首页
试卷库
试题库
当前位置：
X题卡
>
所有题目
>
题目详情
内隐记忆
查看本题答案
包含此试题的试卷
国家统考科目《问答集》真题及答案
点击查看
你可能感兴趣的试题
试论外显记忆与内隐记忆的主要区别
材料呈现方式对内隐记忆和外显记忆的影响一文标题显示作为自变量的是
材料性质
材料数量
材料呈现方式
内隐记忆和外显记忆
什么是内隐记忆研究内隐记忆有什么意义
内隐记忆与外显记忆本质区别是
在识记阶段，内隐记忆有意识参与，外显记忆无意识参与
在识记阶段，内隐记忆无意识参与，外显记忆有意识参与
在提取阶段，内隐记忆无意识参与，外显记忆有意识参与
在提取阶段，内隐记忆有意识参与，外显记忆无意识参与
以上均是
依据记忆的性质表现形式记忆可以分为
形象记忆和动作记忆
情绪记忆和语词逻辑记忆
外显记忆和内隐记忆
短时记忆和长时记忆
形象记忆和内隐记忆
考试测试的记忆属于
外显记忆
内隐记忆
外显记忆和内隐记忆
都不是
简要说明内隐记忆的特点你认为研究内隐记忆有什么重要意义
内隐记忆指暗含或隐含的没有清楚阐述或者用语言表述出来的记忆内隐记忆通过人们所做的事情显示出来而不是被
骑自行车
习惯性的走进教室
小李说他还记得那场大雨
拨打手机
内隐记忆与外显记忆本质区别是
在提取阶段，内隐记忆无意识参与，外显记忆有意识参与
在识记阶段，内隐记忆有意识参与，外显记忆无意识参与
在识记阶段，内隐记忆无意识参与，外显记忆有意识参与
在提取阶段，内隐记忆有意识参与，外显记忆无意识参与
以上均是
全身麻醉意识消失顺序
外显记忆、内隐记忆、指令反应
指令反应、内隐记忆、外显记忆
外显记忆、指令反应、内隐记忆
内隐记忆、外显记忆、指令反应
内隐记忆、指令反应、外显记忆
全身麻醉意识消失顺序
指令反应,内隐记忆,外显记忆
外显记忆,指令反应,内隐记忆
外显记忆,内隐记忆,指令反应
内隐记忆,外显记忆,指令反应
内隐记忆,指令反应,外显记忆
热门试题
更多
Text1OfallthechangesthathavetakenplaceinEnglish-languagenewspapersduringthepastquarter-centuryperhapsthemostfar-reachinghasbeentheinexorabledeclineinthescopeandseriousnessoftheirartscoverage.Notonlyhavemanynewspapersdoneawaywiththeirbook-reviewsectionsbutseveralmajorpapersincludingtheChicagoSun-TimesandtheMinneapolisStar-Tribunenolongeremployfull-timeclassical-musiccritics.Eventhosepapersthatcontinuetoreviewfine-artseventsaredevotinglessspacetothemwhilethe“thinkpieces”onculturalsubjectsthatoncegracedthepagesofbig-citySundaypapersarebecomingathingofthepast.ItisIsuspectdifficulttothepointofimpossibilityfortheaveragereaderundertheageoffortytoimagineatimewhenhigh-qualityartscriticismcouldbefoundinmostbig-citynewspapers.Yetaconsiderablenumberofthemostsignificantcollectionsofcriticismpublishedinthe20thcenturyincludingVirgilThomson’sTheMusicalScene1945EdwinDenby’sLookingattheDance1949KennethTynan’sCurtains1961andHiltonKramer’sTheAgeoftheAvant-Garde1973consistedinlargepartofnewspaperreviews.Toreadsuchbookstodayistomarvelatthefactthattheireruditecontentswereoncedeemedsuitableforpublicationingeneral-circulationdailies.WeareevenfartherremovedfromthediscursivenewspaperreviewspublishedinEnglandbetweentheturnofthe20thcenturyandtheeveofWorldWarIIatatimewhennewsprintwasdirt-cheapandstylishartscriticismwasconsideredanornamenttothepublicationsinwhichitappeared.Inthosefar-offdaysitwastakenforgrantedthatthecriticsofmajorpaperswouldwriteindetailandatlengthabouttheeventstheycovered.1TheirswasaseriousbusinessandeventhosereviewerswhoworetheirlearninglightlylikeGeorgeBernardShawandErnestNewmancouldbetrustedtoknowwhattheywereabout.Thesemenfortheywereallmenbelievedinjournalismasacallingandwereproudtobepublishedinthedailypress.“Sofewauthorshavebrainsenoughorliterarygiftenoughtokeeptheirownendupinjournalism”Newmanwrote“thatIamtemptedtodefine‘journalism’as‘atermofcontemptappliedbywriterswhoarenotreadtowriterswhoare.’”WhythenarevirtuallyallofthesecriticsforgottenNevilleCarduswhowrotefortheManchesterGuardianfrom1917untilshortlybeforehisdeathin1975isnowknownsolelyasawriterofessaysonthegameofcricket.DuringhislifetimethoughhewasalsooneofEngland’sforemostclassical-musiccriticsastylistsowidelyadmiredthathisAutobiography1947becameabest-seller.Hewasknightedin1967thefirstmusiccritictobesohonored.Yetonlyoneofhisbooksisnowinprintandhisvastbodyofwritingsonmusicisunknownsavetospecialists.Howisitpossiblethatsocelebratedacriticshouldhaveslippedintonear-totalobscurity NewspaperreviewsinEnglandbeforeWorldWar2werecharacterizedby
In1924American’NationalResearchCouncilsenttoengineerstosuperviseaseriesofindustrialexperimentsatalargetelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlignting__1__workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended__2___givingtheirnametothe“Hawthorneeffect”theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery___3____tobeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.Theideaarosebecauseofthe__4____behaviorofthewomenintheHawthorneplant.Accordingto__5____oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot__6____whatwasdoneintheexperiment;___7_sometingwaschangedproductivityrose.An___8___thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe____9___toalterworkers’behavior____10____itself.Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere_11__toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore_12__thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic_13__wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting.Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmaybehaveletto__14__interpretationofwhathapped.__15___lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput__16___rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand__17__toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.__18__acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers__19__tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore__20__aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged“Hawthorneeffect”ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
[A]Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkinplacesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearacrossEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglargepeoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative. [B]RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstillleavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytriede-commercewithlimitedsuccessandexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebigprofitableopportunityintheirownbackyard:thewholesalefoodanddrinktradewhichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed. [C]WillsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarketDefinitelynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwordsitisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimatelybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold. [D]Allinallthisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailerscouldprofitablyapplytheirscaleexistinginfrastructureandprovenskillsinthemanagementofproductrangeslogisticsandmarketingintelligence.RetailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleastthatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportantdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarketsespeciallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructuresaswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichtheirparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo. [E]Despitevariationsindetailwholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—FranceGermanyItalyandSpain—aremadeoutofthesamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmom-and-popgrocerystoreswhichunlikelargeretailchainsaretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducersandfoodserviceoperatorsthatcatertoconsumerswhentheydon’teatathome.Suchfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventuresbutmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”:hotelsrestaurantsandcafes.OverallEurope’swholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarketbutthefigureswhenaddedtogethermasktwoopposingtrends. [F]Forexamplewholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFranceGermanyItalySpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000—morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreoveraverageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsolidate. [G]HowevernoneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailersandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhandforthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains. 41→42→43→44→E→45 44
Text4Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch.Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult.AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho“questionourmotives.”Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbygrouppolitelycalls“theuseofjudgmentbymanagement.”EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid“notliveinapoliticalvacuum”but“intherealword”andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules.Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains.Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityformspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. Theauthor’sattitudetowardsstandard-settersisoneof
TEXTA Intoday’ssocietywearenowseeingmorechildrenundertheageoftwelvedevelopingeatingdisorders.Itisestimatedthat40%ofnineyearoldshavealreadydietedandwearebeginningtoseefourandfiveyearoldsexpressingtheneedtodiet.It’sashamethatchildrensoyoungarebeingrobbedoftheirchildhoods.WhyisitthatsomanyyoungchildrenarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweightIfeelthefamilyenvironmenthasalottodowithitalongwiththefactthatchildrenareconstantlybeingexposedtothemessagesocietygivesabouttheimportanceofbeingthin. Childrenraisedinadysfunctionalfamilyareatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder.Inahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplacethechildmayturntoaneatingdisordertogainasenseofcontrol.Iftheycan’tcontrolwhatishappeningtotheirbodiesduringtheabusetheycancontroltheirfoodintakeortheirweight.Selfimposedstarvationmayalsobetheirwayoftryingtodisappearsotheynolongerhavetosufferthroughtheabuse. Childrenmayalsodevelopeatingdisordersasawayofdealingwiththemanyemotionsthattheyfeelespeciallyiftheyareraisedinahomethatdoesnotallowfeelingstobeexpressed.Childrenwhoarecompulsiveeatersareusuallyusingfoodtohelpthemdealwithfeelingsofangersadnesshurtlonelinessabandonmentfearandpain.Ifchildrenarenotallowedtoexpresstheiremotionstheymaybecomeemotionaleaters.Alsoifparentsaretooinvolvedintheirownproblemsthechildmayturntofoodforcomfort. Childrenareatariskfordevelopinganeatingdisorderiftheparentsthemselvesaretoopreoccupiedwithappearanceandweight.Iftheparentsareconstantlydietingandexpressingdisliketowardstheirownbodiesthechildwillreceivethemessagethatappearanceisveryimportant.Insomefamiliestheparentsmistakebabyfatforactualfatandmaytrytoimposeadietonthechild.Notonlyisthatnotrightit’scruel. Asparentsyouneedtosetagoodexampleforyourchildrenwhichmeansthatyouyourselfshouldbeinvolvedinhealthyeatingpatterns.Anotherthingtorememberaboutchildrenisthattheyeatwhentheyarehungryandtheystopwhentheyarefull.Neverforceachildtoeatiftheydon’twantto.Toomanyfamiliesstillforcechildrentoremainatthetableuntiltheyhaveeateneverythingontheirplate.Doingthatcouldcausethechildtohatemealtimesanddevelopanunhealthyattitudetowardsfood. Exerciseisalsoanimportantpartofeveryone’slifeandweneedtohelpourchildrenbecomeinvolvedinphysicalactivitywhichmeanstheparentsthemselvesshouldparticipateinhealthyexercise.Helpthechildtofindactivitiestheyenjoyandactivitiesthewholefamilycanenjoy.Theyshouldbetaughtthatphysicalactivityisimportantinmaintainingastrongandhealthybodybuttheyshouldnotbegiventhemessagethatexerciseisimportantinmaintainingaslimfigure. WhenthechildrenaredoingbodyexercisestheparentsshouldNOT________.
Text2Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshavebeengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.comreceivedoneforits“one-click”onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox.Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.courtofAppealsforthefederalcircuitsaiditwoulduseaparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis“averybigdeal”saysDennis’D.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchooloflaw.It“hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents.”Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwasthefederalcircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithis1998decisionintheso-calledstateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemerginginternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepinhtstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoveestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfilmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice.TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalcircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould”reconsider”itsstatestreetBankruling.TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbythesupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor“inventions”thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalcircuitare“reactingtotheanti_patenttrendatthesupremecourt”saysHaroleC.wegnerapartendattorneyandprofessorataeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Business-methodpatentshaverecentlyarousedconcernbecauseof
Text2Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshavebeengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.comreceivedoneforits“one-click”onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox.Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.courtofAppealsforthefederalcircuitsaiditwoulduseaparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis“averybigdeal”saysDennis’D.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchooloflaw.It“hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents.”Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwasthefederalcircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithis1998decisionintheso-calledstateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemerginginternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepinhtstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoveestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfilmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice.TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalcircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould”reconsider”itsstatestreetBankruling.TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbythesupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor“inventions”thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalcircuitare“reactingtotheanti_patenttrendatthesupremecourt”saysHaroleC.wegnerapartendattorneyandprofessorataeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Thewordabout-faceLine1Paro3mostprobablymeans
Text4Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch.Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult.AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho“questionourmotives.”Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbygrouppolitelycalls“theuseofjudgmentbymanagement.”EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid“notliveinapoliticalvacuum”but“intherealword”andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules.Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains.Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityformspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. Bankerscomplainedthattheywereforcedto
Thenationhasenteredaperiodinwhichmanyhousesaredistinguishedlessbytheirlingeringsimilaritiesthanbyhowtheydivergebothfromoneanotherandfromhomesofthepast.
Itisfoundinarecentsurveythatsexismstillhasastronginfluenceinmanyregionsintheworld.holdfast
Text2Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshavebeengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.comreceivedoneforits“one-click”onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox.Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.courtofAppealsforthefederalcircuitsaiditwoulduseaparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis“averybigdeal”saysDennis’D.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchooloflaw.It“hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents.”Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwasthefederalcircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithis1998decisionintheso-calledstateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemerginginternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepinhtstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoveestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfilmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice.TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalcircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould”reconsider”itsstatestreetBankruling.TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbythesupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor“inventions”thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalcircuitare“reactingtotheanti_patenttrendatthesupremecourt”saysHaroleC.wegnerapartendattorneyandprofessorataeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Whichofthefollowingwouldbethesubjectofthetext
Text4Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch.Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult.AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho“questionourmotives.”Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbygrouppolitelycalls“theuseofjudgmentbymanagement.”EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid“notliveinapoliticalvacuum”but“intherealword”andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules.Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains.Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityformspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. AccordingtoParagraph4McCreevyobjectstotheIASB’sattemptto
Onebasicweaknessinaconservationsystembasedwhollyoneconomicmotivesisthatmostmembersofthelandcommunityhavenoeconomicvalue.Yetthesecreaturesaremembersofthebioticcommunityandifitsstabilitydependsonitsintegritytheyareentitledtocontinuance.Whenoneofthesenoneconomiccategoriesisthreatenedandifwehappentoloveit.Weinvertexcusestogiveiteconomicimportance.Atthebeginningofcenturysongbirdsweresupposedtobedisappearing.46Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthemtheevidencehadtobeeconomicinordertobevalid.Itispainfultoreadtheseroundaboutaccountstoday.Wehavenolandethicyet47butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Aparallelsituationexistsinrespectofpredatorymammalsandfish-eatingbirds.48Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyon“worthless”species.Somespeciesoftreehavebeenreadoutofthepartybyeconomics-mindedforestersbecausetheygrowtooslowlyorhavetoolowasalevaletopayasimebercrops49InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.Tosumup:asystemofconservationbasedsolelyoneconomicself-interestishopelesslylopsided.50Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.Withouttheuneconomicpats. Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyonworthlessspecies.
Text1OfallthechangesthathavetakenplaceinEnglish-languagenewspapersduringthepastquarter-centuryperhapsthemostfar-reachinghasbeentheinexorabledeclineinthescopeandseriousnessoftheirartscoverage.Notonlyhavemanynewspapersdoneawaywiththeirbook-reviewsectionsbutseveralmajorpapersincludingtheChicagoSun-TimesandtheMinneapolisStar-Tribunenolongeremployfull-timeclassical-musiccritics.Eventhosepapersthatcontinuetoreviewfine-artseventsaredevotinglessspacetothemwhilethe“thinkpieces”onculturalsubjectsthatoncegracedthepagesofbig-citySundaypapersarebecomingathingofthepast.ItisIsuspectdifficulttothepointofimpossibilityfortheaveragereaderundertheageoffortytoimagineatimewhenhigh-qualityartscriticismcouldbefoundinmostbig-citynewspapers.Yetaconsiderablenumberofthemostsignificantcollectionsofcriticismpublishedinthe20thcenturyincludingVirgilThomson’sTheMusicalScene1945EdwinDenby’sLookingattheDance1949KennethTynan’sCurtains1961andHiltonKramer’sTheAgeoftheAvant-Garde1973consistedinlargepartofnewspaperreviews.Toreadsuchbookstodayistomarvelatthefactthattheireruditecontentswereoncedeemedsuitableforpublicationingeneral-circulationdailies.WeareevenfartherremovedfromthediscursivenewspaperreviewspublishedinEnglandbetweentheturnofthe20thcenturyandtheeveofWorldWarIIatatimewhennewsprintwasdirt-cheapandstylishartscriticismwasconsideredanornamenttothepublicationsinwhichitappeared.Inthosefar-offdaysitwastakenforgrantedthatthecriticsofmajorpaperswouldwriteindetailandatlengthabouttheeventstheycovered.1TheirswasaseriousbusinessandeventhosereviewerswhoworetheirlearninglightlylikeGeorgeBernardShawandErnestNewmancouldbetrustedtoknowwhattheywereabout.Thesemenfortheywereallmenbelievedinjournalismasacallingandwereproudtobepublishedinthedailypress.“Sofewauthorshavebrainsenoughorliterarygiftenoughtokeeptheirownendupinjournalism”Newmanwrote“thatIamtemptedtodefine‘journalism’as‘atermofcontemptappliedbywriterswhoarenotreadtowriterswhoare.’”WhythenarevirtuallyallofthesecriticsforgottenNevilleCarduswhowrotefortheManchesterGuardianfrom1917untilshortlybeforehisdeathin1975isnowknownsolelyasawriterofessaysonthegameofcricket.DuringhislifetimethoughhewasalsooneofEngland’sforemostclassical-musiccriticsastylistsowidelyadmiredthathisAutobiography1947becameabest-seller.Hewasknightedin1967thefirstmusiccritictobesohonored.Yetonlyoneofhisbooksisnowinprintandhisvastbodyofwritingsonmusicisunknownsavetospecialists.Howisitpossiblethatsocelebratedacriticshouldhaveslippedintonear-totalobscurity WhatcanbelearnedaboutCardusaccordingtothelasttwoparagraphs
Nevermindthesedaysitwasalwaysagoodthingtohaveanoverseasrelativeorfriendfallintoone’slap.
Onebasicweaknessinaconservationsystembasedwhollyoneconomicmotivesisthatmostmembersofthelandcommunityhavenoeconomicvalue.Yetthesecreaturesaremembersofthebioticcommunityandifitsstabilitydependsonitsintegritytheyareentitledtocontinuance.Whenoneofthesenoneconomiccategoriesisthreatenedandifwehappentoloveit.Weinvertexcusestogiveiteconomicimportance.Atthebeginningofcenturysongbirdsweresupposedtobedisappearing.46Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthemtheevidencehadtobeeconomicinordertobevalid.Itispainfultoreadtheseroundaboutaccountstoday.Wehavenolandethicyet47butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Aparallelsituationexistsinrespectofpredatorymammalsandfish-eatingbirds.48Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyon“worthless”species.Somespeciesoftreehavebeenreadoutofthepartybyeconomics-mindedforestersbecausetheygrowtooslowlyorhavetoolowasalevaletopayasimebercrops49InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.Tosumup:asystemofconservationbasedsolelyoneconomicself-interestishopelesslylopsided.50Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.Withouttheuneconomicpats. Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthem
TextB InrecentyearsAmericansocietyhasbecomeincreasinglydependentonitsuniversitiestofindsolutionstoitsmajorproblems.Itistheuniversitiesthathavebeenchargedwiththeprincipalresponsibilityfordevelopingtheexpertisetoplacemenonthemoon;fordealingwithoururbanproblemsandwithourdeterioratingenvironment;fordevelopingthemeanstofeedtheworld’srapidlyincreasingpopulation.Theeffortinvolvedinmeetingthesedemandspresentsitsownproblems.Inadditionthisconcentrationonthecreationofnewknowledgesignificantlyimpingesontheuniversities’effortstoperformtheirotherprincipalfunctionsthetransmissionandinterpretationofknowledge----theimpartingoftheheritageofthepastandthepreparingofthenextgenerationtocarryitforward. Withregardtothisperhapstheirmosttraditionallysanctionedtaskcollegesanduniversitiestodayfindthemselvesinaseriousbindgenerally.OntheonehandthereistheAmericancommitmententeredintoespeciallysinceWorldWarIItoprovidehighereducationforallyoungpeoplewhocanprofitfromit.Theresultofthecommitmenthasbeenadramaticriseinenrollmentsinouruniversitiescoupledwitharadicalshiftfromtheprivatetothepublicsectorofhighereducation.Ontheotherhandthereareseriousandcontinuinglimitationsontheresourcesavailableforhighereducation. Whilehighereducationhasbecomeagreatgrowthindustryitisalsosimultaneouslyatremendousdrainontheresourcesofthenation.Withthevastincreaseinenrollmentandtheshiftinprioritiesawayfromeducationinstateandfederalbudgetsthereisinmostofourpublicinstitutionsasignificantdecreaseinpercapitaoutlayfortheirstudents.Onecrucialaspectofthisdrainonresourcesliesinthepersistentshortageoftrainedfacultywhichhasledinturntoadecliningstandardofcompetenceininstruction. Intensifyingthesedifficultiesisasindicatedabovetheconcernwithresearchwithitscompetingclaimsonresourcesandtheattentionofthefaculty.Inadditionthereisastrongtendencyfortheinstitutions’organizationandfunctioningtoconformtothedemandsofresearchratherthanthoseofteaching. Accordingtotheauthor________isthemostimportantfunctionofinstitutionsofhighereducation.
TosolvethedeficitproblemthePrimeMinisterproposedataxreformbuttheParliament’sdecisiontowithdrawitssupportgreatlydiscouragedhiseffort.beadamperon
[A]Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkinplacesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearacrossEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglargepeoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative. [B]RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstillleavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytriede-commercewithlimitedsuccessandexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebigprofitableopportunityintheirownbackyard:thewholesalefoodanddrinktradewhichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed. [C]WillsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarketDefinitelynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwordsitisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimatelybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold. [D]Allinallthisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailerscouldprofitablyapplytheirscaleexistinginfrastructureandprovenskillsinthemanagementofproductrangeslogisticsandmarketingintelligence.RetailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleastthatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportantdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarketsespeciallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructuresaswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichtheirparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo. [E]Despitevariationsindetailwholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—FranceGermanyItalyandSpain—aremadeoutofthesamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmom-and-popgrocerystoreswhichunlikelargeretailchainsaretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducersandfoodserviceoperatorsthatcatertoconsumerswhentheydon’teatathome.Suchfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventuresbutmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”:hotelsrestaurantsandcafes.OverallEurope’swholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarketbutthefigureswhenaddedtogethermasktwoopposingtrends. [F]Forexamplewholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFranceGermanyItalySpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000—morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreoveraverageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsolidate. [G]HowevernoneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailersandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhandforthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains. 41→42→43→44→E→45 42
Text3InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompellingbutitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.AnecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrendsIntheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey—whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence—eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”–thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks–isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbutratherofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeopleeachofwhomadoptssayalookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocallyheorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction. Theunderlinedphrasethesepeopleinparagraph4referstotheoneswho
Thesatisfactionofkillingtimeandofaffordingsomeoutlethowevermodestforambitionbelongstomostworkandissufficienttomakeevenamanwhoseworkisdullhappierontheaveragethanamanwhohasnoworkatall.
Text3InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompellingbutitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.AnecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrendsIntheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey—whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence—eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”–thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks–isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbutratherofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeopleeachofwhomadoptssayalookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocallyheorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction. Theauthorsuggeststhatthetwo-step-flowtheory
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethedrawingbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSHWERSHEET2.20points
TEXTA Intoday’ssocietywearenowseeingmorechildrenundertheageoftwelvedevelopingeatingdisorders.Itisestimatedthat40%ofnineyearoldshavealreadydietedandwearebeginningtoseefourandfiveyearoldsexpressingtheneedtodiet.It’sashamethatchildrensoyoungarebeingrobbedoftheirchildhoods.WhyisitthatsomanyyoungchildrenarebecomingobsessedwithdietingandtheirweightIfeelthefamilyenvironmenthasalottodowithitalongwiththefactthatchildrenareconstantlybeingexposedtothemessagesocietygivesabouttheimportanceofbeingthin. Childrenraisedinadysfunctionalfamilyareatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder.Inahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplacethechildmayturntoaneatingdisordertogainasenseofcontrol.Iftheycan’tcontrolwhatishappeningtotheirbodiesduringtheabusetheycancontroltheirfoodintakeortheirweight.Selfimposedstarvationmayalsobetheirwayoftryingtodisappearsotheynolongerhavetosufferthroughtheabuse. Childrenmayalsodevelopeatingdisordersasawayofdealingwiththemanyemotionsthattheyfeelespeciallyiftheyareraisedinahomethatdoesnotallowfeelingstobeexpressed.Childrenwhoarecompulsiveeatersareusuallyusingfoodtohelpthemdealwithfeelingsofangersadnesshurtlonelinessabandonmentfearandpain.Ifchildrenarenotallowedtoexpresstheiremotionstheymaybecomeemotionaleaters.Alsoifparentsaretooinvolvedintheirownproblemsthechildmayturntofoodforcomfort. Childrenareatariskfordevelopinganeatingdisorderiftheparentsthemselvesaretoopreoccupiedwithappearanceandweight.Iftheparentsareconstantlydietingandexpressingdisliketowardstheirownbodiesthechildwillreceivethemessagethatappearanceisveryimportant.Insomefamiliestheparentsmistakebabyfatforactualfatandmaytrytoimposeadietonthechild.Notonlyisthatnotrightit’scruel. Asparentsyouneedtosetagoodexampleforyourchildrenwhichmeansthatyouyourselfshouldbeinvolvedinhealthyeatingpatterns.Anotherthingtorememberaboutchildrenisthattheyeatwhentheyarehungryandtheystopwhentheyarefull.Neverforceachildtoeatiftheydon’twantto.Toomanyfamiliesstillforcechildrentoremainatthetableuntiltheyhaveeateneverythingontheirplate.Doingthatcouldcausethechildtohatemealtimesanddevelopanunhealthyattitudetowardsfood. Exerciseisalsoanimportantpartofeveryone’slifeandweneedtohelpourchildrenbecomeinvolvedinphysicalactivitywhichmeanstheparentsthemselvesshouldparticipateinhealthyexercise.Helpthechildtofindactivitiestheyenjoyandactivitiesthewholefamilycanenjoy.Theyshouldbetaughtthatphysicalactivityisimportantinmaintainingastrongandhealthybodybuttheyshouldnotbegiventhemessagethatexerciseisimportantinmaintainingaslimfigure. WhyareChildrenraisedinahomewherephysicalorsexualabuseistakingplaceatahigherriskfordevelopinganeatingdisorder
Onebasicweaknessinaconservationsystembasedwhollyoneconomicmotivesisthatmostmembersofthelandcommunityhavenoeconomicvalue.Yetthesecreaturesaremembersofthebioticcommunityandifitsstabilitydependsonitsintegritytheyareentitledtocontinuance.Whenoneofthesenoneconomiccategoriesisthreatenedandifwehappentoloveit.Weinvertexcusestogiveiteconomicimportance.Atthebeginningofcenturysongbirdsweresupposedtobedisappearing.46Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthemtheevidencehadtobeeconomicinordertobevalid.Itispainfultoreadtheseroundaboutaccountstoday.Wehavenolandethicyet47butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicrightregardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Aparallelsituationexistsinrespectofpredatorymammalsandfish-eatingbirds.48Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverwordedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingthephysicallyweakorthattheypreyonlyon“worthless”species.Somespeciesoftreehavebeenreadoutofthepartybyeconomics-mindedforestersbecausetheygrowtooslowlyorhavetoolowasalevaletopayasimebercrops49InEuropewhereforestryisecologicallymoreadvancedthenon-commercialtreespeciesarerecognizedasmembersofnativeforestcommunitytobepreservedassuchwithinreason.Tosumup:asystemofconservationbasedsolelyoneconomicself-interestishopelesslylopsided.50Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning.Withouttheuneconomicpats. Ittendstoignoreandthuseventuallytoeliminatemanyelementsinthelandcommunitythatlackcommercialvaluebutthatareessentialtoitshealthyfunctioning
热门题库
更多
高考生物
高考政治
高考历史
国家统考科目
香港法概论
反间谍法
__学
合同法
证据学
民事诉讼法学
民法学
刑法学
消费者权益保护法
法理学
竞争法
国际公法
湘公网安备 43130202000226号