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Manyparentscomplainthattheirteenagechildrenarerebelling.Theygreettheirchildren’steenagewithneedlessdread.Whileteenagersmayassaultuswithheavy-metalmusicwearstrangeclotheshavestrangehairstylesandspendalltheirtimedatingormeetingfriendssuchbehaviorscarcelyaddsuptofull-scalerevolt.Takeagoodlookatthepresentrebellion.Itseemsthatteenagersarealltakingthesamewayofshowingthattheydisagreewiththeirparents.Insteadofstrikingoutboldlyontheirwingsmostofthemareclutchingatoneanother’shandsforreassurance.Theirreasonforthinkingoractinginthus-and-suchawayisthatthecrowdisdoingit.Ithasbecomeharderandharderforateenagertostandupagainstthepopularitywaveandtogohisorherownway.Theyhavecomeoutoftheircocoon—intoalargercocoon.TeenagerebellionaccordingtopsychologistLaurenceSteinbergcoauthorofYouandYourAdolescenthasbeengreatlyoverstated.Manyotherpsychologistsagree.Theideathatteenagersinevitablyrebelisamyththathasthepotentialforgreatfamilyharm.Thisnotioncandamagecommunicationduringthiscriticaltimeforparentstoinfluenceyoungsters.Stilladolescenceisoftenatryingtimeoftransitionforchildandparent.Teenagersneedtoestablishthemselvesasindividuals—intheirownmindsandintheeyesofothers.Thissearchisn’taboutrebellion:it’saboutbecomingapersonofone’sown.TeenagersoughttobegrowingawayfromtheirparentsandlearningtostandontheirowntwofeetsaysSteinberg.Hereisonewayparentscanhelp:don’tstereotype.ParentswhoexpectteenagerebellionmayactuallystiritupsaysKennethI.Howardamemberofaresearchteamthatcollectedsurveydataonmorethan20000teenagersovera28-yearperiod.Howardcautionsparentsnottoresorttosuppressionatthefirstsightofadolescentindependencefearfulthatgivinginevenslightlynowmeansdrugscannotbefarbehind.Whenparentsoverreactteenagersassertthemselvesmoreparentsclampdownharderandafull-scaleblowupresults.Infactpsychologistssaythatthereisnoinevitablepatterntoteenagebehaviorandnosuchcreatureasatypicalteenager.Yourteenagerisnowlargerstrongerolderandsmarterthanbeforewithanadditionalsupplyofhormoneragingthroughthebloodstream.Butheorsheisstillthesamehumanbeingyouhavelivedwithsincebirth.Givenachanceyoursonordaughterwillcontinuetobehaveinwaysyouhaveestablished.Thetextismeantto______.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 3
Manyparentscomplainthattheirteenagechildrenarerebelling.Theygreettheirchildren’steenagewithneedlessdread.Whileteenagersmayassaultuswithheavy-metalmusicwearstrangeclotheshavestrangehairstylesandspendalltheirtimedatingormeetingfriendssuchbehaviorscarcelyaddsuptofull-scalerevolt.Takeagoodlookatthepresentrebellion.Itseemsthatteenagersarealltakingthesamewayofshowingthattheydisagreewiththeirparents.Insteadofstrikingoutboldlyontheirwingsmostofthemareclutchingatoneanother’shandsforreassurance.Theirreasonforthinkingoractinginthus-and-suchawayisthatthecrowdisdoingit.Ithasbecomeharderandharderforateenagertostandupagainstthepopularitywaveandtogohisorherownway.Theyhavecomeoutoftheircocoon—intoalargercocoon.TeenagerebellionaccordingtopsychologistLaurenceSteinbergcoauthorofYouandYourAdolescenthasbeengreatlyoverstated.Manyotherpsychologistsagree.Theideathatteenagersinevitablyrebelisamyththathasthepotentialforgreatfamilyharm.Thisnotioncandamagecommunicationduringthiscriticaltimeforparentstoinfluenceyoungsters.Stilladolescenceisoftenatryingtimeoftransitionforchildandparent.Teenagersneedtoestablishthemselvesasindividuals—intheirownmindsandintheeyesofothers.Thissearchisn’taboutrebellion:it’saboutbecomingapersonofone’sown.TeenagersoughttobegrowingawayfromtheirparentsandlearningtostandontheirowntwofeetsaysSteinberg.Hereisonewayparentscanhelp:don’tstereotype.ParentswhoexpectteenagerebellionmayactuallystiritupsaysKennethI.Howardamemberofaresearchteamthatcollectedsurveydataonmorethan20000teenagersovera28-yearperiod.Howardcautionsparentsnottoresorttosuppressionatthefirstsightofadolescentindependencefearfulthatgivinginevenslightlynowmeansdrugscannotbefarbehind.Whenparentsoverreactteenagersassertthemselvesmoreparentsclampdownharderandafull-scaleblowupresults.Infactpsychologistssaythatthereisnoinevitablepatterntoteenagebehaviorandnosuchcreatureasatypicalteenager.Yourteenagerisnowlargerstrongerolderandsmarterthanbeforewithanadditionalsupplyofhormoneragingthroughthebloodstream.Butheorsheisstillthesamehumanbeingyouhavelivedwithsincebirth.Givenachanceyoursonordaughterwillcontinuetobehaveinwaysyouhaveestablished.Accordingtothewriterparents’fearfortheirchildren’steenageis______.
Exactlywherewewillstandinthelongwaragainstdiseasebytheyear2050isimpossibletosay.46Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease. Fromaneconomicstandpointthebestnewsmaybethattheseaccomplishmentscouldbeaccompaniedbyadropinhealth-carecosts.47Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.By2050therewillbefewerhospitalsandsurgicalprocedureswillbelargelyrestrictedtothetreatmentofaccidentsandotherformsoftrauma.Spendingonnonacutecarebothinnursingfacilitiesandinhomeswillalsofallsharplyasmoreelderlypeopleleadhealthylivesuntilclosetodeath. Oneresultofmedicine’ssuccessincontrollingdiseasewillbeadramaticincreaseinlifeexpectancy.48Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.Between1960and1995theU.S.populationasawholeincreasedbyabout45%whilethesegmentover85yearsofagegrewbyalmost300%.49Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.U.S.CensusBureauprojectionsalreadyforecastdramaticincreaseinthenumberofcentenariansinthenext50years:4millionin2050comparedwith37000in1990. 50AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.Withcontinuingadvancesinmolecularmedicineandagrowingunderstandingoftheagingprocessthatlimitcouldriseto130yearsormore. Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.
[A]Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedthemorboughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutility:itaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproductionwhichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporationsaswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingapore.Anothertypeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarkettheymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservicessuchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblem.Thusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketingbuttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproductorwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleorspecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshipofbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelsasbulkfreightbutfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationorcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruckthismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiredquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgood.Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct.Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced. Order: 41.______→D→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→A 45
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 19
Exactlywherewewillstandinthelongwaragainstdiseasebytheyear2050isimpossibletosay.46Butifdevelopmentsinresearchmaintaintheircurrentpaceitseemslikelythatacombinationofimprovedattentiontodietaryandenvironmentalfactorsalongwithadvancesingenetherapyandproteintargeteddrugswillhavevirtuallyeliminatedmostmajorclassesofdisease. Fromaneconomicstandpointthebestnewsmaybethattheseaccomplishmentscouldbeaccompaniedbyadropinhealth-carecosts.47Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.By2050therewillbefewerhospitalsandsurgicalprocedureswillbelargelyrestrictedtothetreatmentofaccidentsandotherformsoftrauma.Spendingonnonacutecarebothinnursingfacilitiesandinhomeswillalsofallsharplyasmoreelderlypeopleleadhealthylivesuntilclosetodeath. Oneresultofmedicine’ssuccessincontrollingdiseasewillbeadramaticincreaseinlifeexpectancy.48Theextentofthatincreaseisahighlyspeculativematterbutitisworththatmedicalsciencehasalreadyhelpedtomaketheveryoldcurrentlydefinedasthoseover85yearsofagethefastestgrowingsegmentofthepopulation.Between1960and1995theU.S.populationasawholeincreasedbyabout45%whilethesegmentover85yearsofagegrewbyalmost300%.49Therehasbeenasimilarexplosioninthepopulationofcentenarianswiththeresultthatsurvivaltotheageof100isnolongerthenewsworthyfeatthatitwasonlyafewdecadesago.U.S.CensusBureauprojectionsalreadyforecastdramaticincreaseinthenumberofcentenariansinthenext50years:4millionin2050comparedwith37000in1990. 50AlthoughCensusBureaucalculationsprojectanincreaseinaveragelifespanofonlyeightyeasbytheyear2050someexertsbelievethatthehumanlifespanshouldnotbegintoencounteranytheoreticalnaturallimitsbefore120years.Withcontinuingadvancesinmolecularmedicineandagrowingunderstandingoftheagingprocessthatlimitcouldriseto130yearsormore. Costsmayevenfallasdiseasesarebroughtundercontrolusingpinpointedshorttermtherapiesnowbeingdeveloped.
HowefficientisoursystemofcriminaltrialDoesitreallydothebasicjobweaskofit—convictingtheguiltyandacquiringtheinnocentItisoftensaidthattheBritishtrailsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Thelawyersoneachsidearesoengrossedinplayinghardtowinchallengingeachotherandthejudgeontechnicalpointsthattheobjectoffindingoutthetruthisalmostforgotten.Alltheeffortisconcentratedonthebigdayonthedramaticcrossexaminationofthekeywitnessesinfrontofthejury.Criticsliketocompareouradversarialsystemresemblingtwoadversariesengagedinacontestwiththecontinentalinquisitorialsystemunderwhichthejudgeplaysamoreimportantinquiringrole.InearlytimesintheMiddleAgesthesystemsoftrialacrossEuropeweresimilar.Atthattimetrialbyordeal—especiallyareligiousevent—wasthemainwayoftestingguiltorinnocence.Whenthiswayeventuallyabandonedthetwosystemspartedcompany.Onthecontinentchurch-trainedlegalofficialstookoverthefunctionofbothprosecutingandjudgingwhileinEnglandthesewerelargelylefttolaypeopletheJusticeofthePeaceandthismeantthatalltheevidencehadtobeputtothemorally.Thishistoricalaccidentdominatesprocedureeventodaywithallevidencebeinggiveninopencourtbywordofmouthonthecrucialday.OntheotherhandinFranceforinstancealltheevidenceiswrittenbeforethetrialundersupervisionbyaninvestigatingjudge.Thisexhaustivepretriallooksveryundramatic;muchofitisjustapubliccheckingofthewrittenrecordsalreadygathered.TheAmericansadoptedtheBritishsystemlockstockandbarrelandenshrineditintheirconstitution.Butwhilethebasicfeaturesofoursystemsarecommontherearenowsignificantdifferencesinthewayseriouscasesarehandled.FirstbecausetheU.S.A.hasvirtuallynocontemptofcourtlawstopreventpretrialpublicityinthenewspaperandontelevisionAmericanslawyersareallowedtoquestionjurorsaboutknowledgeandbeliefs.InBritainthisisvirtuallyneverallowedandarandomselectionofjurorswhoarepresumednottobeprejudicedareempanelled.SecondlythereisnoseparateprofessionofbarristerintheUnitedStatesandbothprosecutionanddefenselawyerswhoaretopresentcasesincourtpreparethemselves.Theygooutandvisitthescenetrackdownandinterviewwitnessesandfamiliarizethemselvespersonallywiththebackground.InBritainitisthesolicitorwhopreparesthecaseandthebarristerwhoappearsincourtisnotevenallowedtomeetwitnessbeforehand.Britishbarristersalsoalternatedoingbothprosecutionanddefensework.Beingkeptdistantfromthepreparationandregularlyappearingforbothsidesbarristersaresaidtoavoidbecomingtoopersonallyinvolvedandcanapproachcasesmoredispassionately.Americanlawyershoweveroftenknowtheircasesbetter.Reformersrightlywanttolearnfromothercountries’mistakesandsuccesses.Butwhatisclearisthatjusticesystemslargelybecausetheyaretheresultoflonghistoricalgrowtharepeculiarlydifficulttoadaptpiecemeal.Britishtrialsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Itimpliesthat______.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 15
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 1
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 13
Thequestionofwhetherwarisinevitableisonewhichhasconcernedmanyoftheworld’sgreatwriters.Beforeconsideringthisquestionitwillbeusefultointroducesomerelatedconcepts.Conflictdefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesdirectedagainstoneanotherisdistinguishedfromcompetitiondefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesindependentlystrivingforsomethingwhichisininadequatesupply.Competitorsmaynotbeawareofoneanotherwhilethepartiestoaconflictare.Conflictandcompetitionarebothcategoriesofoppositionwhichhasbeendefinedasaprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctioninthedisserviceofoneanother.Oppositionisthuscontrastedwithcooperationtheprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctionintheserviceofoneanother.Thesedefinitionsarenecessarybecauseitisimportanttoemphasizethatcompetitionbetweenindividualsorgroupsisinevitableinaworldoflimitedresourcesbutconflictisnot.Conflictneverthelessisverylikelytooccurandisprobablyanessentialanddesirableelementofhumansocieties.Manyauthorshavearguedfortheinevitabilityofwarfromthepremisethatinthestruggleforexistenceamonganimalspeciesonlythefittestsurvive.Ingeneralhoweverthisstruggleinnatureiscompetitionnotconflict.Socialanimalssuchasmonkeysandcattlefighttowinormaintainleadershipofthegroup.Thestruggleforexistenceoccursnotinsuchfightsbutinthecompetitionforlimitedfeedingareasandforoccupancyofareasfreefrommeat-eatinganimals.Thosewhofailinthiscompetitionstarvetodeathorbecomevictimstootherspecies.Thisstruggleforexistencedoesnotresemblehumanwarbutratherthecompetitionofindividualsforjobsmarketsandmaterials.Theessenceofthestruggleisthecompetitionforthenecessitiesoflifethatareinsufficienttosatisfyall.Amongnationsthereiscompetitionindevelopingresourcestradesskillsandasatisfactorywayoflife.Thesuccessfulnationsgrowandprosper;theunsuccessfuldecline.Whileitistruethatthiscompetitionmayinduceeffortstoexpandterritoryattheexpenseofothersandthusleadtoconflictitcannotbesaidthatwar-likeconflictamongnationsisinevitablealthoughcompetitionis.Accordingtotheauthorcompetitiondiffersfromconflictinthat______.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 7
C.P.Snowoncesaid:"Asenseofthefutureisbehindallgoodpolicies.Unlesswehaveitwecangivenothingeitherwiseordecenttotheworld."Thinkingcarefullyaboutanoutcomeisanintelligentfirststepinmanyprocessesespeciallywhenthestakesarehighpossiblyevendangerous.DoyouhaveanyexperienceingettingoutofhazardoussituationsInthemostexceptionalcircumstancesafewgoodrulesofthumbmaysaveyou.Herearefivethingstokeepinmind. 41.Staycalm Ifacatastrophethreatensyourlifepanicwillonlymakemattersworse.Nothingbutcalmnesscanhelpyouadequatelytakestockofthesituationandtakeappropriatemeasures. 42.Remainconfident Desperationcanparalyzeyouorsapyourenergywhileconfidenceisthekeytosavingyourself. 43.Helpeachother Youshouldorganizeformutualassistanceincaseofanearthquakefloodfireetc.Peopleworkingtogethercanalwayscopemoresuccessfullywithanyadversesituation.Solidaritymeansstrength;solidaritymeansvictory. 44.Beobedienttosuperiors Thebeststrategywhenfacingacatastropheistoobeycommandsandkeeporder.Moreoftenthannotleadersareexpertsorsomeonefamiliarwiththesituationorwithrichexperience.Beingtooindividualisticandgoingyourownwaywillusuallymakethesituationworseforyouandothers.Sothebestthingtodoistolistentoauthoritiesandremainorderly. 45.Communicate Whenindangeritisbesttoseekhelpimmediatelysothosewithmoreresourcescancometoyouraid.Ifyouareatriskusewhatevermeansavailableassoonaspossibletocontactothersforhelpandtakeeffortstomaintaincommunicationonceitisestablished. Whileeverycatastropheisdifferentinitsownwayallcanbemetandhopefullyovercomewiththeabove-mentionedpiecesofadvice.Bycarefullyconsideringwhatneedstobedoneevenundertheworstofsituationsonecanfindsolutionsorendureuntilaidedbyothers. [A]Apersontrappedinruinsinanearthquakedidn’tlosehope.Thevictimovercamehispainanddespairandkeptbangingoutsignalsonthefallenwallaroundhimforhelp.Becauseofhiseffortsarescueteamwasabletofindhimandsavehislife. [B]Forexampleifnumerouspeopleareinvolvedinadangeroussituationsomeoutoffearorinclinationmaynotfollowdirectionorheedsoundadvice.Asaresultofthedisorderrescueeffortsarehinderedorworsemorecasualtiesareincurred. [C]NinefishermenfromPeruwerehitbyaseverestormbuttheydidn’tpaniceventhoughtheirboatwasdamagedsobadlythattheycouldn’tsailhome.Theymaintainedfaiththattheywouldsurelytobesavedandtheirbeliefgavethemstrength.Whenthereishopethereisaway!Theysurvivedatseafor40daysbeforetheywerefinallyrescued.Theirstoryisagoodsampleforfuturepeoplelostatsea.Itisbesttoremembertheproverb:Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves. [D]Historyshowsthatwhenpeopleareindangermutualassistancepromotesconfidenceandreassuringothersnotonlyhelpsthembutcancalmyouaswell.Helpingothersisbeneficialespeciallyinthedirestcircumstances.DuringtheSept.11attacksinAmericapeoplepulledtogetherandsupportedeachother.Thisnotonlyreducedcasualtiesbutalsoleftadeepimpressiononpeoplearoundworld.Rememberhelpingothersishelpingyourself! [E]TheApollo13spacemissionsufferedcatastrophicmechanicalproblemsenroutetotheMoon.ItsmalfunctionwascausedbyanexplosionandruptureofoxygentankNo.2intheservicemodule.TheNASAMissionControlCenterimmediatelyissuedtwoorders.Thesecondorderwasconcerningnavigation.ButcanyouguesswhatthefirstorderwasUnbelievablytheastronautsweretoldtotaketwotranquillizerpillseach!Asaresultcalmnesshelpedtheastronautsovercomeaseriesofdifficultiesandreturntoearth.Calmnesscanworkmiraclesintimesofemergency. [F]Thebestwaytopreventacatastrophefromhappeningisplanningahead.Youshouldoftencheckyourcircuitsstoveselectricalappliancesandgaspipelines.Beforesleepinginahotelyoushouldbeawareofthenearestexitincaseofanemergency."Preparationaversperil." 45
TodayAmericanshavedifferenteatinghabitsthaninthepast.Thereisawideselectionoffoodavailable.Theyhaveabroaderknowledgeofnutritionsotheybuymorefleshfruitandvegetablesthaneverbefore.AtthesametimeAmericanspurchaseincreasingquantitiesofsweetssnacksandsodas.Statisticsshowthatthewaypeoplelivedeterminesthewaytheyeat.Americanlifestyleshavechanged.Theynowincludegrowingnumbersofpeoplewholivealonesingleparentsandchildrenanddouble-incomefamilies.Thesechanginglifestylesareresponsiblefortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhomustrashmealsorsometimesskipthemaltogether.ManyAmericanshavelesstimethaneverbeforetospendpreparingfood.Partlyasaconsequenceofthislimitedtime60percentofallAmericanhomesnowhavemicrowaveovens.MoreoverAmericanseatoutnearlyfourtimesaweekontheaverage.Itiseasytostudytheamountsandkindsoffoodthatpeopleconsume.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSDAandthefoodindustry-growersprocessorsmarketersandrestaurantmanagerscompilesalesstatisticsandkeepaccuraterecords.Thisinformationnotonlytellsuswhatpeopleareeatingbutalsotellsusaboutthechangesinattitudesandtastes.RedmeatwhichusedtobethemostpopularchoicefordinnerisnolongeranAmericanfavorite.Insteadchickensturkeyandfishhavebecomemorepopular.Salesofthesefoodshavegreatlyincreasedinrecentyears.Thisisprobablyaresultoftheawarenessofthedangersofeatingfoodwhichcontainshighlevelsofcholesteroloranimalfat.Doctorsbelievethatcholesterolisathreattohumanhealth.AccordingtoarecentsurveyAmericansalsochangetheireatingpatternstomeettheneedsofdifferentsituations.Theyhavecertainideasaboutwhichfoodswillincreasetheirathleticabilityhelpthemloseweightmakethemalertforbusinessmeetingsorputtheminthemoodforromance.ForexampleAmericanschoosepastafruitandvegetableswhichsupplythemwithcarbohydratestogivethemstrengthforphysicalactivitysuchassports.Adultschoosefoodrichinfibersuchasbreadandcerealforbreakfastandsaladsforlunchtopreparethemforbusinessappointment.ForromanticdinnershoweverAmericanschooseshrimpandlobster.Whilemanyoftheseideasarebasedonnutritionalfactssomearenot.Americans’awarenessofnutritionalongwiththeirchangingtastesandneedsleadsthemtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoods—foodsforhealthforfunandsimplyforgoodtaste.WhichofthefollowingisTRUEaccordingtothetext
46Theclimaticphenomenonthatisbeingblamedforfloodshurricanesandearlysnowstormsalsodeservescreditforencouragingplantgrowthandhelpingtocontrolthepollutantlinkedtoglobalwarminganewstudyshows. E1Nino—theperiodicwarmingofeasternPacificOceanwaters—causesaburstofplantgrowththroughouttheworldandthisremovescarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereresearchershavefound. 47ThenewstudyshowsthatnaturalweathereventssuchasthebriefwarmingcausedbyE1Ninohaveamuchmoredramaticeffectthanpreviouslybelievedonhowmuchcarbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandhowmuchofthegasisexpelledbythesoil. AtmosphericcarbondioxideorCO2hasbeenincreasingsteadilyfordecades.Thisisthoughttobecausedbyanexpandeduseoffossilfuelsandbytopplingoftropicalforests.ScientistshavelinkedtheCO2risetoglobalwarmingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect.48Alarmednationsoftheworldnowaredrawingupnewconservationpoliciestoreducefossilfuelburninginhopesofreducinggreenhousegasesintheatmosphere. ButDavidSchimeloftheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearchaco-authorofthenewstudysaysthatbeforedetermininghowmuchtoreducefossilfuelburningweshouldconsidertheeffectsofnaturalclimatevariationsontheabilityofplantstoabsorbCO2. SchimelsaidsatellitemeasurementsofCO2plantgrowthandtemperatureshowthatnaturalwarmingeventssuchasE1NinoatfirstcausemoreCO2tobereleasedintotheatmosphereprobablyastheresultofaccelerateddecayofdeadplantmatterinthesoil.Butlaterwithintwoyearsthereisanexplosionofgrowthinforestsandgrasslandswhichmeansplantssuckmorecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere. "WethinkthatthereisadelayedresponseinvegetationandsoiltothewarmingeffectsofsuchphenomenaasE1Ninoandthisleadstoincreasedplantgrowth"saidSchimel. 49HoweverhesaiditisnotclearwhetherthewarmingbyE1NinocausesanetdecreaseinthebuildupofCO2overthelonghaul."Wedon’treallyknowthatyet"saidSchimel.WhatthestudydoesshowhoweveristhattheriseandfallofCO2intheatmosphereisstronglyinfluencedbynaturalchangesinglobaltemperaturesaidB.H.BraswelloftheUniversityofNewHampshireanotherco-authorofthestudy. Braswellsaidthatinyearswhentheglobalweatheriscoolerthannormalthereisadecreaseinboththedecayofdeadplantsandinnewplantgrowth.ThiscausesaneffectthatistheoppositeofE1Ninowarming:CO2atmospherelevelsfirstdeclineandlaterincrease. 50"Ithinkwehavedemonstratedthattheecosystemhasalotmoretodowithclimatechangethanwaspreviouslybelieved"saidBraswell"Focusingontheroleofhumanactivityinclimatechangeisimportantbutmanmadefactorsarenottheonlyfactors./ 47
Directions:Yourecentlyboughtanitemofclothinginanothertownbutfoundsomeproblemswithitafteryoureturnedhome.Writealettertothemanagerandsay·whathappened·whattheproblemsare·whatyouwouldlikethemtodo.Writeyourletterinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter;useLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
TodayAmericanshavedifferenteatinghabitsthaninthepast.Thereisawideselectionoffoodavailable.Theyhaveabroaderknowledgeofnutritionsotheybuymorefleshfruitandvegetablesthaneverbefore.AtthesametimeAmericanspurchaseincreasingquantitiesofsweetssnacksandsodas.Statisticsshowthatthewaypeoplelivedeterminesthewaytheyeat.Americanlifestyleshavechanged.Theynowincludegrowingnumbersofpeoplewholivealonesingleparentsandchildrenanddouble-incomefamilies.Thesechanginglifestylesareresponsiblefortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhomustrashmealsorsometimesskipthemaltogether.ManyAmericanshavelesstimethaneverbeforetospendpreparingfood.Partlyasaconsequenceofthislimitedtime60percentofallAmericanhomesnowhavemicrowaveovens.MoreoverAmericanseatoutnearlyfourtimesaweekontheaverage.Itiseasytostudytheamountsandkindsoffoodthatpeopleconsume.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSDAandthefoodindustry-growersprocessorsmarketersandrestaurantmanagerscompilesalesstatisticsandkeepaccuraterecords.Thisinformationnotonlytellsuswhatpeopleareeatingbutalsotellsusaboutthechangesinattitudesandtastes.RedmeatwhichusedtobethemostpopularchoicefordinnerisnolongeranAmericanfavorite.Insteadchickensturkeyandfishhavebecomemorepopular.Salesofthesefoodshavegreatlyincreasedinrecentyears.Thisisprobablyaresultoftheawarenessofthedangersofeatingfoodwhichcontainshighlevelsofcholesteroloranimalfat.Doctorsbelievethatcholesterolisathreattohumanhealth.AccordingtoarecentsurveyAmericansalsochangetheireatingpatternstomeettheneedsofdifferentsituations.Theyhavecertainideasaboutwhichfoodswillincreasetheirathleticabilityhelpthemloseweightmakethemalertforbusinessmeetingsorputtheminthemoodforromance.ForexampleAmericanschoosepastafruitandvegetableswhichsupplythemwithcarbohydratestogivethemstrengthforphysicalactivitysuchassports.Adultschoosefoodrichinfibersuchasbreadandcerealforbreakfastandsaladsforlunchtopreparethemforbusinessappointment.ForromanticdinnershoweverAmericanschooseshrimpandlobster.Whilemanyoftheseideasarebasedonnutritionalfactssomearenot.Americans’awarenessofnutritionalongwiththeirchangingtastesandneedsleadsthemtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoods—foodsforhealthforfunandsimplyforgoodtaste.Americanshavereducedtheireatingofredmeatwithanaimto______.
HowefficientisoursystemofcriminaltrialDoesitreallydothebasicjobweaskofit—convictingtheguiltyandacquiringtheinnocentItisoftensaidthattheBritishtrailsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Thelawyersoneachsidearesoengrossedinplayinghardtowinchallengingeachotherandthejudgeontechnicalpointsthattheobjectoffindingoutthetruthisalmostforgotten.Alltheeffortisconcentratedonthebigdayonthedramaticcrossexaminationofthekeywitnessesinfrontofthejury.Criticsliketocompareouradversarialsystemresemblingtwoadversariesengagedinacontestwiththecontinentalinquisitorialsystemunderwhichthejudgeplaysamoreimportantinquiringrole.InearlytimesintheMiddleAgesthesystemsoftrialacrossEuropeweresimilar.Atthattimetrialbyordeal—especiallyareligiousevent—wasthemainwayoftestingguiltorinnocence.Whenthiswayeventuallyabandonedthetwosystemspartedcompany.Onthecontinentchurch-trainedlegalofficialstookoverthefunctionofbothprosecutingandjudgingwhileinEnglandthesewerelargelylefttolaypeopletheJusticeofthePeaceandthismeantthatalltheevidencehadtobeputtothemorally.Thishistoricalaccidentdominatesprocedureeventodaywithallevidencebeinggiveninopencourtbywordofmouthonthecrucialday.OntheotherhandinFranceforinstancealltheevidenceiswrittenbeforethetrialundersupervisionbyaninvestigatingjudge.Thisexhaustivepretriallooksveryundramatic;muchofitisjustapubliccheckingofthewrittenrecordsalreadygathered.TheAmericansadoptedtheBritishsystemlockstockandbarrelandenshrineditintheirconstitution.Butwhilethebasicfeaturesofoursystemsarecommontherearenowsignificantdifferencesinthewayseriouscasesarehandled.FirstbecausetheU.S.A.hasvirtuallynocontemptofcourtlawstopreventpretrialpublicityinthenewspaperandontelevisionAmericanslawyersareallowedtoquestionjurorsaboutknowledgeandbeliefs.InBritainthisisvirtuallyneverallowedandarandomselectionofjurorswhoarepresumednottobeprejudicedareempanelled.SecondlythereisnoseparateprofessionofbarristerintheUnitedStatesandbothprosecutionanddefenselawyerswhoaretopresentcasesincourtpreparethemselves.Theygooutandvisitthescenetrackdownandinterviewwitnessesandfamiliarizethemselvespersonallywiththebackground.InBritainitisthesolicitorwhopreparesthecaseandthebarristerwhoappearsincourtisnotevenallowedtomeetwitnessbeforehand.Britishbarristersalsoalternatedoingbothprosecutionanddefensework.Beingkeptdistantfromthepreparationandregularlyappearingforbothsidesbarristersaresaidtoavoidbecomingtoopersonallyinvolvedandcanapproachcasesmoredispassionately.Americanlawyershoweveroftenknowtheircasesbetter.Reformersrightlywanttolearnfromothercountries’mistakesandsuccesses.Butwhatisclearisthatjusticesystemslargelybecausetheyaretheresultoflonghistoricalgrowtharepeculiarlydifficulttoadaptpiecemeal.InBritainnewspapers______.
[A]Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedthemorboughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutility:itaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproductionwhichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporationsaswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingapore.Anothertypeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarkettheymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservicessuchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblem.Thusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketingbuttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproductorwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleorspecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshipofbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelsasbulkfreightbutfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationorcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruckthismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiredquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgood.Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct.Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced. Order: 41.______→D→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→A 41
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 5
Manyparentscomplainthattheirteenagechildrenarerebelling.Theygreettheirchildren’steenagewithneedlessdread.Whileteenagersmayassaultuswithheavy-metalmusicwearstrangeclotheshavestrangehairstylesandspendalltheirtimedatingormeetingfriendssuchbehaviorscarcelyaddsuptofull-scalerevolt.Takeagoodlookatthepresentrebellion.Itseemsthatteenagersarealltakingthesamewayofshowingthattheydisagreewiththeirparents.Insteadofstrikingoutboldlyontheirwingsmostofthemareclutchingatoneanother’shandsforreassurance.Theirreasonforthinkingoractinginthus-and-suchawayisthatthecrowdisdoingit.Ithasbecomeharderandharderforateenagertostandupagainstthepopularitywaveandtogohisorherownway.Theyhavecomeoutoftheircocoon—intoalargercocoon.TeenagerebellionaccordingtopsychologistLaurenceSteinbergcoauthorofYouandYourAdolescenthasbeengreatlyoverstated.Manyotherpsychologistsagree.Theideathatteenagersinevitablyrebelisamyththathasthepotentialforgreatfamilyharm.Thisnotioncandamagecommunicationduringthiscriticaltimeforparentstoinfluenceyoungsters.Stilladolescenceisoftenatryingtimeoftransitionforchildandparent.Teenagersneedtoestablishthemselvesasindividuals—intheirownmindsandintheeyesofothers.Thissearchisn’taboutrebellion:it’saboutbecomingapersonofone’sown.TeenagersoughttobegrowingawayfromtheirparentsandlearningtostandontheirowntwofeetsaysSteinberg.Hereisonewayparentscanhelp:don’tstereotype.ParentswhoexpectteenagerebellionmayactuallystiritupsaysKennethI.Howardamemberofaresearchteamthatcollectedsurveydataonmorethan20000teenagersovera28-yearperiod.Howardcautionsparentsnottoresorttosuppressionatthefirstsightofadolescentindependencefearfulthatgivinginevenslightlynowmeansdrugscannotbefarbehind.Whenparentsoverreactteenagersassertthemselvesmoreparentsclampdownharderandafull-scaleblowupresults.Infactpsychologistssaythatthereisnoinevitablepatterntoteenagebehaviorandnosuchcreatureasatypicalteenager.Yourteenagerisnowlargerstrongerolderandsmarterthanbeforewithanadditionalsupplyofhormoneragingthroughthebloodstream.Butheorsheisstillthesamehumanbeingyouhavelivedwithsincebirth.Givenachanceyoursonordaughterwillcontinuetobehaveinwaysyouhaveestablished.OverstatingteenagerebellionwillleadtothefollowingconsequencesEXCEPT______.
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 9
Thequestionofwhetherwarisinevitableisonewhichhasconcernedmanyoftheworld’sgreatwriters.Beforeconsideringthisquestionitwillbeusefultointroducesomerelatedconcepts.Conflictdefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesdirectedagainstoneanotherisdistinguishedfromcompetitiondefinedasoppositionamongsocialentitiesindependentlystrivingforsomethingwhichisininadequatesupply.Competitorsmaynotbeawareofoneanotherwhilethepartiestoaconflictare.Conflictandcompetitionarebothcategoriesofoppositionwhichhasbeendefinedasaprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctioninthedisserviceofoneanother.Oppositionisthuscontrastedwithcooperationtheprocessbywhichsocialentitiesfunctionintheserviceofoneanother.Thesedefinitionsarenecessarybecauseitisimportanttoemphasizethatcompetitionbetweenindividualsorgroupsisinevitableinaworldoflimitedresourcesbutconflictisnot.Conflictneverthelessisverylikelytooccurandisprobablyanessentialanddesirableelementofhumansocieties.Manyauthorshavearguedfortheinevitabilityofwarfromthepremisethatinthestruggleforexistenceamonganimalspeciesonlythefittestsurvive.Ingeneralhoweverthisstruggleinnatureiscompetitionnotconflict.Socialanimalssuchasmonkeysandcattlefighttowinormaintainleadershipofthegroup.Thestruggleforexistenceoccursnotinsuchfightsbutinthecompetitionforlimitedfeedingareasandforoccupancyofareasfreefrommeat-eatinganimals.Thosewhofailinthiscompetitionstarvetodeathorbecomevictimstootherspecies.Thisstruggleforexistencedoesnotresemblehumanwarbutratherthecompetitionofindividualsforjobsmarketsandmaterials.Theessenceofthestruggleisthecompetitionforthenecessitiesoflifethatareinsufficienttosatisfyall.Amongnationsthereiscompetitionindevelopingresourcestradesskillsandasatisfactorywayoflife.Thesuccessfulnationsgrowandprosper;theunsuccessfuldecline.Whileitistruethatthiscompetitionmayinduceeffortstoexpandterritoryattheexpenseofothersandthusleadtoconflictitcannotbesaidthatwar-likeconflictamongnationsisinevitablealthoughcompetitionis.Theauthorindicatesinthepassagethatconflict______.
[A]Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedthemorboughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutility:itaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproductionwhichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporationsaswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingapore.Anothertypeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarkettheymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservicessuchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblem.Thusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketingbuttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproductorwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleorspecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshipofbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelsasbulkfreightbutfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationorcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruckthismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiredquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgood.Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct.Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced. Order: 41.______→D→42.______→43.______→44.______→45.______→A 43
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 17
46Theclimaticphenomenonthatisbeingblamedforfloodshurricanesandearlysnowstormsalsodeservescreditforencouragingplantgrowthandhelpingtocontrolthepollutantlinkedtoglobalwarminganewstudyshows. E1Nino—theperiodicwarmingofeasternPacificOceanwaters—causesaburstofplantgrowththroughouttheworldandthisremovescarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereresearchershavefound. 47ThenewstudyshowsthatnaturalweathereventssuchasthebriefwarmingcausedbyE1Ninohaveamuchmoredramaticeffectthanpreviouslybelievedonhowmuchcarbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandhowmuchofthegasisexpelledbythesoil. AtmosphericcarbondioxideorCO2hasbeenincreasingsteadilyfordecades.Thisisthoughttobecausedbyanexpandeduseoffossilfuelsandbytopplingoftropicalforests.ScientistshavelinkedtheCO2risetoglobalwarmingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect.48Alarmednationsoftheworldnowaredrawingupnewconservationpoliciestoreducefossilfuelburninginhopesofreducinggreenhousegasesintheatmosphere. ButDavidSchimeloftheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearchaco-authorofthenewstudysaysthatbeforedetermininghowmuchtoreducefossilfuelburningweshouldconsidertheeffectsofnaturalclimatevariationsontheabilityofplantstoabsorbCO2. SchimelsaidsatellitemeasurementsofCO2plantgrowthandtemperatureshowthatnaturalwarmingeventssuchasE1NinoatfirstcausemoreCO2tobereleasedintotheatmosphereprobablyastheresultofaccelerateddecayofdeadplantmatterinthesoil.Butlaterwithintwoyearsthereisanexplosionofgrowthinforestsandgrasslandswhichmeansplantssuckmorecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere. "WethinkthatthereisadelayedresponseinvegetationandsoiltothewarmingeffectsofsuchphenomenaasE1Ninoandthisleadstoincreasedplantgrowth"saidSchimel. 49HoweverhesaiditisnotclearwhetherthewarmingbyE1NinocausesanetdecreaseinthebuildupofCO2overthelonghaul."Wedon’treallyknowthatyet"saidSchimel.WhatthestudydoesshowhoweveristhattheriseandfallofCO2intheatmosphereisstronglyinfluencedbynaturalchangesinglobaltemperaturesaidB.H.BraswelloftheUniversityofNewHampshireanotherco-authorofthestudy. Braswellsaidthatinyearswhentheglobalweatheriscoolerthannormalthereisadecreaseinboththedecayofdeadplantsandinnewplantgrowth.ThiscausesaneffectthatistheoppositeofE1Ninowarming:CO2atmospherelevelsfirstdeclineandlaterincrease. 50"Ithinkwehavedemonstratedthattheecosystemhasalotmoretodowithclimatechangethanwaspreviouslybelieved"saidBraswell"Focusingontheroleofhumanactivityinclimatechangeisimportantbutmanmadefactorsarenottheonlyfactors./ 49
HowefficientisoursystemofcriminaltrialDoesitreallydothebasicjobweaskofit—convictingtheguiltyandacquiringtheinnocentItisoftensaidthattheBritishtrailsystemismorelikeagamethanaseriousattempttodojustice.Thelawyersoneachsidearesoengrossedinplayinghardtowinchallengingeachotherandthejudgeontechnicalpointsthattheobjectoffindingoutthetruthisalmostforgotten.Alltheeffortisconcentratedonthebigdayonthedramaticcrossexaminationofthekeywitnessesinfrontofthejury.Criticsliketocompareouradversarialsystemresemblingtwoadversariesengagedinacontestwiththecontinentalinquisitorialsystemunderwhichthejudgeplaysamoreimportantinquiringrole.InearlytimesintheMiddleAgesthesystemsoftrialacrossEuropeweresimilar.Atthattimetrialbyordeal—especiallyareligiousevent—wasthemainwayoftestingguiltorinnocence.Whenthiswayeventuallyabandonedthetwosystemspartedcompany.Onthecontinentchurch-trainedlegalofficialstookoverthefunctionofbothprosecutingandjudgingwhileinEnglandthesewerelargelylefttolaypeopletheJusticeofthePeaceandthismeantthatalltheevidencehadtobeputtothemorally.Thishistoricalaccidentdominatesprocedureeventodaywithallevidencebeinggiveninopencourtbywordofmouthonthecrucialday.OntheotherhandinFranceforinstancealltheevidenceiswrittenbeforethetrialundersupervisionbyaninvestigatingjudge.Thisexhaustivepretriallooksveryundramatic;muchofitisjustapubliccheckingofthewrittenrecordsalreadygathered.TheAmericansadoptedtheBritishsystemlockstockandbarrelandenshrineditintheirconstitution.Butwhilethebasicfeaturesofoursystemsarecommontherearenowsignificantdifferencesinthewayseriouscasesarehandled.FirstbecausetheU.S.A.hasvirtuallynocontemptofcourtlawstopreventpretrialpublicityinthenewspaperandontelevisionAmericanslawyersareallowedtoquestionjurorsaboutknowledgeandbeliefs.InBritainthisisvirtuallyneverallowedandarandomselectionofjurorswhoarepresumednottobeprejudicedareempanelled.SecondlythereisnoseparateprofessionofbarristerintheUnitedStatesandbothprosecutionanddefenselawyerswhoaretopresentcasesincourtpreparethemselves.Theygooutandvisitthescenetrackdownandinterviewwitnessesandfamiliarizethemselvespersonallywiththebackground.InBritainitisthesolicitorwhopreparesthecaseandthebarristerwhoappearsincourtisnotevenallowedtomeetwitnessbeforehand.Britishbarristersalsoalternatedoingbothprosecutionanddefensework.Beingkeptdistantfromthepreparationandregularlyappearingforbothsidesbarristersaresaidtoavoidbecomingtoopersonallyinvolvedandcanapproachcasesmoredispassionately.Americanlawyershoweveroftenknowtheircasesbetter.Reformersrightlywanttolearnfromothercountries’mistakesandsuccesses.Butwhatisclearisthatjusticesystemslargelybecausetheyaretheresultoflonghistoricalgrowtharepeculiarlydifficulttoadaptpiecemeal.Thepassage______.
Directions:ReadthefollowingChinesetextandwriteanabstractofitin80-100EnglishwordsonANSWERSHEET2.健康从早餐开始很多人不重视早餐常常是随便凑合一下或者干脆不吃其实早餐对保障人体健康维持体能提高学习和工作效率有着至关重要的作用不仅如此专家还认为应根据人的不同年龄和体质状况科学合理地搭配早餐以满足人体健康的需要幼儿的早餐幼儿正值生长发育的旺盛时期应当注意补充丰富的蛋白质和钙calcium尽量少吃含糖较高的食物以免引起龋齿decayedtooth和肥胖如果在条件许可的情况下幼儿的早餐通常以适量的牛奶鸡蛋和面包为为佳当然也可以用果汁或粥代替牛奶或者用饼干馒头代替面包青少年的早餐青少年时期身体发育较快是肌肉和骨骼生长的重要时期需要足够的钙维生素C维生素A等营养成分尤其是要保证充足的热量供应青少年比较合理的早餐是一杯牛奶适量的新鲜水果或蔬菜100克干点[面包馒头大饼或饼干等含碳水化合物carbohydrate较高的食品]所含的热量要充分满足青少年脑力活动与体力活动的需要中年人的早餐人到中年肩挑工作家务两副重担身心的负荷相当重加上中年时期组织器官的功能和生理功能日渐减退其体力和精力都不如青少年为了减缓中年人衰退的过程推迟老年期的来到除了要保持乐观的思想情绪和进行必要的体育锻炼之外合理地搭配膳食也非常重要中年人的饮食既要含有丰富的蛋白质维生素钙磷phosphorus等还应保证低热量低脂肪并适当地控制碳水化合物的摄入量中年人较理想的早餐是鸡蛋豆浆或粥干点馒头大饼饼干和面包均可和适量的蔬菜老年人的早餐老年人的新陈代谢metabolism已经明显衰退但必需的营养成分不能减少尤其是要保证钙的供应以防止老年人的骨质疏松osteoporosis老年人的早餐除了要有牛奶和豆浆以外还可多吃粥面条肉松和花生酱等既容易消化又含有丰富营养的食物除此之外老年人在早餐时应注意少吃油炸类食品因为这类食物脂肪含量较高胃肠一般难以承受容易出现消化不良并易诱发胆胰疾患或使这类疾病复发加重多次使用的油里往往含有较多的致癌物质如果常吃油炸的食品可增加患癌症的危险老年人还要少吃甜食因为多余的糖在体内转化为脂肪容易引起无机盐缺乏动物内脏类如肝肾脑等胆固醇cholesterol含量甚高老年人如经常食用会使血中胆固醇增高从而容易引发冠心病动脉硬化高血压等心脑血管疾病或使原有的疾病加重
WhatdoyouthinkofAmericanhealthcaresystemMostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Totheproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Totheprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—alargenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandoistopay17.Twothirdsofthepopulationare18bymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent—abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 11
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