionversusnoinvention.Istheworld betteroffwiththeinventioneventhoughitismonopolizedfor17yearsIn otherwordswhatarethecostsandbenefitsofapatent Considerthesimplecaseofanewconsumerproductwithapositivedemand suchasacamerautilizinganewexposureprocess.Thecostsofthepatent monopolyaresimplythedeadweightcostsofmonopolymeasuredbythelost consumers’surplusfromthe17-yearpatentmonopoly.Thiscostmustbeassessed carefullyinthecontextofaninventionhowever.Whatarethebenefitsofthe patentsystemFirstthereistheincreaseinconsumerwell-beingbroughtabout immediatelybyadesirableinvention.In17yearsthepatentmonopolyendsand asecondsourceofbenefitsarises:Thepriceofcameraswillfalltoa competitivelevelandconsumerswillreapthebenefitsofthecameraatalower price.Insumtheoryofmonopolyhelpsustoassessthecostsandbenefitsof thepatent.Onecanquibbleaboutpatentmonopoliesarguingforexamplethat theyaregrantedfortoolongatime.Intheendthepatent systemcreatesgoodsandservicesandtechnologiesthatdidnotpreviously exist.InthisrespectitisavaluableSystemfortheeconomy.Thepatent systemalsounderscorestheimportanceofpropertyrightstoideasasasource ofeconomicgrowthandprogress.Thepatentsystemisvaluablefortheeconomyinthat______.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Therelationoflanguageandmindhasinterestedphilosophersformanycenturies.61TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthoughtwhichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe. Onlyrecentlydidlinguistsbegintheseriousstudyoflanguagesthatwereverydifferentfromtheirown.Twoanthropologist-linguistsFranzBoasandEdwardSapirwerepioneersindescribingmanynativelanguagesofNorthandSouthAmericaduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.62Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanishedasthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativelanguages.Otherlinguistsintheearlierpartofthiscenturyhoweverwhowerelesseagertodealwithbizarredatafromexoticlanguagewerenotalwayssograteful.63ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.NativeAmericanlanguagesareindeeddifferentsomuchsoinfactthatNavajocouldbeusedbytheUSmilitaryasacodeduringWorldWarIItosendsecretmessages. Sapir’’spupilBenjaminLeeWhorfcontinuedthestudyofAmericanIndianlanguages.64BeinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthoughtWhorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtinasociety.Hereasonedthatbecauseitiseasiertoformulatecertainconceptsandnotothersinagivenlanguagethespeakersofthatlanguagethinkalongonetrackandnotalonganother.65Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhichinitsstrongestformstatesthatlanguageimprisonsthemindandthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.LaterthisideabecametobeknownastheSapir-Whorfhypothesisbutthistermissomewhatinappropriate.AlthoughbothSapirandWhorfemphasizedthediversityoflanguagesSapirhimselfneverexplicitlysupportedthenotionoflinguisticdeterminism.
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadof throughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoes bybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasour understandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizations whenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchas ourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknown buildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfields ofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownas thescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown.41__________. Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelastic objectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactson them.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676this simplelawStillholdstrue.42__________.Sometimesscientific predictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyet known.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitry Mendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustrate patternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideas becausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryof platetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrust isactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartof geology.Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeis constantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermore detailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe 18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthe waywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgefor practical45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesits existencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporatea phenomenonknownaslatentheat.A.Scientistsutilizeexisting knowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave. Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredict howthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexact makeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwill happenwhentheycombine.B.Foralargepartofrecorded historysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientific knowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpractical applications.C.Duringscientificinvestigations scientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.In mostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurther evidencethatexistingideasarecorrect.D.Tileprincipleof latentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigerator hasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirst automobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsand engineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhile thefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesin electronicsandmathematics.E.Someformsoftechnologyhave becomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientific achievementsthattheyrepresent.F.Inscienceimportant advancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassic caseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologist AlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnecteda theoryknownascontinentaldrift.G.Otherfieldsofscience alsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Research infoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatwe eat.
ImmediatelyaftertheCivilWarhoweverthedietbeganto change.46Railtransportationincreasedthesupplyandimprovedthequality ofthemilkthatreachedurbancenters;coldstorageandrefrigeratorcarsmade possiblethegreaterconsumptionoffreshvegetablesfreshfruitsandfresh fish;andcommercialcanningextendedtherangeofappetizingandhealthful foods.Subsequentlyfoodstatisticsindicatedanincreasedconsumption ofdairyproductsfreshfruitfreshvegetablessugarandsyrupscoffeetea cocoaandspices.Decreasedconsumptionwasshownformeatspotatoesand grainproducts.47ByandlargetheAmericandietcontinuedtoreflecta considerablerelianceuponanimalproducts:ratherthanongrains.whichmeant thatarelativelylargeacreagewasrequiredtofeedtheAmericanpublic. WhereasagrainandfishdietsuchasinJapanrequiresonlyaquarterofan acrehighyieldcroplandandnopasturepercapitatheAmericandietrequires abouttwoandahalfacresofcroplandandtenacresofpasturepercapita-Also itindicatedashifttowardtheso-calledprotectivefoodstowardthosehighin vitaminsandproteins.48Thischangewasgreatlyfurtheredbygovernmental foodinspectionthePureFoodandDrugActwaspassedin1906bythe increasinguseofmechanicalrefrigeratorsinthe1920’sand1910’sandof freezersforfrozenfoodduringrecentdecades.Intheyears afterWorldWarIafoodrevolutiontookplacethatwasreminiscentoftheone thatoccurredaftertheCivilWar.Theoutputofthefoodmanufacturingindustry quadrupledfrom1900to1920.49Inthatintervalaswehavementioned earlierhomecanninggavewaytocommercialcanningandthelaborof housekeepingwaslightened.Fortunatelymostofthemajor dietarychangesthathavetakenplacesincethemiddleofthenineteenthcentury haveresultedinbetternutritionforthepopulation.Inporttheseshiftshave takenplacebecauseofapreferencefornewfoodsratherthanoldbutinpart theyhavebeenmadebecausethenewfoodswereadvocatedbynutritionists. ApparentlyAmericandietarycustomswerenotsodeeplyingrainedastoprevent changeintheinterestsofbetterhealth.50Possiblyonefactorthathas contributedtothereadinessofAmericanstoacceptnewfoodsorfood preparationsasthegeneralfamiliaritymosthavewithavarietyofregional dishescomingfrommanydifferentlands.WithinasmallareainNewYork CityorSanFranciscoonecanfindrestaurantsspecializinginFrenchItalian GermanTurkishArabianorChinesecuisine.AndataChineserestaurantinthe UnitedStatesthechefandwaiterareaslikelyasnottoheOriental.
追随阿里的人指的是
Text1 Everybodyloathesitbuteverybody doesitArecentpollshowedthat20%ofAmericanshatethepractice.Itseems soarbitraryafterall.Whydoesabarmangetatipbutnotadoctorwhosaves livesInAmericaalonetippingisnowa$16billion-a-year industry.Consumersactingrationallyoughtnottopaymorethantheyhaveto foragivenservice.Tipsshouldnotexist.SowhydotheyTheconventional wisdomisthattipsbothrewardtheeffortsofgoodserviceandreduce uncomfortablefeelingsofinequality.Thebettertheservicethebiggerthe tip.Suchexplanationsnodoubtexplainthepurportedoriginof tipping--inthe16thcenturyboxesinEnglishtavernscarriedthephraseTo InsurePromptitudelaterjustTIP.Butaccordingtonewresearchfrom CornellUniversitytippingnolongerservesanyusefulfunction. Thepaperanalysesdatafrom2327groupsdiningat20different restaurants.Thecorrelationbetweenlargertipsandbetterservicewasvery weak:onlyatinypartofthevariabilityinthesizeofthetiphadanythingto dowiththequalityofservice.Customerswhoratedamealasexcellentstill tippedanywherebetween8%and17%ofthemealprice.Tippingis betterexplainedbyculturethanbyeconomics.InAmericathecustomhasbecome institutionalized:itisregardedaspartoftheacceptedcostofaservice.In aNewYorkrestaurantfailingtotipatleast15%couldwellmeanabusefrom thewaiter.Hairdresserscanexpecttoget15-20%themanwhodeliversyour groceries＄2.InEuropetippingislesscommon;inmanyrestaurants discretionarytippingisbeingreplacedbyastandardservicecharge.Inmany Asiancountriestippinghasneverreallycaughtonatall.How toaccountforthesenationaldifferencesLooknofurtherthanpsychology. AccordingtoMichaelLynntheCornellpaper’sco-authorcountriesinwhich peoplearemoreextrovertsociableorneurotictendtotipmore.Tipping relievesanxietyaboutbeingservedbystrangers.AndsaysMr.LynnIn Americawherepeopleareoutgoingandexpressivetippingisaboutsocial approvalffyoutipbadlypeoplethinklessofyou.Tippingwellisachance toshowoff.Icelandersbycontrastdonotusuallytip-ameasureoftheir introversionnodoubt.Whilesuchexplanationsmaybecrude thehardtruthseemstobethattippingdoesnotwork.Itdoesnotbenefitthe customer.Norinthecaseofrestaurantsdoesitactuallystimulatethe waiterorhelptherestaurantmanagertomonitorandassesshisstaff.Service peopleshouldjustbepaidadecentwagewhichmayactuallymakeeconomic sense.Itisimpliedinthepassagethat______.
ImmediatelyaftertheCivilWarhoweverthedietbeganto change.46Railtransportationincreasedthesupplyandimprovedthequality ofthemilkthatreachedurbancenters;coldstorageandrefrigeratorcarsmade possiblethegreaterconsumptionoffreshvegetablesfreshfruitsandfresh fish;andcommercialcanningextendedtherangeofappetizingandhealthful foods.Subsequentlyfoodstatisticsindicatedanincreasedconsumption ofdairyproductsfreshfruitfreshvegetablessugarandsyrupscoffeetea cocoaandspices.Decreasedconsumptionwasshownformeatspotatoesand grainproducts.47ByandlargetheAmericandietcontinuedtoreflecta considerablerelianceuponanimalproducts:ratherthanongrains.whichmeant thatarelativelylargeacreagewasrequiredtofeedtheAmericanpublic. WhereasagrainandfishdietsuchasinJapanrequiresonlyaquarterofan acrehighyieldcroplandandnopasturepercapitatheAmericandietrequires abouttwoandahalfacresofcroplandandtenacresofpasturepercapita-Also itindicatedashifttowardtheso-calledprotectivefoodstowardthosehighin vitaminsandproteins.48Thischangewasgreatlyfurtheredbygovernmental foodinspectionthePureFoodandDrugActwaspassedin1906bythe increasinguseofmechanicalrefrigeratorsinthe1920’sand1910’sandof freezersforfrozenfoodduringrecentdecades.Intheyears afterWorldWarIafoodrevolutiontookplacethatwasreminiscentoftheone thatoccurredaftertheCivilWar.Theoutputofthefoodmanufacturingindustry quadrupledfrom1900to1920.49Inthatintervalaswehavementioned earlierhomecanninggavewaytocommercialcanningandthelaborof housekeepingwaslightened.Fortunatelymostofthemajor dietarychangesthathavetakenplacesincethemiddleofthenineteenthcentury haveresultedinbetternutritionforthepopulation.Inporttheseshiftshave takenplacebecauseofapreferencefornewfoodsratherthanoldbutinpart theyhavebeenmadebecausethenewfoodswereadvocatedbynutritionists. ApparentlyAmericandietarycustomswerenotsodeeplyingrainedastoprevent changeintheinterestsofbetterhealth.50Possiblyonefactorthathas contributedtothereadinessofAmericanstoacceptnewfoodsorfood preparationsasthegeneralfamiliaritymosthavewithavarietyofregional dishescomingfrommanydifferentlands.WithinasmallareainNewYork CityorSanFranciscoonecanfindrestaurantsspecializinginFrenchItalian GermanTurkishArabianorChinesecuisine.AndataChineserestaurantinthe UnitedStatesthechefandwaiterareaslikelyasnottoheOriental.
Text1 Everybodyloathesitbuteverybody doesitArecentpollshowedthat20%ofAmericanshatethepractice.Itseems soarbitraryafterall.Whydoesabarmangetatipbutnotadoctorwhosaves livesInAmericaalonetippingisnowa$16billion-a-year industry.Consumersactingrationallyoughtnottopaymorethantheyhaveto foragivenservice.Tipsshouldnotexist.SowhydotheyTheconventional wisdomisthattipsbothrewardtheeffortsofgoodserviceandreduce uncomfortablefeelingsofinequality.Thebettertheservicethebiggerthe tip.Suchexplanationsnodoubtexplainthepurportedoriginof tipping--inthe16thcenturyboxesinEnglishtavernscarriedthephraseTo InsurePromptitudelaterjustTIP.Butaccordingtonewresearchfrom CornellUniversitytippingnolongerservesanyusefulfunction. Thepaperanalysesdatafrom2327groupsdiningat20different restaurants.Thecorrelationbetweenlargertipsandbetterservicewasvery weak:onlyatinypartofthevariabilityinthesizeofthetiphadanythingto dowiththequalityofservice.Customerswhoratedamealasexcellentstill tippedanywherebetween8%and17%ofthemealprice.Tippingis betterexplainedbyculturethanbyeconomics.InAmericathecustomhasbecome institutionalized:itisregardedaspartoftheacceptedcostofaservice.In aNewYorkrestaurantfailingtotipatleast15%couldwellmeanabusefrom thewaiter.Hairdresserscanexpecttoget15-20%themanwhodeliversyour groceries＄2.InEuropetippingislesscommon;inmanyrestaurants discretionarytippingisbeingreplacedbyastandardservicecharge.Inmany Asiancountriestippinghasneverreallycaughtonatall.How toaccountforthesenationaldifferencesLooknofurtherthanpsychology. AccordingtoMichaelLynntheCornellpaper’sco-authorcountriesinwhich peoplearemoreextrovertsociableorneurotictendtotipmore.Tipping relievesanxietyaboutbeingservedbystrangers.AndsaysMr.LynnIn Americawherepeopleareoutgoingandexpressivetippingisaboutsocial approvalffyoutipbadlypeoplethinklessofyou.Tippingwellisachance toshowoff.Icelandersbycontrastdonotusuallytip-ameasureoftheir introversionnodoubt.Whilesuchexplanationsmaybecrude thehardtruthseemstobethattippingdoesnotwork.Itdoesnotbenefitthe customer.Norinthecaseofrestaurantsdoesitactuallystimulatethe waiterorhelptherestaurantmanagertomonitorandassesshisstaff.Service peopleshouldjustbepaidadecentwagewhichmayactuallymakeeconomic sense.Theauthorthinksthat______.
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadof throughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoes bybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasour understandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizations whenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchas ourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknown buildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfields ofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownas thescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown.41__________. Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelastic objectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactson them.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676this simplelawStillholdstrue.42__________.Sometimesscientific predictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyet known.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitry Mendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustrate patternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideas becausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryof platetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrust isactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartof geology.Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeis constantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermore detailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe 18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthe waywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgefor practical45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesits existencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporatea phenomenonknownaslatentheat.A.Scientistsutilizeexisting knowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave. Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredict howthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexact makeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwill happenwhentheycombine.B.Foralargepartofrecorded historysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientific knowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpractical applications.C.Duringscientificinvestigations scientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.In mostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurther evidencethatexistingideasarecorrect.D.Tileprincipleof latentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigerator hasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirst automobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsand engineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhile thefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesin electronicsandmathematics.E.Someformsoftechnologyhave becomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientific achievementsthattheyrepresent.F.Inscienceimportant advancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassic caseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologist AlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnecteda theoryknownascontinentaldrift.G.Otherfieldsofscience alsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Research infoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatwe eat.
Text2 Likestreetcomerprophetsproclaiming thattileendisnearscientistswhostudytheearth’satmospherehavebeen issuingpredictionsofimpendingdoomforthepastfewyearswithoutoffering anyconcreteproof.Sofareventheexpertshavehadtoadmitthatnosolid evidencehasemergedthatthisisanythingbutanaturalphenomenon.Andthe uncertaintyhasgivenskeptics-especiallyGingrichianpoliticians--plentyof ammunitiontoargueagainsttakingthedifficultexpensivestepsrequiredto staveoffalargelyhypotheticalcalamity.UntilnowAdraft reportcurrentlycirculatingontheInternetassertsthattheglobaltemperature risecannowbeblamedatleastinpartonhumanactivity.Statementslike thishavebeenmadebeforebyindividualresearchers-whohavebeencriticized forgoingtoofarbeyondthescientificconsensus.Butthisreportcomesfrom theInternationalPanelonClimateChangeIPCCarespectedUNsponsoredbody madeupofmorethan1300leadingclimateexpertsfrom40nations.Thisshift inscientificconsensusisbasednotsomuchonnewdataasonimprovementsin thecomplexcomputermodelsthatclimatologistsusetotesttheirtheories. Unlikechemistsormolecularbiologistsclimateexpertshavenowaytodolab experimentsontheirspecialty.Sotheysimulatethemonsupercomputersandlook atwhathappenswhenhumangeneratedgases-carbondioxidefromindustryandauto exhaustmethanefromagriculturechlorofluorocarbonsfromleakyrefrigerators andspraycans-arepumpedintothemodelsvirtualatmospheres. Untilrecentlythecomputermodelsweren’tworkingverywell.Whenthe scientiststriedtosimulatewhattheybelievehasbeenhappeningoverthepast centuryorsotheresultsdidn’tmeshwithreality;themodelssaidtheworld shouldnowhewarmerthanitactuallyis.Thereasonisthatthecomputermodels hadbeenoverlookinganimportantfactoraffectingglobaltemperatures:sulfur dioxidesthatareproducedalongwithCO2whenfossilfuelsareburnedincars andpowerplants.Aerosolsactuallycooltheplanetbyblockingsunlightand masktheeffectsofglobalwarmning.Oncethescientistsfactoredinaerosols theirmodelsbeganlookingmoreliketherealworld.Theimprovedperformanceof thesimulationswasdemonstratedin1991whentheysuccessfullypredicted temperaturechangesintheaftermathofthemassiveMountPinatuboeruptionin thePhilippines.Anumberofstudiessincehaveaddedtothescientists confidencethattheyfinallyknowwhattheyaretalkingabout-andcanpredict whatmayhappenifgreenhousegasescontinuetobepumpedintotheatmosphere unchecked.AdraftreportcurrentlycirculatingontheInternet______.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Text4 Mostofushaveseenadogstaringat sometimessnarlingatandapproachingareflectionofitself.Formostanimals seeingtheirownimageinamirroractsasasocialstimulus.Butdoesthedog recognizeitselfordoesthereflectionsimplysignalapotentialcompanionor threatThisquestionisinterestingforanumberofmasons.Apartfrom curiosityaboutthelevelofanimals’understandingresearchonserf- recognitioninanimalshasseveralbenefits.Itprovidessomeinsightintothe evolutionarysignificanceofthisskillofserf-recognitionandintothelevel andkindsofcognitivecompetencethattheskillrequires.Suchresearchalso indicatesthekindsoflearningexperiencesthatdeterminethedevelopmentof self-recognition.Inadditionworkwithanimalsfosterstheuseoftechniques thatarenotdependentonverbalresponsesandthatmaythereforebesuitable forusewithpreverbalchildren.Theevidenceindicatesthat dogsandalmostallothernonhumansdonotrecognizethemselves.Inaseriesof cleverexperimentshoweverGalluphasshownthatthechimpanzeedoeshavethis capacity.Gallupexposedchimpanzeesinasmallcagetoafull-lengthmirrorfor tenconsecutivedays.Itwasobservedthatoverthisperiodoftimethenumber ofserf-directedresponsesincreased.Thesebehaviorsincludedgroomingpartsof thebodywhilewatchingtheresultsguidingfingersinthemirrorandpicking atteethwiththeaidofthemirror.DescribingonechimpGallupsaidMarge usedthemirrortoplaywithandinspectthebottomofherfeet;shealsolooked atherselfupsidedowninthemirrorwhilesuspendedbyherfeetfromthetopof thecage;shewasalsoobservedtostuffceleryleavesuphernoseusingthe mirrorforpurposesofvisuallyguidingthestemsintoeachnostril. Thentheresearchersdevisedafurthertestofserf-recognition.The chimpswereanesthetizedandmarkswereplacedovertheireyebrowsandbehind theirearsareasthechimpscouldnotdirectlyobserve.Themirrorwas temporarilyremovedfromthecageandbaselinedataregardingtheirattemptsin touchtheseareaswererecorded.Thedataclearlysuggestthatchimpsdo recognizethemselvesorareself-awarefortheirattemptstotouchthemarks increasedwhentheyviewedthemselves.Citingfurtherevidenceforthis argumentGallupnotedthatchimpanzeeswithnopriormirrorexperiencedidnot directbehaviortothemarkswhentheywerefirstexposedtothemirror;that istheotherchimpanzeesappearedtohaverememberedwhattheylookedlikeand dohaverespondedtothemarksbecausetheynoticedchangesintheir appearance.Theauthor’spurposeinthepassageis______.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Text3 Apatentisanexclusiverightgivento aninventorforhisorherinvention.Inotherwordsapatentisamonopoly rightgiventotheinventorfortheinvention.Apatentconfersontheinventor therighttopriceandtoselltheinventioninanywayheorshedesiresin theUnitedStatespatentsaregrantedbythePatentOfficefor17years. Althougheconomistsgenerallycondemnmonopolyasaformofmarketorganization sincemonopolyimposescostsontheeconomypatentspresentamoresubtlecase formonopolytheory.Specificallycanpatentmonopoliesbejustified Ingeneraleconomistscomplainaboutthecostsofmonopolybecausethey believethatthesameindustrycouldbeorganizedcompetitively.Apatent monopolygrantfor17yearspresentsadifferentproblem.Thatisthepurpose ofthepatentsystemistoencourageinvention.Theissueisnotmonopolyversus competitionbutmorefundamentallyinventionversusnoinvention.Istheworld betteroffwiththeinventioneventhoughitismonopolizedfor17yearsIn otherwordswhatarethecostsandbenefitsofapatent Considerthesimplecaseofanewconsumerproductwithapositivedemand suchasacamerautilizinganewexposureprocess.Thecostsofthepatent monopolyaresimplythedeadweightcostsofmonopolymeasuredbythelost consumers’surplusfromthe17-yearpatentmonopoly.Thiscostmustbeassessed carefullyinthecontextofaninventionhowever.Whatarethebenefitsofthe patentsystemFirstthereistheincreaseinconsumerwell-beingbroughtabout immediatelybyadesirableinvention.In17yearsthepatentmonopolyendsand asecondsourceofbenefitsarises:Thepriceofcameraswillfalltoa competitivelevelandconsumerswillreapthebenefitsofthecameraatalower price.Insumtheoryofmonopolyhelpsustoassessthecostsandbenefitsof thepatent.Onecanquibbleaboutpatentmonopoliesarguingforexamplethat theyaregrantedfortoolongatime.Intheendthepatent systemcreatesgoodsandservicesandtechnologiesthatdidnotpreviously exist.InthisrespectitisavaluableSystemfortheeconomy.Thepatent systemalsounderscorestheimportanceofpropertyrightstoideasasasource ofeconomicgrowthandprogress.Thecostsofthepatentmonopoly______.
Therelationoflanguageandmindhasinterestedphilosophersformanycenturies.61TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthoughtwhichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe. Onlyrecentlydidlinguistsbegintheseriousstudyoflanguagesthatwereverydifferentfromtheirown.Twoanthropologist-linguistsFranzBoasandEdwardSapirwerepioneersindescribingmanynativelanguagesofNorthandSouthAmericaduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.62Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanishedasthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativelanguages.Otherlinguistsintheearlierpartofthiscenturyhoweverwhowerelesseagertodealwithbizarredatafromexoticlanguagewerenotalwayssograteful.63ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirdata.NativeAmericanlanguagesareindeeddifferentsomuchsoinfactthatNavajocouldbeusedbytheUSmilitaryasacodeduringWorldWarIItosendsecretmessages. Sapir’’spupilBenjaminLeeWhorfcontinuedthestudyofAmericanIndianlanguages.64BeinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthoughtWhorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtinasociety.Hereasonedthatbecauseitiseasiertoformulatecertainconceptsandnotothersinagivenlanguagethespeakersofthatlanguagethinkalongonetrackandnotalonganother.65Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhichinitsstrongestformstatesthatlanguageimprisonsthemindandthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.LaterthisideabecametobeknownastheSapir-Whorfhypothesisbutthistermissomewhatinappropriate.AlthoughbothSapirandWhorfemphasizedthediversityoflanguagesSapirhimselfneverexplicitlysupportedthenotionoflinguisticdeterminism.
Text3 Apatentisanexclusiverightgivento aninventorforhisorherinvention.Inotherwordsapatentisamonopoly rightgiventotheinventorfortheinvention.Apatentconfersontheinventor therighttopriceandtoselltheinventioninanywayheorshedesiresin theUnitedStatespatentsaregrantedbythePatentOfficefor17years. Althougheconomistsgenerallycondemnmonopolyasaformofmarketorganization sincemonopolyimposescostsontheeconomypatentspresentamoresubtlecase formonopolytheory.Specificallycanpatentmonopoliesbejustified Ingeneraleconomistscomplainaboutthecostsofmonopolybecausethey believethatthesameindustrycouldbeorganizedcompetitively.Apatent monopolygrantfor17yearspresentsadifferentproblem.Thatisthepurpose ofthepatentsystemistoencourageinvention.Theissueisnotmonopolyversus competitionbutmorefundamentallyinventionversusnoinvention.Istheworld betteroffwiththeinventioneventhoughitismonopolizedfor17yearsIn otherwordswhatarethecostsandbenefitsofapatent Considerthesimplecaseofanewconsumerproductwithapositivedemand suchasacamerautilizinganewexposureprocess.Thecostsofthepatent monopolyaresimplythedeadweightcostsofmonopolymeasuredbythelost consumers’surplusfromthe17-yearpatentmonopoly.Thiscostmustbeassessed carefullyinthecontextofaninventionhowever.Whatarethebenefitsofthe patentsystemFirstthereistheincreaseinconsumerwell-beingbroughtabout immediatelybyadesirableinvention.In17yearsthepatentmonopolyendsand asecondsourceofbenefitsarises:Thepriceofcameraswillfalltoa competitivelevelandconsumerswillreapthebenefitsofthecameraatalower price.Insumtheoryofmonopolyhelpsustoassessthecostsandbenefitsof thepatent.Onecanquibbleaboutpatentmonopoliesarguingforexamplethat theyaregrantedfortoolongatime.Intheendthepatent systemcreatesgoodsandservicesandtechnologiesthatdidnotpreviously exist.InthisrespectitisavaluableSystemfortheeconomy.Thepatent systemalsounderscorestheimportanceofpropertyrightstoideasasasource ofeconomicgrowthandprogress.Thefirstparagraphmainly______.
Everythingseemedtohavebecomea weaponofwar.Ourenemieshad1themostfamiliar objects2usturnedshavingkitsintoholstersand airplanes3missilesandsoccercoachesandnewlywedsinto involuntarysuicidebombers.Soitwas4thePresidentand hisgeneralstoplottheresponse.Thatisbecauseweare 5oneenemybuttwo:oneunseentheotherinside.Terroron thisscale6towreckthewayweliveourlives-makeus flinchwhenasirensounds7whenadoorslamsandthink twicebeforedeciding8wereallyhavetotakeaplane.If wefaltertheywin9theyneverplantanotherbomb.So aftertheearlyhelplessnesswhatcanIdoI’vealreadygivenblood-people startedtorealizethat10theycoulddowasexactlyas preciselyaspossible11theywouldhavedoneifall this12.Thatwasthespirit13 inNewYorkandWashingtonandallacrossthecountryfaithandfear andresolveinatightbraid.Becausethekillerswhohateusdidthe 14nothingisunthinkablenow.Aplumeofgrillsmoke ventingfromaManhattansteakhouse15theevacuationof midtownofficetowers.AfterthePentagon16generals calledtheirfamiliesandtoldthem17thewateritcould bepoisoned.Salesofgunsandgasmasksspiked.TheNationalFootballLeague 18itsgamesforthefirsttimeever;bombscaresemptied90 sitesonThursdayinNewYorkCity19.Peoplewore sneakerswiththeirsuits20theyhadtoflyfastdownthe stairs.
Text2 Likestreetcomerprophetsproclaiming thattileendisnearscientistswhostudytheearth’satmospherehavebeen issuingpredictionsofimpendingdoomforthepastfewyearswithoutoffering anyconcreteproof.Sofareventheexpertshavehadtoadmitthatnosolid evidencehasemergedthatthisisanythingbutanaturalphenomenon.Andthe uncertaintyhasgivenskeptics-especiallyGingrichianpoliticians--plentyof ammunitiontoargueagainsttakingthedifficultexpensivestepsrequiredto staveoffalargelyhypotheticalcalamity.UntilnowAdraft reportcurrentlycirculatingontheInternetassertsthattheglobaltemperature risecannowbeblamedatleastinpartonhumanactivity.Statementslike thishavebeenmadebeforebyindividualresearchers-whohavebeencriticized forgoingtoofarbeyondthescientificconsensus.Butthisreportcomesfrom theInternationalPanelonClimateChangeIPCCarespectedUNsponsoredbody madeupofmorethan1300leadingclimateexpertsfrom40nations.Thisshift inscientificconsensusisbasednotsomuchonnewdataasonimprovementsin thecomplexcomputermodelsthatclimatologistsusetotesttheirtheories. Unlikechemistsormolecularbiologistsclimateexpertshavenowaytodolab experimentsontheirspecialty.Sotheysimulatethemonsupercomputersandlook atwhathappenswhenhumangeneratedgases-carbondioxidefromindustryandauto exhaustmethanefromagriculturechlorofluorocarbonsfromleakyrefrigerators andspraycans-arepumpedintothemodelsvirtualatmospheres. Untilrecentlythecomputermodelsweren’tworkingverywell.Whenthe scientiststriedtosimulatewhattheybelievehasbeenhappeningoverthepast centuryorsotheresultsdidn’tmeshwithreality;themodelssaidtheworld shouldnowhewarmerthanitactuallyis.Thereasonisthatthecomputermodels hadbeenoverlookinganimportantfactoraffectingglobaltemperatures:sulfur dioxidesthatareproducedalongwithCO2whenfossilfuelsareburnedincars andpowerplants.Aerosolsactuallycooltheplanetbyblockingsunlightand masktheeffectsofglobalwarmning.Oncethescientistsfactoredinaerosols theirmodelsbeganlookingmoreliketherealworld.Theimprovedperformanceof thesimulationswasdemonstratedin1991whentheysuccessfullypredicted temperaturechangesintheaftermathofthemassiveMountPinatuboeruptionin thePhilippines.Anumberofstudiessincehaveaddedtothescientists confidencethattheyfinallyknowwhattheyaretalkingabout-andcanpredict whatmayhappenifgreenhousegasescontinuetobepumpedintotheatmosphere unchecked.Thecomputermodelsfailedtopicturerealitybecause______.
Text1 Everybodyloathesitbuteverybody doesitArecentpollshowedthat20%ofAmericanshatethepractice.Itseems soarbitraryafterall.Whydoesabarmangetatipbutnotadoctorwhosaves livesInAmericaalonetippingisnowa$16billion-a-year industry.Consumersactingrationallyoughtnottopaymorethantheyhaveto foragivenservice.Tipsshouldnotexist.SowhydotheyTheconventional wisdomisthattipsbothrewardtheeffortsofgoodserviceandreduce uncomfortablefeelingsofinequality.Thebettertheservicethebiggerthe tip.Suchexplanationsnodoubtexplainthepurportedoriginof tipping--inthe16thcenturyboxesinEnglishtavernscarriedthephraseTo InsurePromptitudelaterjustTIP.Butaccordingtonewresearchfrom CornellUniversitytippingnolongerservesanyusefulfunction. Thepaperanalysesdatafrom2327groupsdiningat20different restaurants.Thecorrelationbetweenlargertipsandbetterservicewasvery weak:onlyatinypartofthevariabilityinthesizeofthetiphadanythingto dowiththequalityofservice.Customerswhoratedamealasexcellentstill tippedanywherebetween8%and17%ofthemealprice.Tippingis betterexplainedbyculturethanbyeconomics.InAmericathecustomhasbecome institutionalized:itisregardedaspartoftheacceptedcostofaservice.In aNewYorkrestaurantfailingtotipatleast15%couldwellmeanabusefrom thewaiter.Hairdresserscanexpecttoget15-20%themanwhodeliversyour groceries＄2.InEuropetippingislesscommon;inmanyrestaurants discretionarytippingisbeingreplacedbyastandardservicecharge.Inmany Asiancountriestippinghasneverreallycaughtonatall.How toaccountforthesenationaldifferencesLooknofurtherthanpsychology. AccordingtoMichaelLynntheCornellpaper’sco-authorcountriesinwhich peoplearemoreextrovertsociableorneurotictendtotipmore.Tipping relievesanxietyaboutbeingservedbystrangers.AndsaysMr.LynnIn Americawherepeopleareoutgoingandexpressivetippingisaboutsocial approvalffyoutipbadlypeoplethinklessofyou.Tippingwellisachance toshowoff.Icelandersbycontrastdonotusuallytip-ameasureoftheir introversionnodoubt.Whilesuchexplanationsmaybecrude thehardtruthseemstobethattippingdoesnotwork.Itdoesnotbenefitthe customer.Norinthecaseofrestaurantsdoesitactuallystimulatethe waiterorhelptherestaurantmanagertomonitorandassesshisstaff.Service peopleshouldjustbepaidadecentwagewhichmayactuallymakeeconomic sense.Wecangettheinformationfromthearticlethat_______.
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